International Journal of Fatigue 23 (2001) 751–766

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijfatigue

On some basic problems of fatigue research in engineering

Xiulin Zheng
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710072, People’s Republic of China

Received 1 March 2001; received in revised form 19 April 2001; accepted 26 April 2001

Abstract

Research on the basic fatigue formula, the criterion for omitting small loads, the rule for cumulative fatigue damage, and models
for predicting the fatigue crack initiation (FCI) life and probability distribution under variable-amplitude loading are comprehensively
studied and summarized in the present paper. First, the formula for FCI life is given as a function of the equivalent stress amplitude,
and the procedures for investigating overload effects are introduced. Using the above formula to analyze test results of the overload
effect on FCI life yields the formula for FCI life containing the overload effect factor, z, which can be adopted to characterize the
load interaction effect when Miner’s rule is used to compute the cumulative fatigue damage. Fatigue test results and analysis of
the underload effect show that the FCI threshold in the FCI life formula can be taken as the criterion for omitting small loads in
life prediction and in compilation of the load spectrum. Then, the fatigue damage function is defined, the cumulative fatigue damage
can be computed and the FCI life of structure members under variable-amplitude loading can be obtained by using Miner’s rule.
Procedures for predicting the probability distribution of FCI life or fatigue life are described and examples are introduced. Further-
more, factors affecting the value of z and the applicability of Miner’s rule are briefly discussed. Finally, further areas for fatigue
research are tentatively proposed. Most interest should be focused on research into generally applicable life prediction models and
the approach for fatigue reliability assessment of structure details made of the metals with continuous strain-hardening characteristics,
which have been widely adopted in aeronautical engineering, under service load and environments.  2001 Elsevier Science Ltd.
All rights reserved.

Keywords: Fatigue formula; Fatigue crack initiation; Overload effect; Criterion for omitting small load; Strain-hardening characteristics; Fatigue
damage function; Miner’s rule; Life prediction; Joints

1. Introduction ured by using notched specimens to simulate the

From the viewpoint of engineering applications, the
purpose of fatigue research consists of: (1) predicting the
fatigue life of structures, (2) increasing fatigue life and
(3) simplifying fatigue tests, especially fatigue tests of
full-scale structures under a random load spectrum [1].
The fatigue life of an engineering structure principally
depends upon that of its critical structure members.
The fatigue life of an aircraft structure member can
be divided into two phases, the fatigue crack initiation
(FCI) life and the fatigue crack propagation (FCP) life,
to be experimentally investigated and analyzed [1–10].
Even for butt welds containing uncrack-like defects, the
FCI life occupies a great portion of the total fatigue life
and cannot be neglected [11]. FCI life has been meas-
E-mail address: xiulinzheng@yahoo.com (X. Zheng).
geometry discontinuity in structural members, where the
stress concentration occurs [1,3–5,9], and the test results
analyzed by one of the existing formulae, either empiri-
cal or analytical [1,3,4,12–14]. The FCP life of structural
members is analyzed by using the fracture mechanics
approach [3–5,8], and will not be discussed in the
present paper.
Aircraft structures usually operate under randomly
variable loading [15]. To date, formulating models for
predicting the fatigue life of elements under variable-
amplitude loading (VAL) is still the active field in
fatigue research [7,9,10,16–18]. It is well known that
there are three governing factors in the life prediction of
structural members under VAL: the fatigue life curve
and the corresponding expression under constant-ampli-
tude loading (CAL), the load spectrum sustained by the
structure elements, and the rule for computing cumulat-
ive fatigue damage. Actually, the cumulative fatigue

0142-1123/01/$ - see front matter  2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 4 2 - 1 1 2 3 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 4 0 - 8
752 X. Zheng / International Journal of Fatigue 23 (2001) 751–766
damage rule is used to convert the fatigue damage under
VAL into that under CAL. Until now, only fatigue test
data or/and the fatigue curves under CAL have been
given in many handbooks of the fatigue and mechanical
properties of metals [19–21], and empirical fatigue for-
mulas were applied in the fatigue design of metallic
structures [22–25].
In the real service loads of engineering structures,
small loads occupy the greatest portion of the load spec-
trum [15,24,25]. Therefore, how to distinguish the small
load cycles that do not result in fatigue damage in metals
and then omit them is very important in load spectrum
compilation and life prediction of structure members,
and in fatigue tests of full-scale structures under random
VAL, which are the most expensive type of test [26].
However, the criterion for omitting small loads in the
load spectrum has not been clearly expounded [2], or an
empirical criterion was adopted [15,22–25].
There exist more than 50 models for cumulative
fatigue damage and life prediction, which were reviewed
recently [27]. However, none of above-mentioned mod-
els can be generally accepted, and more efforts are
needed in order to provide general and reliable cumulat-
ive fatigue damage analysis and life prediction models
to structure designers [27]. In past fatigue research, most
attention was focused on searching for damage functions
but further study on the basic formula for fatigue life
has been more or less ignored [27]. This may be the
main reason why universally accepted cumulative
fatigue damage rule and life prediction models could not
be obtained [28].
Research on the basic fatigue formula, the criterion
for omitting small loads, the rule for cumulative fatigue
damage and models for predicting the FCI life and its
probability distribution under VAL are comprehensively
studied and summarized in the present paper. Otherwise,
models for general and reliable cumulative fatigue dam-
age analysis and life prediction could be obtained. Spe-
cial emphasis will be placed on taking the materials
characteristics, structure details and real loads applied
to structures into consideration in the fatigue research.
Experimental procedures based on the theoretical analy-
sis are also required. Then, a discussion is made on the
applicability of Miner’s rule for cumulative fatigue dam-
age and the conditions under which Miner’s rule can be
used. Finally, topics for further fatigue research are ten-
tatively proposed.
2. FCI life formula considering overload effects
The maximum load applied to a structure may be con-
sidered as the overload by comparison with smaller loads
in the load spectrum [15,24,25]. Therefore, it is neces-
sary and important to investigate the overload effects on
FCI life and fatigue life of structural members. A lot of
work has contributed to research on the overload effects
on FCI life and fatigue life of notched elements and
structures [29–33], which has been summarized in part
elsewhere [34]. It was shown [34,35] that not only single
tension overloading increases FCI life and fatigue life,
but also periodic overloading more efficiently increases
the FCI life and fatigue life of notched elements and
structures as well. As a result, tension overloading was
taken as an approach for increasing fatigue life
[34,36,37]. Most past research on overload effects on
FCI life or fatigue life was not correlated with life pre-
diction. However, attempts were made to apply the
fatigue curves obtained after overloading to predict the
fatigue life under VAL, and the prediction accuracy of
the fatigue life of notched elements was increased to
some extent [33]. On the other hand, the overload effect
on the fatigue life could not be expressed by a good
fatigue formula at that time [33]. Therefore, a generally
accepted life prediction model could not be obtained.
Quantitative analysis of the overload effect on FCI life
of notched elements could only be done after a good
formula for FCI life was put forward [38–40].
2.1. FCI life formula
In most engineering applications, the nominal stress
applied to the structural elements is kept below the yield
stress of the metal. Consequently, the structural member,
as a whole, is elastic under service loads but plastic
deformation will occur to form a small plastic zone at
the notch root because of stress concentration, as shown
in Fig. 1 [38].
Fatigue crack initiation at the notch root may be
assumed to occur due to fracture of a hypothetical
fatigue element located at the notch root, as shown in
Fig. 1. Thus, the fatigue life of a smooth test specimen
can be taken as the FCI life of a notched element if the
fatigue element at the notch root undergoes the same
stress–strain history as the metal at the notch tip. This
hypothesis was expounded by many investigators [41–
43] and developed into the local strain approach [43],
which is still used for predicting FCI life of notched
elements [2,7,8].
From the above model, it can be seen that the govern-
ing parameters for fatigue crack initiation at the notch
Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of the plastic zone and the hypothetical
fatigue element at the notch root [38].
 X. Zheng / International Journal of Fatigue 23 (2001) 751–766
root are the fatigue life of smooth specimens under cyc-
lic strain and the local strain range at the notch root. The
local strain range should be correlated with the nominal
cyclic stress applied to the notched elements for con-
venient applications in engineering. Based on the above-
mentioned hypothesis, the modified Manson–Coffin for-
mula for fatigue life under cyclic strain [44] and the
approximate formula for local strain range at the notch
tip [45], the formula for FCI life of notched elements
was developed as follows [38]:
2/1+n −2
Ni⫽C[⌬s2/1+n
eqv ⫺(⌬seqv)th ] (1)
and
冪2(1−R)K ⌬S,
1 residual stress in the surface layer at the notch root
⌬seqv⫽ t (2)
where C and (⌬seqv)th are, respectively, the FCI resist-
ance coefficient and the FCI threshold, and n is the
strain-hardening exponent. In Eq. (2), ⌬S and R are the
nominal stress range and stress ratio, respectively, and Kt
is the stress concentration factor of the notched elements.
When R=⫺1, ⌬seqv=1/2Kt⌬S=KtSa; Sa is nominal stress
amplitude. As a result, ⌬seqv may be referred to as the
equivalent stress amplitude. It may be seen from Eqs.
(1) and (2) that Eq. (1) shows the effect of the stress ratio
on the FCI life and can thus be conveniently applied to
predict the FCI life of structures under variable-ampli-
tude loading, where not only the stress range but also
the stress ratio is varied.
It was shown that Eq. (1) can be applied and fits well
the test results of FCI life obtained by testing notched
elements of various geometries under various stress
ratios [38,46–52], and test results for the FCI life of
notched elements experiencing overloading [39,40].
It may be worthwhile to note that C, the FCI resistance
coefficient, may be considered to be the equivalent stress
amplitude when Ni=1/4 cycle, equivalent to the crack
initiation at the notch root during a tension test. The FCI
threshold, (⌬seqv)th, is the upper limit of the equivalent
stress amplitude, below or equal to which no fatigue
damage will occur in the metal at the notch root and the
FCI life tends to be infinite [38]. Both C and (⌬seqv)th
are material constants, and can be predicted from the
tensile properties [1,53]. If the values of C and (⌬seqv)th
are obtained and substituted into Eq. (1), the expression
for FCI life can be given without the need for fatigue
tests. Some examples of predicting FCI life from tensile
properties have been given in [50,51,53].
2.2. Experimental procedures for investigating
overload effect
Experimental procedures for investigating the over-
load effect on FCI life should be designed on the basis
of theoretical analysis and practical applications. The
753
tension overload applied to notched elements before
fatigue testing is shown in Fig. 2 [40,54], where the
nominal stress applied to the notched elements during
overloading, SOL, is higher than the maximum cyclic
nominal stress, Smax. In any case, the value of SOL is
kept below the yield stress of the metal, and the notched
element, as a whole, remains elastic, a situation encoun-
tered in most engineering applications.
Overloading before fatigue testing (see Fig. 2) will
result in greater local strain and compressive residual
stress, and a larger plastic zone at the notch root, than
does fatigue loading (see Fig. 1). The overload effect on
the FCI life and then the fatigue life should be attributed
to the strain hardening of the metal and the compressive
induced by overloading [33,34]. Therefore, it may be
deduced that the overload effect would be related to the
local strain induced by overloading. The local strain at
the notch tip induced by overloading can be calculated
by the following equation [40,45]:
冋 册
1/1+n
1
eOL⫽2 (⌬seqv)2OL , (3)
ESk
where E and Sk are, respectively, the Young’s modulus
and the strength coefficient in Hollomon’s equation [55].
(⌬seqv)OL is the equivalent stress amplitude applied to
the notched elements during overloading, and can be cal-
culated by Eq. (2) taking the value of R to be zero,
1
(⌬seqv)OL⫽
冑2
KtSOL. (4)
In a set of fatigue tests, (⌬seqv)OL and thus eOL are
kept constant. Then, the effects of eOL and (⌬seqv)OL on
FCI life can be quantitatively analyzed by using Eq.
(1) [39].
2.3. Overload effect factor
Analysis of the results obtained by using Eq. (1) to
fit test results of the overload effect on FCI life, as shown
in Fig. 3, reveals that tension overload has no significant
effect on the FCI resistance coefficient C in Eq. (1)
(which could also be deduced from the physical signifi-
cance of C given in Section 2.1), but increases the FCI
Fig. 2. Schematic illustration of tension overloading [40,54].
754 X. Zheng / International Journal of Fatigue 23 (2001) 751–766

Fig. 3. Effect of tension overloading on the FCI life of aluminum alloys: (a) LY12CZ alloy, (b) LC4CS alloy [40].

threshold [40]. The higher the overloading equivalent

stress amplitude (⌬seqv)OL, the longer the FCI life and
the higher the FCI threshold (see Fig. 3) [40]. The general expression for overload effect on FCI thres-
Fatigue test results of notched elements made of hold can be written as follows:
aluminum alloys, titanium and ultrahigh strength steels
(⌬seqv)th⫽(⌬seqv)th0⫹aeOL, (6)
[33] also show that the higher the overload, the higher
the increase of the fatigue limit and fatigue life, which where (⌬seqv)th and (⌬seqv)th0 are, respectively, the FCI
show the same pattern as those in Fig. 3. At that time, threshold with and without experiencing tension over-
however, quantitative analysis of the overload effects on loading, and a is a constant.
the fatigue limit and fatigue life was not given [33]. This Substituting Eq. (4) into Eq. (6), we can obtain the
pattern was also observed in experiments for the over- correlation between FCI threshold and overloading equi-
load effects on the corrosion FCI life of LY12CZ alloy valent stress amplitude as follows:
sheets [56].
(⌬seqv)th⫽(⌬seqv)th0⫹z(⌬seqv)2/1+n
OL , (7)
Using Eq. (3) to calculate eOL and plotting the data of
eOL and (⌬seqv)th as in Fig. 4, one can obtain a straight where z may be defined as the overload effect factor.
line between eOL and (⌬seqv)th. Regression analysis gives z=6.57×10-4 for LY12CZ alloy sheets and z=2.98×10⫺4
the following equations [40]: for LC4CS alloy sheets.

앫 for LY12CZ alloy sheets 2.4. FCI life formula considering the overload effect
(⌬seqv)th⫽176⫹2260eOL; (5a)
Substituting Eq. (7) into Eq. (1), one can obtain the
formula for FCI life with considering the overload effect
앫 for LC4CS alloy sheets as follows [40]:
(⌬seqv)th⫽174⫹2875eOL. (5b) Ni⫽C{⌬s2/1+n 2/1+n 2/1+n −2
eqv ⫺[(⌬seqv)th0⫹z(⌬seqv) OL ] } . (8)
Thus,

앫 for LY12CZ alloy sheets

Ni⫽1.58⫻1013[⌬s1.78
eqv ⫺(176⫹6.57 (9)
⫻10−4(⌬seqv)1.78
OL )
1.78 −2
] ;

앫 for LC4CS alloy sheets

Ni⫽5.70⫻1013[⌬s1.89
eqv ⫺(174⫹2.98 (10)
⫻10−4(⌬seqv)1.89
OL )
1.89 −2
] .

Fig. 4. Correlation between FCI threshold and the local strain

induced by tension overloading: (a) LY12CZ alloy, (b) LC4CS alloy The above FCI life formula [Eq. (8)] reveals the corre-
[40]. lation of the FCI life with the geometry of notched
 X. Zheng / International Journal of Fatigue 23 (2001) 751–766 755

elements (Kt), the cyclic loading conditions (⌬S, R), the
tensile properties, the FCI threshold and the overload
effect factor, which characterize the interaction effect
between the higher and lower loads in the load spectrum
[40,54], and may be thought a good one. Eq. (8) combin-
ing Miner’s rule for cumulative fatigue damage can be
conveniently applied to predict the FCI life of metallic
notched elements under VAL [40,54,56–62].
3. Dependence of overload effect on strain
hardening characteristics of metals
3.1. Two kinds of metal
According to their strain-hardening characteristics,
metals can be divided into two kinds [55]: (1) metals
with discontinuous strain-hardening characteristics and
Test results also show that tension overloading has no
remarkable effect on the FCI life or fatigue life of the
medium-carbon steel 45 (similar to 1045), butt welds of
16Mn steel and friction-welded joints of 45 steel [57–
62,65,66]. In other word, the overload effect factor of
the metals with discontinuous strain-hardening charac-
teristics is approximately equal to zero; i.e., z=0. There-
fore, Eq. (8) can be simplified into Eq. (1), and Eq. (1)
can thus be used to predict the FCI life or fatigue life
of notched elements of metals with discontinuous strain-
hardening characteristics under VAL [57–62,65,66].
Based on the above test results and analysis, it may
be thought that the value of z, the overload effect factor
of metallic notched elements, depends on the strain-
hardening characteristics of the metal, and the overload
effect factor z was thought to be a material constant.
In [40,46], an empirical expression was put forward to
estimate the value of z as follows:

(2) metals with continuous strain-hardening character-
istics; the former with a yielding plateau on their tension
curve and the latter without. Low-carbon steels and
welded joints belong to the first kind, and aluminum
alloys, titanium alloys and ultrahigh strength steels
belong to the second kind.
3.2. Dependence of z value on strain-hardening
characteristics
For the metals with continuous strain-hardening
characteristics, such as LY12CZ and LC4CS aluminum
alloys, tension overloading increases the FCI life and
threshold of notched elements, as shown in Fig. 3.
Fatigue test results on notched elements of aluminum
alloys, titanium, ultrahigh strength steels also show
[33,63,64] that tension overloading increases FCI life
and thus the fatigue life and endurance limit. In other
words, the overload effect factor of notched elements of
metals with continuous strain-hardening characteristics
is higher than zero; i.e., z⬎0.
For metals with discontinuous strain-hardening
characteristics, such as low-carbon high-strength steels
16Mn and 15MnVN, tension overloading has no
appreciable effect on the FCI life and threshold of
notched elements, i.e., (⌬seqv)th=(⌬seqv)th0, as shown in
Fig. 5. In notched elements with and without experienc-
ing overloading, the FCI life can be expressed approxi-
mately as follows [58]:
앫 for 16Mn steel
1.79 −2
Ni⫽3.33⫻1014[⌬s1.79
eqv ⫺459 ] ;
앫 for 15MnVN steel
Ni⫽5.60⫻1014[⌬s1.83
eqv ⫺361
1.83 −2
] .
冉冊冉 冊
1/2
E n s0.2 2
z⫽ (E·Sk)−1/1+n. (13)
5 ef sb
Eq. (13) could be applicable to the notched elements
of aluminum alloys [46,52]; however, it needs to be
checked further.
4. Criterion for omitting small loads
In past, the underload (or subload) was defined as the
nominal stress amplitude lower than or equal to the
endurance limit, and the underload effect on fatigue life
was investigated experimentally by using smooth speci-
mens. Test results showed that underload cycles applied
to smooth specimens increased the fatigue life or the
endurance limit of low-carbon steel [67] and cast iron
[68], which was called “coaxing”. However, past
research on the underload effect was not associated with
the omission of small load cycles in life prediction
[67,68].
The omission of small load cycles is necessary and
important in compilation of the load spectrum [15,26],
in prediction of the fatigue life and in assessment of the
fatigue reliability of structures [22,24], and is most cost-
effective in fatigue tests of components and structures
under long-term variable-amplitude or random loading
histories [26]. To date, some empirical criteria have been
proposed and used [22–24,26,66]. How to omit the small
loads in life prediction by using the local strain approach
was not clearly expounded [2,6,7].
(11)
4.1. Theoretical consideration
It was pointed out [26] that the main problem associa-
(12)
ted with omission of small loads is to identify the “dam-
aging” and “non-damaging” cycles. In solving this prob-
756 X. Zheng / International Journal of Fatigue 23 (2001) 751–766
Fig. 5. Effect of tension overloading on the FCI life of low-carbon high-strength steels: (a) 16Mn hot-rolled plates, (b) 15MnVN normalized
plates [58].
lem, a good formula for FCI life should first be given
[28].
Eq. (1) shows that there exists an FCI threshold
expressed by equivalent stress amplitude, i.e., (⌬seqv)th.
Theoretically, when ⌬seqvⱕ(⌬seqv)th, fatigue damage
will not occur in the metal at the notch root and the FCI
life tends to be infinite; otherwise, fatigue damage will
occur and the FCI life will be limited. If the cyclic loads
expressed by equivalent stress amplitude are lower than
or equal to the FCI threshold, i.e., ⌬seqvⱕ(⌬seqv)th, these
loads can be defined as the underload. If the underload
cycles have no appreciable effect on the FCI life at cyc-
lic loads higher than the FCI threshold, i.e.,
⌬seqv⬎(⌬seqv)th, the FCI threshold can thus be taken as
the criterion for omitting small loads.
Based on the above considerations, experimental pro-
cedures could be proposed for investigating the
underload effect and the criterion for omitting small
loads.
4.2. Criterion for omitting small loads for metals with
discontinuous strain-hardening characteristics
In order to investigate the underload effect, fatigue
tests were carried out by a two-level load spectrum
shown in Fig. 6: the notched specimens were loaded at
⌬seqvⱕ(⌬seqv)th for 1×107 or at least 5×106 cycles first,
and then cyclically loaded at ⌬seqv⬎(⌬seqv)th, to see if
the pre-underload cycles have an effect on FCI life or
not [38,40,54].
The underload up to 107 cycles has no remarkable
Fig. 6. Schematic illustration of fatigue test program to investigate
underload effect on FCI life.
effect on FCI life of 15MnVN steel notched elements at
⌬seqv⬎(⌬seqv)th, as shown in Fig. 7 [48].
Test results of the underload effect in [38,40,58] show
again that the underload cycles have no appreciable
effect on the FCI life at equivalent stress amplitude
higher than the FCI threshold. Therefore, the FCI thres-
hold, (⌬seqv)th in Eq. (1), could be preliminarily taken
as the threshold to distinguish the damaging and non-
damaging cycles, and as the criterion for omitting small
load cycles in life prediction and in compilation of the
load spectrum.
Further examination of the above conclusion was car-
ried out by fatigue tests of notched friction-welded joints
of 45 steel under more complex load spectra as shown
in Figs. 8 and 9, which were denoted as Spectrum 1 and
Spectrum 2, respectively [66]. The difference between
Spectrum 1 and Spectrum 2 is that 107 cycles of small
load or underload in Spectrum 1 are applied to the
notched friction-welded joints before the fatigue tests
under block loading shown in Fig. 9. Spectrum 2 was
used for the comparative study to determine whether the
small load cycles could be omitted in the life prediction.
In the design of the load spectra, the fatigue threshold
needs to be known in advance. It was reported [60] that
the fatigue threshold is 409.2 MPa [also see Eq. (17a)]
and the corresponding nominal stress amplitude is 204.6
MPa for notched friction-welded joints of 45 steel with
Kt=2.0 and at R=⫺1. In Spectrum 1, 107 load cycles at
Fig. 7. Test results of underload effect on FCI life of 15MnVN steel
notched specimens expressed by Eq. (12) [48].
 X. Zheng / International Journal of Fatigue 23 (2001) 751–766
Fig. 8. Schematic illustration of the block loading used for investigat-
ing the underload effect on the fatigue life of notched friction-welded
joints [66].
Fig. 9. Schematic illustration of the block loading for fatigue tests of
notched friction-welded joints of 45 steel for comparative study [66].
the nominal stress amplitude S0=195 MPa, a little lower
than the nominal fatigue stress amplitude of 204.6 MPa,
are applied to the notched specimens first. Thereafter,
the five levels of nominal stress through S1 to S5 in one
load block shown in Fig. 9 are higher than 204.6 MPa
and repeated until failure of the notched friction-welded
joints. In this case, the fatigue life is defined as the load
blocks applied to the notched test specimen until its
final fracture.
The fatigue test results of notched friction-welded
joints of 45 steel under Spectrum 1 shown in Fig. 8 and
Spectrum 2 shown in Fig. 9 are listed in Table 1 accord-
ing to the order of increasing fatigue life.
It is well known that fatigue test results of elements
under both CAL and VAL are dispersed in a wide scatter
band, and it is usual to employ a log-normal distribution
to represent the statistical variability of fatigue life
[8,69]. It was also shown that the fatigue lives under
both Spectrum 1 and Spectrum 2 follow the log-normal
distribution and the logarithmic mean values of fatigue
life agree well with each other [60]. The results obtained
from the further statistical test suggest that there is no
significant difference between the two logarithmic mean
fatigue lives, and between the two logarithmic standard
deviations under the significance level of 5% [66]. It can
thus be thought that the fatigue test results of the notched
friction-welded joints of 45 steel under Spectrum 1 and
757
Spectrum 2 come from the same population. In other
words, the first continuous 107 cycles under
⌬seqvⱕ(⌬seqv)th (=409.2 MPa) do not result in fatigue
damage in the notched friction-welded joints. This con-
firms again that the FCI threshold in Eq. (1) can be taken
as the criterion for omitting small loads for the notched
elements of metals with discontinuous strain-hardening
characteristics.
4.3. Criterion for omitting small loads for metals with
continuous strain-hardening characteristics
The 107 cycles under ⌬seqvⱕ(⌬seqv)th0 have no
appreciable effect on the FCI life of notched elements
of LY12CZ alloy sheets [38], which is a metal with con-
tinuous strain-hardening characteristics. The same results
were also observed for notched specimens of 30CrMnSi-
Ni2A ultrahigh strength steel and its welded joints [49].
However, tension overloading increases the FCI thres-
hold of notched elements of metals with continuous
strain-hardening characteristics [see Fig. 4 and Eq. (8)].
Whether the FCI threshold increased by tension over-
loading, i.e., (⌬seqv)th in Eq. (8), could be taken as the
criterion for omitting small loads needed to be studied
further.
For LY12CZ alloy sheets, tension overloading of
(⌬seqv)OL=620 MPa increases the FCI threshold from
(⌬seqv)th0=180 MPa to (⌬seqv)th=237 MPa [see Fig. 4
and Eq. (4) or Eq. (9)]. Thus, fatigue tests were perfor-
med by the following procedures: (1) LY12CZ alloy
notched specimens were overloaded at (⌬seqv)OL=620
MPa, (2) specimens were underloaded at ⌬seqvⱕ237
MPa for 5×106 cycles and (3) specimens were cyclically
loaded at ⌬seqv⬎237 MPa to determine the FCI life;
which may be illustrated schematically in Fig. 10. If the
underload or small load cycles of 5×106 at ⌬seqvⱕ237
MPa after overloading of (⌬seqv)OL=620 MPa had no
remarkable effect on the FCI life of LY12CZ notched
elements expressed by Eq. (9), the FCI threshold
increased by overloading of (⌬seqv)OL=620 MPa could
be taken as the criterion for omitting small loads for
LY12CZ notched elements experiencing the same over-
loading.
Results obtained from the above-mentioned fatigue
test are shown in Fig. 11 [54]. It can be seen from Fig.
11 that the underload or small load cycles of 5×106 at
⌬seqvⱕ(⌬seqv)th=237 MPa, the equivalent stress ampli-
tude below or equal to the FCI threshold increased by
overloading of (⌬seqv)OL=620 MPa, have no appreciable
effect on the FCI life of LY12CZ notched elements,
which experienced the same magnitude of overloading
of (⌬seqv)OL=620 MPa.
Based on the above test results and analysis, it may
be thought that the FCI threshold increased by over-
loading could be taken as the criterion for omitting small
load cycles in the life prediction of notched elements
758 X. Zheng / International Journal of Fatigue 23 (2001) 751–766

Table 1
The tested fatigue life (Nbe) and cumulative fatigue damage (Dce) of 45 steel friction-welded joints under Spectrum 1 and Spectrum 2 [66]

No. Spectrum 1 Spectrum 2

Nbe (block) Dce log Nbe log Dce Nbe (block) Dce log Nbe log Dce

1 3.57 0.4907 0.5525 ⫺0.3092 3.72 0.5111 0.5702 ⫺0.2915

2 3.85 0.5289 0.5850 ⫺0.2767 5.19 0.7136 0.7151 ⫺0.1466
3 5.11 0.7032 0.7087 ⫺0.1530 6.73 0.9254 0.8280 ⫺0.0337
4 5.32 0.7316 0.7259 ⫺0.1358 7.45 1.0248 0.8732 0.0106
5 8.92 1.2264 0.9503 0.0886 7.94 1.0923 0.9000 0.0383
6 8.92 1.2264 0.9503 0.0886 12.15 1.6709 1.0846 0.2230
7 11.43 1.5720 1.0581 0.1964
8 13.22 1.8178 1.1212 0.2595
9 14.81 2.0359 1.1704 0.3087
Xa 8.35 – 0.8692 0.0075 7.20 0.8284 ⫺0.0333
Sb – – 0.2320 0.2320 0.1745 0.1745

a
The mean value.
b
The standard deviation.

5. Cumulative fatigue damage calculation and life

prediction

5.1. Fatigue damage function

From fatigue test results in Section 2, we have defined

the overload effect factor z, which can be used to charac-
terize the load interaction effect [1,40,54,56–62].
Besides, the FCI threshold in Eq. (1) or Eq. (8) can be
taken as the criterion for omitting small loads in the life
prediction and the compilation of load spectrum. Conse-
Fig. 10. Schematic illustration of the procedures for fatigue tests to quently, the FCI life of metallic notched elements could
investigate the underload effect on the FCI life of LY12CZ notched be predicted by using Miner’s rule and Eq. (8) with or
elements: (1) overloaded at (⌬seqv)OL=620 MPa, (2) underloaded at
⌬seqvⱕ237 MPa for 5×106 cycles and (3) cyclically loaded at
without taking the overload effect into consideration,
⌬seqv⬎237 MPa to determine the FCI life [54]. depending on the strain-hardening characteristics of the
metal from which the notched structural elements are
made.
In order to predict the FCI life of notched elements
under VAL, the expression for calculating the fatigue
damage — i.e., the fatigue damage function, Dj — can
be defined according to Miner’s rule as follows:
1
Dj ⫽ (14)
Ni,j
1
⫽ .
C{⌬s 2/1+n
eqv,j −[(⌬seqv)th0+z(⌬seqv)2/1+n
OL ]
2/1+n −2
}
Fig. 11. Test results of FCI life (indicated by circles) of LY12CZ
notched specimens obtained from the fatigue test carried out according And the cumulative fatigue damage can be computed as:
to the procedure shown in Fig. 10, and the solid curve drawn according
to Eq. (9) [54].
冘
k
nj
Dc ⫽ (15)
N
j⫽1 i,j
of metals of continuous strain-hardening characteristics,

冘
k
when the notched elements experience overloading of nj
⫽ .
the same direction and magnitude. This conclusion was
j⫽1
C{⌬s 2/1+n
eqv,j −[(⌬seqv)th0+z(⌬seqv)2/1+n
OL ]
2/1+n −2
}
further verified by the FCI life prediction and test results
of LY12CZ notched elements with a stress concentration In Eq. (15), k is the number of levels of the equivalent
factor of 4.0 under a flight-to-flight spectrum [40]. stress amplitude. It can be seen from Eqs. (14) and (15)
 X. Zheng / International Journal of Fatigue 23 (2001) 751–766
that a good formula for the FCI life or fatigue life con-
sidering the stress ratio effect is the key point for accur-
ate computation of the cumulative fatigue damage in the
life prediction of structure members under VAL, where
the stress ratios are varied. Without a good formula for
the FCI life or the fatigue life, the accurate life prediction
under VAL would be impossible.
5.2. Life prediction of notched elements of metals with
discontinuous strain-hardening characteristics
45 carbon steel has discontinuous strain-hardening
characteristics. Test results show that tension over-
loading has no appreciable effect on the fatigue life of
notched elements of 45 steel (i.e., z=0) [57]. Therefore,
the fatigue life of 45 steel notched elements under VAL
can be predicted by using Eqs. (14) and (15), taking z=0
and Dc=1.0.
Since the fatigue life was measured by using small
size notched specimens, the fatigue life is mostly
expended in the crack initiation stage and can be
approximately taken as the FCI life, particularly in the
long life range [42]. The expression for the fatigue life
of 45 steel notched elements was obtained from test
results as follows [57]:
1.736 −2
Nf⫽2.39⫻1014(⌬s1.736
eqv ⫺303 ) . (16)
The load spectrum used for predicting and testing the
fatigue life of the 45 steel notched elements is shown in
Fig. 12. For 45 steel notched elements, the fatigue life
can be predicted by following procedures.
1. Substituting all of the nominal stress ranges ⌬S and
the stress ratios R (=⫺1) in the load spectrum and the
stress concentration factor Kt (=2.0) of the notched
elements into Eq. (2) to transform the load spectrum
in Fig. 12 into the equivalent stress amplitude spec-
trum, and omit all of the equivalent stress amplitudes
lower than or equal to the FCI threshold.
2. Substituting Eq. (16) into Eq. (14) to define the
fatigue damage function of 45 steel notched elements.
Fig. 12. Load spectrum for predicting and testing the fatigue life of
45 steel notched elements [57]: (1) S1=240 MPa, n1=105 cycles; (2)
S2=350 MPa, n2=8×104 cycles; (3) S3=400 MPa, n3=2.5×104 cycles;
(4) S4=500 MPa, n4=104 cycles; (5) S5=S3, n5=n3; (6) S6=S2, n6=n2; (7)
S7=S1, n7=n1.
759
Then, computing the cumulative fatigue damage
according to Eq. (15) and the equivalent stress ampli-
tude spectrum of 45 steel notched elements.
3. Obtaining the fatigue life of 45 steel notched elements
under the load spectrum shown in Fig. 12 when the
cumulative fatigue damage reaches critical value,
i.e., Dc=1.0.
The predicted fatigue life of notched elements of 45
steel under the load spectrum shown in Fig. 12 is 11.2
blocks and the logarithmic mean value of 9 test data
is 10.6 blocks [57]. Good agreement exists between the
predicted life of the 45 steel notched elements and test
results.
For notched friction-welded joints of 45 steel under
Spectrum 1 in Fig. 8 and Spectrum 2 in Fig. 9, the
fatigue life predicted by the above procedures and Eq.
(17a) is 7.3 blocks, which agrees well with the test
results listed in Table 1 [60].
The procedures mentioned above were also used for
accurately predicting the FCI life or fatigue life of
notched elements of metals with discontinuous strain-
hardening characteristics, such as 15MnVN steel
[57,62,70], old bridge steel [65] and 16Mn steel butt
welds [58,59].
5.3. Life prediction of notched elements of metals with
continuous strain-hardening characteristics
LY12CZ aluminum alloy belongs to the kind of met-
als with continuous strain-hardening characteristics, and
has the overload effect factor greater than zero (i.e.,
z⬎0). Therefore, the load interaction effect needs to be
taken into account in life prediction. In this case, Eq. (9)
should be substituted into Eq. (14) to define the fatigue
damage function of the notched elements of LY12CZ
alloy. The procedures for predicting the FCI life of
LY12CZ notched elements was given as follows [40].
1. Calculating the value of (⌬seqv)OL from the maximum
nominal stress taken from the load spectrum and the
Kt value (=4.0) of the notched elements by using
Eq. (2).
2. Substituting (⌬seqv)OL into Eq. (9) to obtain the
expression for the FCI life of notched specimens
experiencing overloading.
3. Substituting all of the nominal stress ranges and the
stress ratios in the load spectrum and the Kt value
of the notched element into Eq. (2) to compute the
equivalent stress amplitude spectrum and omit all of
the equivalent stress amplitudes lower than or equal
to the FCI threshold increased by overloading.
4. Substituting the expression for the FCI life of
LY12CZ notched elements experiencing overloading
into Eq. (14). Then, computing the cumulative fatigue
760 X. Zheng / International Journal of Fatigue 23 (2001) 751–766

damage according to Eq. (15) and the equivalent
stress amplitude spectrum.
5. Obtaining the FCI life of the notched elements under
VAL when the value of the cumulative fatigue dam-
age reaches 1.0.
The FCI life of LY12CZ alloy notched elements with
Kt=4.0 under a flight-by-flight random load spectrum
predicted by using the above procedures is 1441 flight
hours while the mean value of 4 test data is 1848 flight
hours; the predicted FCI life is about 0.78 of test results
and shorter than the test results but on the safe side [40].
The above procedures were also adopted to predict the
FCI life of LY12CZ notched elements under VAL in a
corrosive environment of 3.5% NaCl solution. The pre-
dicted corrosion FCI life of LY12CZ notched elements
under VAL agrees well with test results [52,56].
expressions for the curves of fatigue life with given sur-
vivability and the probability distribution of fatigue
strength [65,72,75].
6.2. Prediction of probability distribution of fatigue
life of notched elements of metals with discontinuous
strain-hardening characteristics
Based on the above assumption and the procedures in
Section 5.2, the probability distribution of the fatigue life
of notched friction-welded joints of 45 steel under VAL
shown in Figs. 8 and 9 could be predicted by using the
expressions of fatigue life with given survivability (Sv),
which are rewritten as follows [66]:
앫 Sv=50%,
1.764 −2
Nf⫽2.181⫻1014[⌬s1.764
eqv ⫺409.2 ] ; (17a)

6. Prediction of probability distribution of fatigue 앫 Sv=99.9%,

life under VAL 1.764 −2
Nf⫽1.098⫻1014[⌬s1.764
eqv ⫺348.6 ] ; (17b)
6.1. Basic assumptions
앫 Sv=95%,
It is well known that FCI life and fatigue life test Nf⫽1.514⫻1014[⌬s1.764 1.764 −2
eqv ⫺375.7 ] ; (17c)
results under both CAL and VAL have great dispersion
[8,20,52,69], especially for brittle ceramic materials
[71,72] and some composites [73]. No matter whether 앫 Sv=5%,
the predicted mean fatigue life agrees well with that of Nf⫽3.143⫻1014[⌬s1.764 1.764 −2
eqv ⫺445.6 ] ; (17d)
test results under VAL, it is still hard, however, to draw
a conclusion about the accuracy of the life prediction
model. Usually, the log-normal distribution is used to 앫 Sv=0.1%,
represent statistical variability of fatigue life and fatigue Nf⫽4.333⫻1014[⌬s1.764 1.764 −2
eqv ⫺480.2 ] . (17e)
test results under VAL [8,20,69,74]. If the predicted
probability distribution of fatigue life under VAL agreed
with that of fatigue test results under the same VAL
spectrum, the life prediction model could be thought The predicted probability distribution of fatigue life
reliable [1,2,18]. On the other hand, a new model could and the test results of 45 steel notched friction-welded
be provided for the fatigue reliability assessment of joints under VAL shown in Figs. 8 and 9 are shown in
the structures. Fig. 13(a), where the mean rank was taken to be the
It was assumed that the fatigue life curve with given
survivability could be used to predict the fatigue life of
the notched elements under VAL with corresponding
survivability. If the fatigue life with different surviv-
ability under VAL is obtained based on the above
assumption, the probability distribution of the fatigue life
under VAL can be easily determined. The above
assumption has been checked by lots of test results
[57,60–62,65,66,70].
In order to meet the requirement of the life prediction
with given survivability and the fatigue reliability assess-
ment of structures, fatigue test results under CAL should
be analyzed statistically. Then, the fatigue life curves
with given survivability — the so-called P–S–N Fig. 13. Predicted probability distribution of fatigue life (a) and the
curves — and the corresponding expressions could be critical cumulative damage (b) of 45 steel notched friction-welded
given. Procedures were developed to determine joints under VAL shown in Figs. 8 and 9 and the test results [66].
 X. Zheng / International Journal of Fatigue 23 (2001) 751–766 761

estimated value of the failure probability, Pf [66]. It

should be pointed out that the test results shown in Fig.
13 include all of the ones obtained under Spectrum 1 in
Fig. 8 and Spectrum 2 in Fig. 9 because they are thought
to be from the same population [66], as mentioned in
Section 4.2.
Dividing the predicted fatigue life with given surviv-
ability by the predicted life (in blocks) with 50% Sv, one
can easily obtain the critical value of the cumulated
fatigue damage with corresponding survivability, Dc,
which is also plotted on normal probability paper as
Fig. 14. Illustration of the load spectrum for predicting and testing
shown in Fig. 13(b). As may be seen, the predicted the FCI life of notched specimens of LY12CZ aluminum alloy sheets,
fatigue life and values of the cumulated fatigue damage, which was converted into an equivalent stress amplitude spectrum as
Dc, of 45 steel notched friction-welded joints follow the follows [57]: (1) ⌬seqv=400 MPa, n=30 cycles; (2) ⌬seqv=350 MPa,
log-normal distribution, which agrees well with test n=60 cycles; (3) ⌬seqv=300 MPa, n=480 cycles; (4) ⌬seqv=280 MPa,
n=2000 cycles; (5) ⌬seqv=250 MPa, n=3000 cycles; (6) ⌬seqv=180
results [66].
MPa, n=3000 cycles; (7) ⌬seqv=350 MPa, n=60 cycles; (8) ⌬seqv=300
Similar results were obtained for the notched elements MPa, n=480 cycles.
and welded joints of low-carbon steels with the discon-
tinuous strain-hardening characteristics. The predicted
probability distributions of the fatigue life and the cumu- with survivability were given in [57] and rewritten as
lative fatigue damage of low-carbon steel notched follows:
elements and welded joints follow the log-normal distri-
bution, and agree well with the test results [57,60– 앫 for 50% Sv,
62,65,66,70]. It may be thought that the fatigue formula 1.78 −2
Ni⫽3.71⫻1013[⌬s1.78
eqv ⫺223.7 ] ; (18a)
[i.e., Eq. (1)], the criterion for omitting the small loads
and Miner’s rule can be successfully used to predict the
fatigue life and its probability distribution of notched 앫 for 95% Sv,
elements and welded joints of metals with discontinuous
Ni⫽1.72⫻1013[⌬s1.78
eqv ⫺196.1
1.78 −2
] ; (18b)
strain-hardening characteristics under VAL. In other
words, the generally applied life prediction model is
obtained for notched elements and welded joints of met- 앫 for 84.1% Sv,
als with discontinuous strain-hardening characteristics 1.78 −2
Ni⫽2.28⫻1013[⌬s1.78
eqv ⫺209.4 ] ; (18c)
under VAL through our recent research.

6.3. Prediction of probability distribution of fatigue 앫 for 15.9% Sv,

life of notched elements of metals with continuous 1.78 −2
Ni⫽6.35⫻1013[⌬s1.78
eqv ⫺233.5 ] ; (18d)
strain-hardening characteristics

For the notched elements of metals with continuous 앫 for 5% Sv,

strain-hardening characteristics, the probability distri-
bution of fatigue life under VAL could be predicted, in
principle, from the above-mentioned assumption and the
procedures in Section 5.3. Preliminary attempts were
made to predict the FCI life and the probability distri-
bution of notched elements of LY12CZ aluminum alloy
under block loading, as shown in Fig. 14 [57].
Before the fatigue tests under VAL shown in Fig. 14,
a single overloading of (⌬seqv)OL=620 MPa was applied
to the LY12CZ notched elements. Hence, the same over-
loading of (⌬seqv)OL=620 MPa should be also applied to
the LY12CZ notched specimens before the fatigue tests
to determine the FCI life curves with given survivability
under CAL, as shown in Fig. 2. Then, the test results
for the FCI life of LY12CZ sheets under CAL were ana-
lyzed by using the procedures given in [61].
The expressions for the FCI life of LY12CZ sheets
1.78 −2
Ni⫽9.18⫻1013[⌬s1.78
eqv ⫺238.2 ] . (18e)
Using Eqs. (18) and the procedures in Section 5.3,
the FCI lives of LY12CZ notched elements with given
survivability under the load spectrum shown in Fig. 14
can be predicted and are listed in Table 2, where the test
results are also presented. Dividing the FCI lives with
given survivability by the FCI life with 50% Sv, the
values of the cumulative fatigue damage can be obtained
and are also listed in Table 2. Plotting the logarithmic
values of the predicted fatigue life and the cumulative
fatigue damage with given survivability on normal prob-
ability paper, straight lines can be obtained as shown in
Fig. 15, where the test results are also shown.
The predicted FCI life of LY12CZ notched elements
762 X. Zheng / International Journal of Fatigue 23 (2001) 751–766
Table 2
The predicted FCI lives with given survivability and the test results of LY12CZ notched elements under block loading shown in Fig. 14 [56]
Predicted FCI lives with given survivability
Sv (%) 95 84.1
Ni (blocks) 27.9 49.6
Dc 0.236 0.42
Test results
Specimen no. 1 2
Sv (%) 87.5 75
Ni (blocks) 57.1 81.1
Dc 0.483 0.686
Fig. 15. Prediction of the probability distribution of FCI life and test
results of notched elements of LY12CZ sheets under VAL shown in
Fig. 14 [56].
with 5O% Sv is 118 blocks, a little longer than 94 blocks,
the mean value of test results (see Table 2). From Table
2 and Fig. 15, it can be seen that the predicted results
of the probability distribution of fatigue life under VAL
could be thought to agree with the test results [57] and
the test results are almost within the range of the pre-
dicted FCI lives for respectively 15.9% and 84.1% Sv,
i.e., within ±1.0s scatter band.
However, the test results of the FCI life at higher sur-
vivability are a little longer but those at lower surviv-
ability are shorter than those predicted. The reasons for
this discrepancy may be that the sample size of the
fatigue tests is too small [57] and the mechanical proper-
ties of the LY12CZ sheets varied in a large range
[40,54,57]. Besides, the strain-hardening exponent n in
Eqs. (18) may be a random variant because it is a
material constant. The preliminary results mentioned
above, however, show that the procedures introduced in
this section would be feasible, and need to be further
verified by more test results.
In engineering practice, the maximum nominal stress
applied to the various structure elements is different and
could not be determined in advance. Consequently, it is
necessary to determine the FCI curves with given surviv-
ability after overloading of different amplitudes of
(⌬seqv)OL by fatigue tests, which are too expensive and
time-consuming. This problem needs to be solved in a
new way.
50 15.9 5
118 275 467
1.0 2.33 3.95
3 4 5 6
62.5 50 37.5 25
94.1 103.8 106.1 112.1
0.796 0.878 0.898 0.948
It can be seen that there are four materials constants
in Eq. (8): C, (⌬seqv)th0, n and z, which must each follow
a certain respective distribution. If the probability distri-
bution of these material constants can be predicted or
experimentally determined, the FCI life curves with
given survivability at various amplitudes of (⌬seqv)OL
could be obtained from the probability distribution of the
above-mentioned four constants, and used for predicting
the probability distribution of fatigue life under VAL.
7. Factors affecting overload effect and
applicability of Miner’s rule
It can be seen from Eqs. (14) and (15) that whether
or not Miner’s rule could be adopted in the accurate life
prediction of metallic notched elements depends upon
the fatigue formula selected and the value of the over-
load effect factor, z. Apart from considering the strain-
hardening characteristics of metals, however, the follow-
ing factors have effects on the value of z and should
be taken into account in life prediction using Miner’s
rule [76].
7.1. Effect of specimen geometry on overload effect
factor
The overload equal to the yield stress of the metal
applied to 16Mn and 15MnVN steel smooth specimens
decreases the fatigue life and fatigue limit; i.e., the over-
load effect factor for the smooth specimen of low-carbon
high-strength steels has negative value, z⬍0
[1,48,58,76]. On the other hand, underload cycles
applied to smooth specimens will result in the increase
of the fatigue life [67,68]. As a result, the fatigue life
of smooth specimens of low-carbon steels, which was
predicted by using Eqs. (14) and (15) and taking z=0,
will be longer than test results when the greater stress
(i.e., overload) is applied to smooth specimens first; or
the predicted fatigue life will be shorter than test results
when the smaller stress is applied to smooth specimens
first. The test results given in [77] show agreement with
the above argument.
 X. Zheng / International Journal of Fatigue 23 (2001) 751–766
However, the fatigue life of smooth specimens of
cold-worked nickel–silver wire under two-level loading
could be accurately predicted by using Miner’s rule
[57,69].
7.2. Overload effect factor of joints
Welded, bolted and riveted joints are widely applied
in various structures, and often are the critical location
for FCI. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the
overload effect and the life prediction model for such
joints. Generally, joints made of metal have the same
characteristics of overload effect as the corresponding
metal with specific strain-hardening characteristics
[1,33,40,58–60]. Test results [78] show that welded butt
joints of 16Mn steel have the same overload effect as
that of the base metal, 16Mn steel with discontinuous
strain-hardening characteristics (i.e., z=0).
For bolted joints of titanium alloy, a metal with con-
tinuous strain-hardening characteristics, the overload
increases the fatigue life and fatigue limit, which means
that the value of z is greater than zero (i.e., z⬎0) [33].
7.3. Effect of overload magnitude on fatigue life of
aluminum riveted joints
Test results of the overload magnitude on the fatigue
life of aluminum alloy riveted joints [31] are shown in
Fig. 16, where the pre-stress is higher than the maximum
cyclic stress in fatigue tests, and could be taken as an
overload.
It can be seen from Fig. 16 that the smaller pre-stress
results in a decrease of the fatigue life and fatigue limit
(i.e., z⬍0), while the greater pre-stress increases the
fatigue life and fatigue limit (i.e., z⬎0). This may imply
that the same riveted joint of aluminum alloy would have
a shorter fatigue life in civil aircraft structures since civil
aircraft experience smaller overloads, while it would
have a longer fatigue life in a fighter aircraft since a
fighter aircraft experiences greater overloads [15]. Atten-
Fig. 16. Overload effect on the fatigue life of riveted joints of alumi-
num alloy; (1) prestress of 240 MPa (35 ksi) applied to riveted joints,
(2) without applying prestress and (3) prestress of 123 MPa (18 ksi)
applied to riveted joints [31,34].
763
tion should be paid to this point in the life prediction of
riveted aircraft structures.
7.4. Effect of surface strain hardening
Surface strain hardening is an effective technical mea-
sure to increase FCI life and fatigue life
[36,37,67,68,79–82]. Test results [61,82] show that over-
load has no remarkable effect on the FCI life and fatigue
life of elements with a cold-worked hole and hammer-
penned welds when the strain induced by cold work or
by hammer penning is greater than that induced by over-
loading. In this case, the FCI life or fatigue life could
be predicted by using Eqs. (14) and (15) and taking z=0
[40,61,82], irrespective of the strain-hardening charac-
teristics of the metal.
7.5. Effect of load pattern
Test results [32,34,35] show that the load pattern —
in particular, the regular periodic overload — has a much
greater effect on the FCI life and fatigue life of notched
elements of metals with continuous strain-hardening
characteristics than has the single overloading. In the
condition of periodic overloading, Eqs. (14) and (15)
could hardly be used to predict the FCI life accurately
and a conservative life prediction would given [35,56].
However, preliminary attempts were made to accurately
predict the FCI life of LY12CZ alloy notched elements
in a corrosive environment taking the secondary over-
load effect into account, and the predicted FCI life
agrees well with test results [52,56]. More details on how
to take the secondary overload effect into account are
given elsewhere [56]. However, the load pattern effect
on FCI life and fatigue life, the applicability of Miner’s
rule and the life prediction model under VAL (in parti-
cular, under random variable-amplitude loads such as
FALLSTAF) need to be investigated further.
8. Concluding remarks and further research
In engineering applications, most elements in metallic
structures and machines contain a geometric disconti-
nuity — i.e., a notch in the broad sense — where the
stress concentration occurs and the fatigue crack
initiates. As a result, it is important to investigate the
fatigue behavior and life prediction model of notched
elements of metals.
From the test results and analysis in foregoing sec-
tions, it can be seen that accurate prediction of the FCI
life or fatigue life under VAL requires a perfect formula
for FCI life or fatigue life, and the rule for cumulative
fatigue damage and the criterion for omitting small
loads.
Eq. (8) reveals the correlation between FCI life and
764 X. Zheng / International Journal of Fatigue 23 (2001) 751–766
element geometry (Kt), cyclic loading conditions (⌬S,
R), material constants [i.e., the FCI threshold, (⌬seqv)th,
and the FCI resistance coefficient, C] and the overload
effect factor (z). It provides the theoretical basis for
investigating the criterion for the omission of small loads
and for defining the fatigue damage function.
The FCI threshold in Eq. (1) could be taken as the
criterion for omitting small loads in the load spectrum
of notched elements of metals with discontinuous strain-
hardening characteristics, while the FCI threshold in Eq.
(8) could be taken as the criterion for omitting small
loads for notched elements of metals with continuous
strain-hardening characteristics in compiling the load
spectrum, in predicting the FCI life and in the fatigue
tests of full-scale structure members under random VAL.
Miner’s rule can be thought to be applicable for com-
puting the cumulative fatigue damage in FCI life predic-
tion if a suitable expression for FCI life or fatigue life
is adopted and the load interaction effect is taken into
account. The overload effect factor, z in Eq. (8), could
be adopted to characterize the load interaction effect.
According to Miner’s rule, the fatigue damage function
could be defined by Eqs. (14) and (15), which can be
used to compute the cumulative fatigue damage. The
accurate life prediction of notched elements can thus be
obtained when the value of the cumulative fatigue dam-
age reaches 1.0; i.e., Dc=1.0.
Based on the above description, the fatigue formula
is critical in defining the criterion for omitting small
loads, and the fatigue damage function and the cumulat-
ive fatigue damage computation. Of course, the above
conclusions need to be checked further.
For notched elements and welded joints of metals with
discontinuous strain-hardening characteristics, the gener-
ally applied life prediction model under VAL was
obtained through our recent research, and could be pro-
vided to structure designers.
Aluminum alloys, titanium alloys and steels with
ultrahigh strength are widely used in aeronautical engin-
eering as the critical structural elements operating under
complicated load histories. The above alloys have con-
tinuous strain-hardening characteristics and a positive
overload effect factor. Compared with metals having dis-
continuous strain-hardening characteristics, structure
members of aluminum alloys, titanium alloys and steels
with ultrahigh strength will have a longer fatigue life
under VAL because of the positive overload effect fac-
tor. On the other hand, the procedures for predicting the
fatigue life and its probability distribution under VAL
are much more complicated. Therefore, it is necessary
to perform more research on the rule for computing the
cumulative fatigue damage and the criterion for omitting
the small loads, as well as the procedures to determine
the FCI life curves with given survivability and corre-
sponding expressions after overloading of different
amplitudes of (⌬seqv)OL for notched elements and joints
of the above-mentioned metals. Moreover, the prob-
ability distribution of the material constants in Eq. (8) —
i.e., C, (⌬seqv)th, n and z — should be investigated. In
particular, the procedures for predicting the probability
distribution of FCI life under VAL need to be studied
further.
Furthermore, structural elements often operate under
multi-axial stress conditions. Therefore, it is necessary
to do more research on the cumulative fatigue damage
rule, the criterion for omitting small loads, the life pre-
diction model and the fatigue reliability assessment for
structure elements of metals, especially with continuous
strain-hardening characteristics, under multi-axial stress
state with variable amplitude.
Acknowledgements
The author greatly appreciates the graduate students
who made many contributions to the fatigue research
summarized in the present paper.
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