Permeability and Effective Pore
Pressure of Shales
M.E. Chenevert, SPE, and A.K. Sharma, * SPE, U. of Texas
Summary. Laboratory-derived permeability and pore-pressure data obtained for Wellington and Pierre shales are used to describe
swelling pressure, and spalling types of wellbore instability. Tests showed that increased pore pressures can lead to wellbore failure.
The laboratory pore-pressure information developed displays a time-dependent swelling process followed by a Darcy type of flow.
A "total aqueous chemical potential" concept is presented that describes the driving potentials that operate during both phases of flow.
Experimental methods are presented to determine the "storage" of water shale during the swelling phase and the permeabilities with
steady-state-flow and transient-flow techniques. Permeability values measured under effective stresses up to 8,000 psi show the Wel-
lington shale to have values as low as 0.30 x 10 -6 md.
Introduction
An understanding of water movement into shales is important be-
cause water movement results in the development of swelling
stresses 1,2 and pore-pressure increases that can lead to rock failure.
Many researchers 2-S have studied water movement into shales;
however, little is known about the mechanisms involved. Difficul-
ties arise during such studies because of the extremely low perme-
ability of shales and the influence of the charged clay surfaces on
aqueous pore pressures.
Water movement into formations often is thought to occur only
when the wellbore hydraulic pressure exceeds the hydraulic pres-
sure of the formation. We suggest that a more fundamental approach
is needed to describe water movement into shales, an approach that
describes water movement with the total aqueous chemical poten-
tial in the wellbore and the formation. For either the wellbore or
the shale water, the total aqueous chemical potential depends not
only on the hydraulic pressure of the water, but also on tempera-
ture, ionic strength, and particle surface charges. For brevity, these
factors are referred to here collectively as "total aqueous poten-
tial" and are measured in psi. Terms used in the chemistry litera-
ture for the total aqueous chemical potential include "total free
energy of the water" and "escaping tendency of the water."
Water will move from the wellbore into a shale any time the to-
tal aqueous potential of the shale is less than the total aqueous poten-
tial of the wellbore fluid. A technique used to determine the various
components that contribute to the total aqueous potentials for the
wellbore fluid and shale was described recently. 6
Total Aqueous Potential of Wellbore Fluid
Hydraulic pressure, primarily caused by fluid density effects, is
the main factor contributing to the total aqueous potential of the
wellbore. When salt ions are present in a drilling fluid they create
osmotic potentials that are negative and thereby lower the total aque-
ous potential. In most cases, these effects do not last because the
ions are not restricted completely to the wellbore fluid by a semi-
permeable membrane. s The degree of membrane "leakage" for
shale/drilling fluid systems is the subject of many discussions 7-9;
however, no general consensus exists. Only in oil-based muds does
a membrane exist that adequately restricts the flow of salt ions into
the shales.
Temperature increases expand the total aqueous potential of the
wellbore fluid. 6 In all experiments described in this paper, tem-
perature was maintained at ambient conditions; therefore, temper-
ature effects are not considered. This is not to say that temperatures
do not vary significantly during wellbore circulation. We recog-
nize that temperatures do vary and that this may not only alter the
total aqueous potentials of the wellbore and fluids in the shale but
also may produce significant mechanical thermal stresses that can
lead to wellbore failure. Consideration of such thermal effects is
beyond the scope of this paper.
'Now at Mobil E&P U.S. Inc.
Copyright 1993 Society of Petroleum Engineers
28
Total Aqueous Potential of Shales
The total aqueous potential in a shale is difficult to measure. Log-
ging tools that routinely measure the hydraulic pressures in highly
permeable formations cannot detect shale pore pressures primarily
because of the extremely low permeability of shales. The time (days)
required for fluid to flow from the shale to the sensing device is
excessive.
The presence of free ions in the shale affects the total aqueous
potential of the shale through osmosis 10 just as the ions affect the
wellbore fluid. Again, the big question is the membrane. If no mem-
brane exists, such ions do not contribute to the long-term total aque-
ous potential of the shale.
Temperature increases in the water in the shale increase the total
aqueous potential. 6,11 However, no temperature effects are dis-
cussed here because our tests were run under constant ambient con-
ditions.
Contributions of the surface charges of the clays to the total aque-
ous potential are major. They interact with the water and ions,
produce large adsorptive potentials, and reduce effective pore pres-
sures (total aqueous potentials) greatly. The primary element that
determines the influence of such adsorptive forces is overburden
compaction stress. As the clay surfaces are forced closer together
(compaction), water is expelled and the clay concentration increases,
thereby greatly reducing the total aqueous potential.
The total aqueous potential of a shale does not remain constant
as it adsorbs water. As fluid moves into the shale, the clays separate
because of swelling, and the various total aqueous potential fac-
tors in the shale continually move toward equilibrium with the well-
bore fluid. Such variations in the total aqueous potential ofthe shale
produce the early time "diffusive" flow type observed and report-
ed here as water stored in the shale. Once the shale stops expand-
ing, the total aqueous potential of the water in the pores is constant,
and flow can be predicted with the Darcy equation.
Shale Compaction, Shales (in a given compacted stress state) that
have reached equilibrium with a contacting water phase have a to-
tal aqueous potential equal to that of the contacting fluid. If the con-
tacting water phase is under a normal pressure gradient, we call
such shales normally compacted. If we inserted a probe into such
shales, and could wait long enough (2 to 5 days), we ultimately
would record a pressure equal to a normal pressure gradient. For
such normally compacted shales, the adsorptive clay effects are
minimized and positive hydraulic pressures exist and can be
measured.
In many drilling circumstances, shales that have been geologi-
cally overcompacted are encountered. "Overcompacted" is a rela-
tive term that refers to a shale with a lower-than-normal water
content that exists in a given stress state such that, when it is con-
tacted by water under a normal pressure gradient, the water moves
into the shale.
"Undercompacted" shales are those that contain excess water
and therefore have lower-than-expected densities at a given depth.
Such shales usually are used to indicate impending abnormal pore-
pressure conditions.
SPE Drilling & Completion, March 1993
 Strain Gauge
Indicator
1.20

1.00
--
--0-
Volume In, cc

Volume Out, cc

High Pressure \ell

(,)
(,) 0.80 ------
Plastic Membrane cD
E
;:,
0.60
Flow "0
Distribution -+- > 0.40
Plate

Shale 0.20

0.000'==---+----+---1-----;
o 100 200
Plastic Membrane Time, Hrs
0- 100 Hrs, Diffusive Flow + Swelling
Inlet 100 - 200 Hrs, Darcy Flow + No Swelling
P2 Pressure P1
.... Transducers. Fig. 2-Volumetrlc data for Wellington shale flow tests.

Micro Injection
+--- Piston Pumps - - -.......... 1
Fig. 1-Flow manifold for permeability tests.
potential of the shale exceeds the total aqueous potential of the drill-
ing fluid. This can occur when wellbore pressure is reduced sud-
denly, creating pressures. The low permeabilities of the shale
prevent pore fluids from readily escaping into the wellbore, and
the wellbore wall is subjected to high tensile gradients in the radial
direction into the wellbore. 12

Experimental Application of Theory

This paper shows how water moves into and through overcom-
pacted shales during Stage 1, transient adsorptive flow, and then
through normally compacted shales during Stage 2, a Darcy type
of flow, when the total aqueous potential in the shale is held constant.
Wellbore Example
Assume that an overcompacted shale is penetrated by a wellbore
that contains a freshwater, unweighted drilling fluid. In such a case,
the high adsorptive forces in the shale would dominate, the total
aqueous potential of the shale would be much lower than the total
aqueous potential of the wellbore, and water would move into the
shale in a transient manner.
Shale Compressive Failure. During the water adsorption period,
high swelling stresses could develop that could result in wellbore
collapse caused by compressive shale failure. 8 If compressive
failure does not occur, the total aqueous potential of the shale near
the wellbore eventually would reach equilibrium with the total aque-
ous potential of the wellbore, and the shale near the wellbore would
stop swelling. The wellbore would remain stable unless the total
aqueous potential of the shale or wellbore changed (i.e., if the mud
weight changed).
Shale Spalting Failure. If wellbore hydraulic pressures suddenly
were reduced, shale spalling could occur. Shale spalling occurs when
the shale at the wellbore wall flakes off because the total aqueous
The adsorptive and hydraulic pore-pressure concepts discussed
previously were evaluated by performing a series of tests on two
different shales, which allowed the measurement of (1) initial tran-
sient swelling response, (2) shale/fluid equilibrium, and then
(3) hydraulic fluid flow through the shale. With such measurements,
shale permeabilities under steady-state and dynamic flow condi-
tions were determined.
Experimental Setup. Shale samples 11,4 in. in diameter and 1,4 to
'h in. thick were mounted in a high-pressure cell (Fig. 1). One
calibrated, microinjector piston pump was connected to each side
of the shale sample. These pumps were such that all water volumes
entering or leaving the shale could be measured to within 0.002
cm 3 • This allowed us to perform a continuous fluid mass balance
during each test and thereby obtain accurate flow rates through the
shale.
The upstream and downstream pressures were measured with
pressure transducers and were recorded continuously during the
experiments.
Shales Studied. Two shales, the Wellington and the Pierre, were
used in this study. Test specimens were cut from 15-in.-diameter
preserved cores obtained from depths of about 20 ft.
The Wellington shale is from the Cretaceous Age and was cored
in central Utah. It is dark gray and has a native moisture content
of 2.86%. Its average bulk density is 2.42 g/cm 3 , and it remains

TABLE 1-PERMEABILITY AND PORE·PRESSURE RESULTS FOR WELLINGTON SHALE

Confining Upstream Downstream Average Effective

Flow Pressure Pressure Pressure Pore Pressure Stress Permeability
Test Type (psi) (psi) (psi) (psi) (psi) (10- 3 md)
--
1 Steady 7,500 4,500 100 2,300 5,200 0.37
2 Steady 7,500 6,500 100 3,300 4,200 0.40
3 Steady 5,500 4,500 100 2,300 3,200 0.47
4 Steady 2,350 2,000 100 1,050 1,300 0.78
5 Steady 10,000 4,000 100 2,050 7,950 0.31
6 Transient 2,350 750 750 750 1,600 0.78
7 Transient 10,000 1,550 1,550 1,550 8,450 0.33

SPE Drilling & Completion, March 1993 29

 'tJ ::::~~~:::::::::::: ~>-r -
E
CD ~
o•
T""

><

iii Steady Flow

o Dynamic Flow
I
.1 +------+---.........--.,;.---+--+--+--+-I-I 10.2 +--r---+--+--+---l--+--+----i
1000 10000 o 2000 4000 6000 8000

Effective Stress, psi Effective Stress, psi

Fig. 3-Permeabllity vs. effective stress for Wellington shale. Fig. 4-Porosity vs. effective stress for Wellington shale.

intact in deionized water after 24 hours. X-ray analysis indicated
that it was composed of quartz (56%), calcite (14%), illite (12 %),
feldspar (7%), dolomite (5%), and trace amounts of chlorite and
pyrite. No smectite clay was observed.
The Pierre shale is from the Upper Cretaceous Age, has a much
higher clay content than the Wellington, and was cored in eastern
Colorado. It also is dark gray and has an average native moisture
content of 7.12 %. Pierre shale has an average bulk density of 2.27
g/cm 3 and disintegrated completely after 45 minutes in deionized
water. X-ray analysis showed it to be composed of quartz (43%),
illite (20%), feldspar (9%), smectite (9%), cWorite (2%), kaolinite
(2 %), and traces of calcite, pyrite, and dolomite.
Wellington Shale Experiments-Prehydration. After the test
specimen was cut from the large block of shale, it was instrument-
ed with strain gauges. Then, the water content of the shale sample
was restored to its native (as cored) state before testing by placing
the sample in an 80% relative humidity chamber for about 7 days.
This was required to correct slight weight losses observed during
sample preparation. The sample then was sealed with a plastic mem-
brane and mounted in the test cell. A 7,5OO-psi overburden stress
was applied before water contacted the inlet and outlet of the shale.
Using a recently proposed total aqueous potential concept,6 we
estimated the total aqueous potential of the shale to be 493 psi un-
der initial test conditions of 7,500 psi and 75 of.
Transient Flow. After reaching a compaction stress equilibrium
of 7,500 psi, as indicated by no movement by the strain gauges,
the inlet port for the shale was quickly pressured with deionized
water to 4,500 psi, the outlet was pressurized to 100 psi, and the
pump and clock were reset. During this 180-hour test, the inlet and
outlet micropumps were adjusted to maintain constant pressures.
Initially, volume injections at the inlet port and withdrawals from
the outlet port showed that steady-state flow did not exist. After
100 hours, 0.7 cm 3 of water had been injected into the inlet and
only 0.27 cm 3 had been removed from the outlet (see Fig. 2). The
difference in these volumes (0.7 -0.27 =0.43 cm 3 ) represents fluid
storage in the sample owing to swelling of the clay platelets.
When this was observed, we first thought that this storage rep-
resented void pores in the shale that were being filled with water.
After comparing the strain-gauge data for the Pierre shale sample
with this shale, we concluded that this shale probably had a negligi-
ble amount of void space, and the storage was caused by increases
in shale volume during swelling.

3000 "T"""'--,---,----r--r----.----,
0.80 ~...........,-...,...............,-...,.............-.---r--,--.--......-,-..,
III P-inlet, psi
't:J .......-..-.+--+..._--i..·..··..·····j..·..···..··..t·..·······....
E 0.70
o P-outlet, psi
CD
.......................................................................1" .
: : i
I

....o ~ 2000

==:i=:::):::==lI= 1=
0.60
...::s
=t: ·_· __ ···············_~t=
G)

.. t/)

'::==t==t?-===r::
t/)
0.50
f
Q.
1000

0.40 +--+-+--+:-+--+--+~ -;/+Jlt+--+-++--+-+-1

................L
0.30 I ! I - - :
~/
~;.~
i
i
..

0+---+---1---+---+--+----1
'---r--'"
10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 11.0
o 10 20 30
Porosity, % Time, hrs
Fig. 6-Pressure response curves for permeability transient
Fig. 5-Permeability vs. porosity for Wellington shale. testing.

30 SPE Drilling & Completion, March 199"3

 2
1--••- _. -+++H-&--f-H+l"l#f--+-+-y-
7 ---e
· . . ······t··! (,)
(,)

--
Q. ...
"'0
C1)

I
.-
(,)
C1)

-Q.
.E
C

E
C1)

:::J
(5
> m Pump method
I I
o Strain gage method
3+---+-i-++H+lr--+-~f-+++;.;y.-+-t-+++;'+-H
0
.1 1 10 100 0 100 200
Time, hrs Time, hrs
Fig. 7-Pressure differences vs. time for permeability tran-
sient testing. Fig. 8-Volumetrlc data for Pierre shale flow tests.

The initial increase of upstream pressure (from 0 to 4,500 psi)
with deionized water placed a 4,5OO-psi hydraulic wellbore total
aqueous potential in contact with a shale with an initial total aque-
ous potential of 493 psi. Such a difference in total aqueous poten-
tial (4,007 psi) caused transient flow into the shale until the upstream
total aqueous potential in the shale reached 4,500 psi.
Steady-State Flow. After 170 hours, the fluid flowed through the
sample at a constant rate of 0.005 cm 3 /hr, which allowed calcula-
tion of the shale permeability with Darcy flow equations.
For the 1'A-in.-diameter by 'A-in.-thick sample, permeability was
calculated with
k=q/LL/At.p, (1)
where q=1.389X 10- 6 cm/s3, t.p=4,4oo psi =300 atm, /L=1 cp,
L=IA in., andA=1.23 in. 2 . Therefore,
(1.389 x 10- 6 cm 3 /s)(1 cp)(0.25 in.)
K=-------------
(1.23 in. 2 )(3oo atm)
K=3.7x10- 9 =darcies=3.7xlO- 7 md.
Other tests were performed under different inlet pressure condi-
tions, and permeability values were calculated. In each case, when
the inlet or outlet pressures were changed, the shale sample ex-
panded or contracted until an equilibrium total aqueous potential
existed with the fluid contacting each surface. Such equilibriums
took 7 to 10 days. Table 1 and Fig. 3 report the permeability results.
After initial transient flow occurred, the shale behaved (from a
petrophysics viewpoint), like an ordinary, low-permeability porous
rock. Inlet pressure changes ultimately were reflected in the outlet
pressure gauge.
The effective stress acting on the sample during each permeabil-
ity measurement was determined first by calculating the average
pore pressure [i.e., (pp =Pl +p2)/2] then by subtracting this value
from the confining pressure. Table 1 provides information on the
effective ("grain") stress conditions for each test.
Permeability results in Fig. 3 show the log-log relationship be-
tween permeability and effective stress. Note that this shale is highly
compressible and extremely tight.
The complementary measurement (with strain gauges) of rock
dimensional changes allows determination of porosity changes as
functions of effective stress and permeability. Original shale porosi-
ties were determined with bulk volume and bulk weight measure-
ments for the shale in its native and dried states. Figs. 4 and 5
show plots for these functions.
Fig. 4 shows that the porosity of the Wellington shale decreases
linearly with grain stress. This characteristic, common in nonclay
rocks, implies that hydrated shales adhere to Terzaghi's effective
stress principles.
The data in Fig. 4 are useful in such other areas as abnormal-
pressure detection. Most abnormal-pressure indicators rely on a
porosity measuring device to fmd abnormal shale compaction; how-
ever, few data have been published on shale porosities and effec-
tive stress relationships. Another application would be the
determination of how much water was expressed from shales into
hydrocarbon reservoirs during pressure depletion.
The relationship between porosity and permeability in shales, as
seen in Fig. 5, is nonlinear. As expected, permeability increases
with increases in porosity. The factors controlling permeability in

TABLE 2-PERMEABILITY AND PORE-PRESSURE RESULTS FOR PIERRE SHALE

Confining Upstream Downstream Average Effective

Flow Pressure Pressure Pressure Pore Pressure Stress Permeability
Test Type (psi) (psi) (psi) (psi) (psi) (10 -3 md)
--
1 Steady 2,350 2,000 100 1,050 1,300 54.0
2 Transient 2,400 490 490 490 1,910 6.4
3 Steady 4,000 2,000 100 1,050 2,950 1.5
4 Steady . 5,000 2,000 100 1,050 3,950 1.1
5 Steady 6,000 2,000 100 1,050 4,950 0.55
6 Transient 6,000 220 220 220 5,780 0.93
7 Steady 9,000 2,000 100 1,050 7,950 0.14
8 Transient 9,000 350 350 350 8,650 0.85
9 Transient 4,000 165 165 165 3,835 1.2
10 Transient 6,000 200 200 200 5,800 0.98

SPE Drilling & Completion, March 1993 31

 1 000 lr-~"'~"'~.::'~"'~"'~"~"'~"'~"'~"~"'~"'~"'~"~"'$''§"'~"'~"'~'~'"~'~jT''~.''~'''E''~'''f'~'''~''3''~'''
:~'::i1i:::::::::::::::::. :::::::::::::::. :- iii Steady Row

><

1+-----4---+---ii---+--+--+--P-H N
1000 10000
Effective stress, psi
Fig. 9-Permeabllity vs. effective stress for Pierre shale.

argillaceous rocks are shown here to be much more complex than

in sandstones.
Fig. 10-Shale fractured by spalllng.
Dynamic Permeability-Transient Tests. Each permeability value
measured under steady-state flow conditions took 7 to 10 days to
obtain. Previous work 13-18 has shown that transient methods that cay curves are functions of sample permeability and size, fluid
allow more-rapid data collection often are used for studies of low- characteristics, and reservoir size.
permeability rocks. Satisfactory results were obtained with When the test ended (usually in 9 hours), the sample permeabil-
Brace's 13 and Trimmer's 14 methods. ity was determined with Brace'sl technique, where the pressure
The equipment used for the dynamic permeability measurement in Reservoir 1 is given by
tests was the same as that used for the steady-state flow tests (see PI -PJ=~P[VZ/(Vl+ Vz)]e- ml , ..•.••..•.••..•...... (2)
Fig. 1). During fabrication of the equipment, the water reservoir
volumes between Valve A and the shale and between Valve Band where m=(kA/lLbL)[(11V1)+(lIVZ)]'
the shale were kept as small as possible and nearly equal to each When the natural log of the pressure decay, PI - PJ, is plotted
other. The smaller such volumes are, the shorter the time required vs. time (see Fig. 7), the slope of the resulting line is -m. Perme-
to complete the test. Accurate measurement of the volumes of Reser- ability then is determined with Eq. 2. Trimmer's method was used
voirs A and B was necessary before permeability values could be to select the proper region of Fig. 7 to use to determine m.
calculated with this method. Solving Eq. 2 for k, we have
Before flow began through the sample, the inlet pressure, PI>
and the outlet pressure, Pz, were adjusted to 100 psi with deion- k= [(3 x 10 -5)(0.01)(0.165 x 10 -10)(0.25)/(1.23)](3.2) (3)
ized water. We determined when equilibrium was achieved by ob- k=0.499 x 10- 18 in. z =3.27x 10- 7 md, (4)
serving the strain gauges.
The test was initiated by closing Valve B, quickly raising PI to z 10
where 1L=0.01 dyne-sec/cm , b=0.165xlO- in.Z/dyne, L=
2,500 psi, and then quickly shutting Valve A. In essence, this 0.25 in., A=1.23 in. z , and R v =3.2.
trapped a volume of high-pressure fluid in Reservoir A, which bled Transient-flow tests were run at grain stresses of 1,600 and 8,450
off through the shale into Reservoir B. Fig. 6 shows the pres- psi. The resulting permeabilities were 7.8 x 10 -7 and 3.27 x 10-7
sure/time response for the two reservoirs. The shapes of such de- md, respectively. These values match the permeability values ob-

TABLE 3-FLUID VOLUME INJECTED INTO PIERRE SHALE

Volume Injected Bulk-Volume

(cm 3 ) Increase, Strain-
Time Total Surface strain Gauge Method
(hours) Pump 1 Pump 2 Volume (10 -3 in.lin.) (cm 3 )
---
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00
0.78 0.038 0.033 0.071 238 0.072
2.25 0.063 0.046 0.109 360 0.109
6.25 0.103 0.056 0.159 387 0.117
7.75 0.115 0.061 0.176 370 0.112
22.92 0.154 0.114 0.268 898 0.273
25.00 0.188 0.138 0.326 1,710 0.525
27.67 0.213 0.158 0.371 2,523 0.78
46.92 0.814 0.224 1.038 3,820 1.197
73.08 0.888 0.289 1.177 4,656 1.471
96.17 0.914 0.314 1.228 4,734 1.497
122.45 0.936 0.333 1.269 5,019 1.591
147.83 0.951 0.344 1.295 4,963 1.573
168.08 0.964 0.352 1.316 4,933 1.563
190.92 0.964 0.358 1.322 4,771 1.509

32 SPE Drilling & Completion, March 1993

tained with the steady-state-flow method. Table I and Fig. 3 show
the results. From these results, we can conclude that the transient-
flow test method is an accurate and relatively quick way to meas-
ure the permeability of Wellington shale.
Pierre Shale Experiments. Tests similar to those reported for the
Wellington shale were performed with Pierre shale.
Prehydration. The Pierre shale first was instrumented around its
circumference with four stra,in gauges, conditioned to its native
moisture content of 7.12 % in a controlled, 96 % humidity environ-
ment, coated with plastic, and inserted in the pressure vessel.
Transient-Flow Hydration. After adjusting the confining pressure
on the sample to 200 psi, water was placed on both sides of the
sample at 100 psi. The shale then was allowed to adsorb the water
and swell. Equilibrium was reached in about 6 days.
Table 2 shows readings from both pumps and the "average"
of the four strain gauges over 190 hours oftesting. Fig. 8 displays
volume changes determined with both methods. As shown, the
volume injected by the pumps is very close to the bulk-volume ex-
pansion reflected in the strain-gauge data. This confirmed the sus-
picion obsewed while testing the Wellington shale that the fluid
was entering the shale as a result of shale expansion (swelling) and
not simply filling void pores.
Steady-State Flow. After determining storage values for the Pierre
shale under the stress conditions given above, we changed the con-
fining stress to 2,350 psi and the first steady-state-flow permeabil-
ity test was begun. This was done by holding PI and pz constant
at 2,000 and 100 psi, respectively.
Permeabilities were calculated as mentioned above. We found
that, under these stress conditions, the shale had a permeability of
54 x 10 -6 md. Additional tests then were performed in a similar
manner with the steady-state-flow and dynamic-transient-flow
methods. Table 3 shows the results and the effective-stress calcu-
lations used to plot Fig. 9.
At high effective-stress levels, the dynamic method provided much
greater permeability values than did the steady-state-flow method.
Currently, we can only speculate as to why such differences exist.
One thought is that compaction effects have not had sufficient time
to reach equilibrium in the dynamic case. We hope future work
will provide information on these discrepancies.
Discussion of Steady-State-Flow vs. Transient-Flow Permeability
Methods. The two methods used in this study to determine perme-
ability both seem to work quite well; however, some differences
in the methods should be mentioned. Specifically, the effective-
stress state throughout the rock is in a considerably different state
when these two methods are used. That is, for steady fluid flow
through the shale, PI and pz are very different. Therefore, a siza-
ble pore-pressure gradient exists throughout the rock, which means
that the effective stress acting on the grains varies considerably from
one end of the shale to the other. This could produce some compli-
cations when the average effective stress acting on the shale dur-
ing the test is determined.
In the dynamic test, the data used to calculate permeabilities are
those that occur after approximately 8 hours, where the stress gra-
dient through the shale has reduced to near zero. This appears to
be an advantage; however, the equilibrium-compaction-stress prob-
lem mentioned above may be a disadvantage. At this time, we pre-
fer the dynamic method, provided that we can justify the higher
permeability values recorded at the higher effective-stress state.
We emphasize, however, that when it is desirable to determine
the amount of water uptake (Le., storage) during varying total poten-
tials within a given shale, the steady-state flow method must be
used. Positive displacement pumps now seem to be the most defini-
tive way to determine water storage. We hope that strain-gauge data
will prove as useful in the future; however, we think that positive
displacement pumps should be used until strain-gauge methods are
perfected.
SPE Drilling & Completion, March 1993
Discussion
Information obtained from these tests shows that fluid moves in
a transient fashion into a shale by differences in total aqueous poten-
tials which initially exist and then are equal when equilibrium is
reached; then water flows through the shale (by normal hydraulic
potentials) according to Darcy's law. The first phase of flow was
reported previously. 5 This paper presents a method for extending
shale-hydration studies to constant total aqueous potentials and to
Darcy flow conditions.
The various relationships presented for effective-stress relation-
ships show that, under certain conditions, Pp within shales are
measurable quantities and affect rock dimensional changes as dic-
tated by Terzaghi's principles.
Applications to Wellbore Stability. This paper provides a clear
picture of the driving forces that cause water movement into shales
and the resulting swelling stresses that can lead to wellbore com-
pressive failure. The effects of such driving forces are reported in
Ref. 19. This paper also shows that increasing the total aqueous
potential in a shale is possible given sufficient time. Such altera-
tions in pore pressure affect the strains, stresses, and failure con-
ditions of shales in many ways.
Spalling-type failures can be explained by recognizing that water
movement is restricted greatly by the low permeability of shales.
This retards not only water uptake but also water expulsion when
the wellbore total aqueous potential drops below the total aqueous
potential in the shale. This could result in spalling failure of shale
into the wellbore. lZ
This spalling mechanism was observed in one test. After the per-
meability of the shale under 2,300-psi-pore-pressure conditions was
measured, the confining pressure was inadvertently reduced to 1,000
psi very rapidly. The high-pressure fluid in the shale expanded,
creating many cracks throughout the entire shale sample (see Fig.
10). The presence of such cracks was first noticed when the shale
exhibited excessive permeability in the next attempted flow-through
test. After sample removal, the cracks were observed easily (see
Fig. 10).
Conclusions
1. The low-permeability characteristics of shales, coupled with
reduced wellbore pressures and expanding pore fluids, can form
fractures in a shale and can produce shale spalling into the wellbore.
2. Water movement into shales is described best by total aque-
ous potential differences between shale water and wellbore water.
3. Experimental methods presented here are useful in describ-
ing fluid flow into shales during transient and steady-state flow con-
ditions, shale permeability with steady-state and transient flow
methods, and shale porosity as a function of effective stress.
4. Shales have very low permeabilities when measured at elevated
effective-stress states, as evidenced by values of 0.30 x 10 -6 md
measured for the Wellington shale at an effective-stress state of
8,000 psi.
Nomenclature
A = cross-sectional area, L, in. Z
b = fluid compressibility, in. Z Idyne
k = permeability, md
L = sample length, L, in.
m = slope, md-dyne/cp-cm 3
t:.p = change in pressure, m/Ltz, psi
t:.Pl = step change in pressure in Reservoir 1 at to' m/Lt Z ,
psi
Pf = final test pressure, m/Ltz, psi
Pp = pore pressure, m/Ltz, psi
PI = inlet pressure, mILt z, psi
pz = outlet pressure, m/Ltz, psi
q = flow rate, V/t, cm 3 /s
Rv = volume ratio term
t = time, t, seconds
to = time of pressure initiation, t, seconds
33

Martin E. Chene-
vert Is the Sylvain
Plrson Centennial
Lecturer of petrole-
um engineering at
the U. of Texas
(UT) In Austin. Be-
fore /olnlng UT, he
worked at Exxon
Production Re-
search Co. Chene-
Chenevert Sharma vert has been an
SPE Short Course
Instructor on drilling fluids and wellbore stability topics since
1975 and Is a coauthor of the Applied Drilling Engineering text-
book. Currently he also Is a student chapter faculty sponsor
and a member of the Editorial Review Commmee. He has been
chairman and director of the Austin Section, chairman of the
Distinguished Author Series Committee, and has served as
session chairman for several SPE forums. He holds MS and
PhD degrees In petroleum engineering from UT and a as
degree In petroleum engineering from Louisiana State U.
Arun K. Sharma, an engineer with Mobil E&P In Midland,
TX, has worked on various projects ranging from Inflll drill-
Ing programs In west Texss to CO 2 flood management In
Utah. Before /olnlng Mobil, he completed 2 years' postgradu-
ate study at UT where he was a research assistant. He was
a 1988 SPE student chapter treasurer. Sharma holds as and
MS degrees In petroleum engineering from the U. of Alaska,
Fairbanks.
VI = volume of Reservoir 1, L3, cm 3
V2 = volume of Reservoir 2, L3, cm 3
/L = fluid viscosity, miLt, dyne-sec/cm 2
Acknowledgment.
This work would not have been possible without the technical and
financial support of the many industrial participating members of
the U. of Texas consortium on "Wellbore Stability in Deviated
Boreholes." Also, the assistance of the many faculty members
(Ching Yew, Henry Dunlap, and Steve Morriss) and students
(Varadarajan Dwarakanath, Samuel Osisanya, and Chein-Lee
Wang) added greatly to this work.
Ref.renc••
1. Chenevert, M.E.: "Shale Alteration by Water Adsorption." JPT(Sept.
1970) 1141-48.
2. Chenevert, M.E.: "Adsorptive Pore Pressure of Argillaceous Rocks,"
Proc., 11th Symposium on Rock Mechanics, V. of California, Ber-
keley (1969) 599-627.
3. Low, P.F. and Deming, J.M.: "Movement and Equilibrium of Water
in Heterogeneous Systems With Special Reference To Soils," Soil
Science (March 1953) 75, No.3, 187-202.
34
4. Barbour, S.L. and Fredlund, D.G.: "Mechanisms of Osmotic Flow
and Volume Change in Clay Soils," Cdn. Geotechnical J. (1989) 26,
551-62.
5. Chenevert, M.E.: "Diffusion of Water and Ions Into Shales," Rock
at Great Depth, V. Maury & D. Fourmaintraux (eds.), Balkema, Rot-
terdam (1990) 3, 1177-84.
6. Chenevert, M.E. and Osisanya, S.O.: "Shale Swelling at Elevated Tem-
perature and Pressure," Proc., 33rd V.S. Symposium on Rock Mechan-
ics, Santa Fe (1992).
7. Young, R. and Low, P.F.: "Osmosis in Argillaceous Rocks," AAPG
Bulletin (1965) 49, No.7.
8. Olsen, H.W.: "Liquid Movement Through Kaolinite Vnder Hydrau-
lic, Electric and Osmotic Gradients," AAPG Bulletin (1972) 56, No. 10.
9. Kharaka, Y.K. and Berry, F.A.F.: "Simultaneous Flow of Water and
Solutes Through Geologic Membranes," Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta.
(1973) 37, No. 12.
10. Low, P.F.: "Structural Component of the Swelling Pressure of Clays,"
Langmuir (1987) 3, No. I, 18.
II. Chenevert, M.E. and Strassner, J.E.: "Temperature Effects on Water
Activities of Argillaceous Shales and Oil Mud Systems, .. paper presented
at the 1975 Oil & Gas Conference, Balatonfured, Hungary, Sept. 14-19.
12. Chenevert, M.E. and Bourgoyne, A.T.: "Failure of Wellbores Dur-
ing Well Control Operations, " paper No.4, Session I presented at the
1989 SPE IntI. Well Control Symposium/Workshop, Louisiana State
V., Baton Rouge, Nov. 27-29.
13. Brace, W.F., Walsh, J.B., and Frangos, W.T.: "Permeability of Granite
Vnder High Pressure," J. Geophys. Res. (1968) 73,2225-36.
14. Trimmer, D. et al.: "Effect of Pressure and Stress on Water Trans-
port in Intact and Fractured Gabbro and Granite," J. Geophys. Res.
(Dec. 1980) 85,7059-71.
15. Young, A., Low, P.F., and McLatchie, A.S.: "Permeability Studies
of Argillaceous Rocks," J. Geophys. Res. (Oct. 1964) 69, 4237-45.
16. Hsieh, P.A. et al.: "A Transient Laboratory Method for Determining
the Hydraulic Properties of Tight Rocks-I. Theory," Inti. J. Rock
Mech. Min. Sci. (1981) 18, 245-52.
17. Marine, I. W.: "Geohydrology of Buried Triassic Basec at Savannah
River Plant," South Carolina AAPG Bull. (1974) 58, 1825-37.
18. Neuzil, C.E. et ai.: "A Transient Laboratory Method for Determin-
ing the Hydraulic Properties of Tight Rocks-2. Application," Inti.
J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Geomech. Abstr. (1981) 18, 253-58.
19. Chenevert, M.E.: "Shale Control With Balanced-Activity Oil-
Continuous Muds," JPT(Oct. 1970) 1309-12; Trans., AIME, 249.
SI Metric Conver.lon Factor.
atm x 1.013 250* E+05 Pa
cp x 1.0* E-03 Pa's
dyne x 1.0* E-05 N
OF (OF-32)/1.8 °C
in. x 2.54* E+OO cm
in. 2 x 6.451 6* E+OO cm 2
in. 3 x 1.638 706 E+OI cm 3
psi x 6.894 757 E+OO kPa
•Conversion lactor is exact. SPEDC
Original SPE manuscript received lor review March 11, 1991. Revised manuscript received
Aug. 17, 1992. Paper accepted for publication Oct. 20, 1992. Paper (SPE 21918) Ilrst present-
ed at the 1991 SPEJIADC Drilling Conference held in Amsterdam. March 11-14.
SPE Drilling & Completion, March 1993