Environmental Sampling and Analysis 2003

Types of Samples
• Point samples
(including neighbour distance samples)
• Transects
Sampling Design line intercept sampling
line intersect sampling
 M. Burgman & J. Carey 2002 belt transects
• Plots
circular, square, rectangular plots
quadrats
nested quadrats
• Permanent or temporary sites

Arrangement of Samples Systematic Sampling

• Subjective (Haphazard, Judgement)
• Systematic Sampling Samples are selected systematically according
• Search Sampling to a pre-determined plan.
• Probability Sampling e.g. grid samples
– Random: Simple
Stratified (restricted) • evaluation of spatial patterns
– Multistage • simplicity of site location (cost)
– Cluster
• guaranteed coverage of an area
– Multiphase: Double
• representation of management units
• Variable Probability Sampling
• facilitation of mapping
PPS/PPP

Systematic Sampling
• If the ordering of units in a population is
random, any predesignated positions will be a
simple random sample.
• Bias may be introduced if there is a spatial
pattern in the population.
• Formulae for random samples may not be
applicable.
Assumptions of Systematic
Sampling
Assumptions
• no spatial or temporal trends in the variable
• no natural strata
• no correlations among individual samples
Given these assumptions, a systematic sample
will, on average, estimate the true mean with
the same precision as a simple random
sample or a stratified random sample of the
same size.
Environmental Sampling and Analysis 2003

Stratified Random Sampling

Simple Random Sampling
A population is classified into a number
• sample mean of strata. Each stratum is sampled
independently.
(unbiased estimate of µ)
1 n
x= Σ xi Simple random sampling is
n i=1
employed within strata.
• sample variance • fewer samples are required to
(unbiased estimate of σ2) obtain a given level of precision
1 n
• independent sampling of strata is useful for
s2 = n-1 Σ (xi - x)2 management, administration, and mapping.
i=1

Stratified Random Sampling Stratified Random Sampling

standard error of overall mean
mean m

√
xall = Σ pi xi
√
m
s2 Σ Ai2 sx 2
i=1 sx = Σ pi2 ni
=
A2
i
all
i=1
where m = number of strata, and
pi = proportion of the total made up by the ith where Ai is the area of a stratum,
stratum. A is the total area,
e.g. pi = Ai / A sx is the standard error of the mean within the
i
ith stratum, and
ni is the number of sampling units in the ith
stratum.

Allocation of Samples
Stratified Random Sampling proportional to area:
A
confidence limits for the mean ni = pi N = Ai N
CLmean = xall ± sx t[α, n-1] all
where pi = proportion of total area in stratum i,
N = total number of samples, and
confidence limits for the whole population ni = number of samples allocated to stratum i.
CLpop = A (xall ± sx t[α, n-1]) all
to minimize variance:
where A = total number of units over all strata
(e.g. total area in m2, when xall has been calculated per m2)
[ ]
ni =
Ai si.
Σ Ai si
N
where si = standard deviation
in stratum i
Environmental Sampling and Analysis 2003

Cluster Sampling
Random Sampling within Blocks
• Clusters of individuals are chosen at random,
Combination of systematic and and all units within the chosen clusters are
random sampling. measured.

Gives coverage of an area, • Useful when population units

together with some protection cluster together, either naturally,
from bias. or because of sampling
methods.

Cluster Sampling
Multistage Sampling
Examples: schools of fish
The division of a population
clumps of plants into primary sampling units,
leaves on eucalypt trees only some of which are
pollen grains in soil core samples sampled. Each of those
vertebrates in quadrat samples selected is further subdivided
into secondary sampling
units, providing a hierarchical
• Two-stage cluster sampling:
subdivision of sampling units.
clusters are selected, and a sample is taken Motivations include access,
from each cluster (i.e. each cluster is stratification, and efficiency.
subsampled)

Procedure for Multistage Sampling Multistage Sampling Statistics

• A study area (or a population) is partitioned into N When the primary units are of equal size, the
large units (termed first-stage or primary units) population mean of a multi-stage sample is given
• A first-stage sample of n of these is selected by the arithmetic mean of the nm measurements
randomly. xij:
• Each first-stage unit is subdivided into M second- 1 n m 1 n
stage units. x = Σ Σ xij = Σ xi
nm i=1 j=1 n i=1
• A second-stage sample of m of these is selected
randomly.
where 1 m
• The m elements of the second-stage sample are xi = Σx is the mean of the m
concentrated within n first-stage samples. m j=1 ij selected subunits in the ith
primary unit
Environmental Sampling and Analysis 2003

Multistage Sampling Multistage Sampling

To estimate the total amount I of the measured When the primary units are of unequal size, the
variable (e.g. the total amount of a pollutant), population mean of a multi-stage sample is
given by
n
I=NMx and sI2 = (N M)2sx2 Σ Mi xi
i=1
x= n
Σ Mi
i=1

1 mi
where xi = m Σ xij
j=1

Sampling Methods revisited

Multistage Sampling
simple random sampling
The total amount of the variable is given by
stratified random sampling
stratum
Nn
I = n Σ Mi xi two-stage sampling
i=1 1° unit 2° units

cluster sampling
Gilbert (1987 - Statistical Methods for Environmental Pollution cluster
Monitoring) provides formulae for allocating samples among sampling
units, for estimating variances, and for including costs in the sample systematic sampling
allocation protocol.
random sampling
within segments

Double Sampling
(multiphase sampling) Double Sampling
When two or more techniques are available to
measure a variable, double sampling may Examples
improve the efficiency of the measurement • GIS interpretation
protocol.
• Chemical assays
• Use the easiest (and least accurate) method to
measure all samples (n' samples). • Wildlife surveys
• Use the more accurate technique to measure a • Inventories
relatively small proportion of samples (n samples, • Monitoring plots
where n ⊂ n').
• Correct the relatively inaccurate measurements,
using the relationship between the measurements
made with both techniques.
Environmental Sampling and Analysis 2003

Double Sampling
Example of Double Sampling
Double sampling will be more efficient than simple
random sampling if Contaminated
soil at a
• the underlying relationship between the methods is 30000
nuclear
linear

(nCi/m2)
weapons test y = 22112 + 18.06 (x - 1051.8)
• optimum values of n and n' are used (Gilbert, 1987) facility in 20000 ρ = 0.998
Nevada

239,240Pu
• CA (1 + √1 - ρ2)2
CI >
(Gilbert 1987)
ρ2 10000
where CA is the cost of an accurate measurement,
CI is the cost of an inaccurate measurement, and
ρ is the correlation coefficient between the methods. 1000 2000
241Am (nCi/m2)