Reading

UniSA
University of South Australia

School of Electrical and Information Engineering
Operational Faults in
Large Synchronous Generators
by
Tn Van Tran
A thesis submitted for the award of the degree of

Master of Engineering by Research
in
Electrical Engineering
UNIVERSrI-VO
January 2006 SOUTH AUSTRA IA
25 AUG 2006
LIBRARY
ABSTRACT
Today's societies are critically dependent on the reliable supply of electricity. The
reliable operation of large synchronous generators in power stations is therefore of
paramount importance. Thus, power utilities are most keenly concerned in taking
measures to avoid catastrophic failures and to minimise the impact of generator outages
due to faults. Each generator constitutes one of the most expensive single pieces of
equipment in the power station. Although they are mostly reliable and generally require
minimal maintenance, faults can and do occur with varying degrees of consequences
ranging from minor outages to catastrophic failures.
When faults occur, cause-effect relationships need to be identified systematically. This
is necessary for having a better understanding of the fault formation mechanisms so that
preventive measures can be taken, although sometimes the immediate pressures for
returning a generator to service may impede a thorough investigation.
This thesis is borne of the Author's experiences in dealing with large synchronous
generators of various sizes and designs. The purpose of this thesis is to report on
practical problems in the operation of large synchronous generators and offer advice on
remedy. It presents carefully documented cases of faults. These vary from fractured
11
stator conductors and core overheating to cracking of rotor retaining rings and winding
short circuits. Symptoms of various faults are discussed along with the extent of damage
and remedial solutions. Emphasis is placed on being able to prevent the fault recurrence
and prolong the mean time between failures (MTBF).
Most problems within large generators can be traced back to two main original sources:
machine design and operating regime. The former may explain why fracturing of some
components is more common in some topologies than in others, whereas the latter may
have to do with the temptation in meeting the raised generation requirements due to
market demands. The thesis presents examples of both types, with detailed accounts
being given in each case. Particular attention is paid to condition monitoring, both on-
line and off-line, as a basis for developing preventive maintenance strategies to achieve
reliable operation with extended service life. Practical examples of remedial action are
given.
111
DECLARATION
I declare that this thesis does not incorporate without acknowledgement any material
previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any university and that, to the best of
my knowledge, it does not contain any material previously published or written by
another person except where due reference is made in the text.
Tran
29 January 2006
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I hereby express my deepest gratitude to my research supervisor, Professor Ozdemir

Göl, for his invaluable guidance, untiring support, indefatigable encouragement and
patience on my long journey to completing this research. I am particularly grateful to
Professor Ozdemir Göl for facilitating a research scholarship through the School of
Electrical and Information Engineering, University of South Australia, which made the
journey, culminating in this thesis, possible.
I sincerely thank my managers at Torrens Island Power Station who have supported this
work in terms of study leave and financial assistance, as well as granting me permission
to use information from my technical reports in this thesis. I also thank Siemens Pty Ltd
and to Richard Heggie Associates Ply Ltd for their permission to publish technical
information from their company reports in this thesis.
Many thanks go to all my friends and work colleagues who have given their supports,
encouragement and best of all, their consistent belief in this work.
Closer to home, I take this opportunity to express my deepest thanks and respect to my
grandfather and to my parents who have always believed in me and have inspired me to
keep going through this journey, even at times when I could not see the way forward and
when I was on the verge of giving up.
Finally, my thanks go to my wife, Yen for her patience and support. I am particularly
indebted to my lovely daughters Vienna and Alma for fuelling my research journey with
their enthusiasm, encouragement, motivation, understanding and fun.
V
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT j
DECLARATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS V
LIST OF FIGURES ix
LIST OF TABLES xvii
GLOSSARY xviii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1 Introduction 2
CHAPTER 2 FAULTS IN LARGE SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS 8
2 Faults in Large Synchronous Generators 9

2.1 Faults of the Stator Core 10
2.1.1 Constructional Features of Stator Core 10
2.1.2 Stator Core Faults due to Lamination Relaxation 14
2.1.3 Stator Core End Plates Hot Spots 16
2.1.4 Back-of-Core Burning Fault 19
2.2 Faults of the Stator Windings 22
2.2.1 Constructional Features of Stator Windings 23
2.2.1.1 Conductors 23
2.2.1.2 End-Winding Support System 26
2.2.1.3 Waterbox 29
2.2.2 Sub-Conductor Cracking Problem 30
2.2.3 End Winding Looseness Problem 35
2.2.4 Conductor Damage by Foreign Objects - Magnetic Termites 41
2.2.4.1 A Case Study of Magnetic Termite Fault 43
vi
2.3 Rotor Faults 45

2.3.1 Constructional Features of Synchronous Generator Rotor 45
2.3.1.1 Rotor End Winding Retaining Rings 48
2.3.1.2 Rotor Windings 54
2.3.1.3 Rotor Radial Connectors 55
2.3.2 Rotor Retaining Ring Faults 56
2.3.2.1 Stress Corrosion Cracking 56
2.3.2.2 Electrical Arcing on Rotor Retaining Rings 58
2.3.2.3 A Case Study 59
2.3.3 Copper Dusting Problem in Rotor Windings 61
2.3.3.1 Consequences of Rotor Copper Dusting 67
2.3.4 Rotor Coil Overheating 68
2.3.5 Rotor Inter-Turn Short Circuit 70
2.3.6 Rotor Radial Connector Faults 71
2.3.7 Rotor Up-Shaft Lead Fault 75
CHAPTER 3 FAULT DETECTION AND DIAGNOSIS 77
3 Fault Detection and Diagnosis 78

3.1 Test and Inspection Plan 78
3.2 Diagnostic and Inspection Techniques 82
3.2.1 Visual Inspection 82
3.2.2 Stator Core ELCID Test 87
3.2.3 Stator Core Ring Flux Test 90
3.2.4 Stator Core Lamination Tightness Test 93
3.2.5 Stator Slot Wedge Tightness Test 96
3.2.6 End Winding Vibration Testing 100
3.2.6.1 On-line Condition Monitoring 101
3.2.6.2 Off-line Evaluation 102
3.2.7 Stator Windings Pneumatic Tests 103
3.2.8 Stator Core End Plate Hot Spot Inspection 104
3.2.9 Generator Rotor Retaining Ring Inspection 105
3.2.9.1 Traditional Dye-Penetrant Inspection 106
3.2.9.2 In-Situ Inspection 109
3.2.10 Rotor RSO Test 114
3.2.11 Rotor Coil Volt-Drop Test 117
3.2.12 Thermographic Examination 119
3.2.13 Radiographic Examination 122
CHAPTER 4 SOLUTIONS 125
4 Remedial Solutions 126

4.1 Solutions to Stator Problems 126
4.1.1 Remedy for Stator Lamination Relaxation 128
4.1.2 Dealing with Stator Core End Plate Faults 134
vii
4.1.3 Dealing with Back-of-Core Burning Fault 139

4.1.4 Subconductor Cracking 143
4.1.4.1 Blocking Cracked Sub-Conductors 143
4.1.4.2 Removing Cracks by Shortening the Conductor 145
4.1.4.3 Replacing the Cracked Conductor 147
4.1.5 Stator Coolant Leakage Repair: A Case Study 149
4.1.6 End Winding Looseness 155
4.1.6.1 SOLUTION 1: Modifying Existing Generator Stator
Winding Support Systems 156
4.1.6.2 SOLUTION 2: Conversion of the Existing End
Windings to PTFE Hose Design 164
4.1.6.3 SOLUTION 3: Complete Stator Rewind 165
4.1.7 Conductor Damage by Foreign Objects - Magnetic Termites 167
4.2 Solutions for Generator Rotor 170
4.2.1 Dealing with Stress Corrosion Cracking on Rotor Retaining
Rings 170
4.2.1.1 Regular Examination 172
4.2.1.2 Ultrasonic Examination 174
4.2.1.3 Environmental Control 175
4.2.1.4 Surface Protection 178
4.2.1.5 Crack Removal 179
4.2.1.6 A Case Study 180
4.2.2 Remedy for Electrical Arcing on Rotor Retaining Rings 185
4.2.2.1 Fault Prevention 185
4.2.3 Dealing with Copper Dusting Problem in Rotor Windings 187
4.2.3.1 Modification of Rotor Coil Top Insulation Pads 188
4.2.3.2 Replacement of Rotor Coil Top Insulation Pads 189
4.2.3.3 Modification of Rotor Windings 192
4.2.3.4 Replacement of Rotor Windings 194
4.2.3.5 Strategy for Rotors with Copper Dusting Problem 194
4.2.4 Remedy for Rotor Coil Overheating 196
4.2.5 Dealing with Rotor Inter-Turn Short Circuit 199
4.2.6 Remedy for Rotor Radial Connector Faults 201
4.2.6.1 Overheating 201
4.2.6.2 Fracture of Main Connection Tube 205
4.2.7 Remedy for Up-Shaft Leads Fault 210
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION 214
5 CONCLUSION 215
REFERENCES 218
viii
Appendix A 223
Case study: Hydrogen leakage record of a 200 MW generator stator 223
Appendix B 246
A sample of slot wedge tightness test result of a 200 MW generator
stator 246
Appendix C 247
A sample of voltage drop test result of a 200 MW rotor windings. 247
Appendix D 248
Electromagnetic Core Imperfection Detection (ELCID) 248
Appendix E 250
Demonstration of setting up details in TOFD examination on rotor
retaining rings 250
Appendix F 252
Sub-Conductor Inspection Record: Torrens Island Power Station Unit
Bi 200 MW Generator in 2002 252
Appendix G 253
B2 200 MW Generator in 1999 253
Appendix H 255
Appendix I 257
Appendix J 259
A typical example of Maintenance Requirement Analysis (MIRA) of a
hydrogen-water cooled synchronous turbo-generator. 259
ix
LIST OF FIGURES1
Page
Figure 1. Typical arrangement in the back of stator core of a 200 MW

synchronous generator. 11
Figure 2. Typical arrangement of a 200 MW stator core, showing core

steps, lamination packets and Pistoye laminations. 13
Figure 3. Core lamination looseness causing a thicker protective end plate

of a stator core lamination packet to rattle and break away,
resulting in arcing, overheating and mechanical damage. 15
Figure 4. Typical magnetic field distribution in the end winding region of

a synchronous generator [Courtesy of ABB]. 17
Figure 5. Typical core end plate hot spots in a 120 MW generator stator. 18
Figure 6. Back-of-core burning in a 200 MW stator, showing evidence of

arcing between stator core laminations and a core key bar. 21
Figure 7. End winding view of a 200 MW waterbox generator with end

doors and rotor removed during a routine overhaul [1]. 23
Figure 8. Arrangement of a conductor termination. 24
I
The Author
has been employed at Torrens Island Power Station, Adelaide - Australia,
in various pos itions from 1991 to the present, dealing directly with asset management
and maintenance of large synchronous generators and associated electrical equipments.
The material presented in the Figures and the Case Studies were recorded by the
Author during this period unless otherwise indicated.
x
Figure 9. End winding support system looking from behind the end
winding involute showing radial support brackets. 27
Figure 10. End winding support cone (half way removed from a waterbox
stator end winding). 28
Figure 11. Original nylon studs and opposing fibreglass wedges used in
waterbox stator end windings. 28
Figure 12. A typical end winding arrangement in a 200 MW generator,

showing waterbox base, coil links, coil end nozzles and spacing
between conductor ends. 30
Figure 13. A close up photograph showing a substantial crack on a

subconductor, resulting from copper work hardening. 32
Figure 14. Visual inspection after the conductor bundle has been cut and
insulation removed showing visible cracks of several
subconductors. 32
Figure 15. Copper work hardening (original cause of cracking) revealed by

visual inspection of internal surface of a sub-conductor using
0.75 mm diameter fibre-optic scope. 34
Figure 16. Insulation fretting damage at a support bracket resulting from

insufficient restraint of stator conductors. 36
Figure 17. End winding relaxation causing abrasion wear on conductor

insulation indicated by insulation fretting dust. 37
Figure 18. Stretched and unlocked nylon tie rods further promoting end
winding relaxation. 38
Figure 19. Fretting dust found on stator conductors at the stator end
winding support comb, an indication of serious conductor
vibration for an extended period of time. 41
Figure 20. Stator conductor insulation damaged by a magnetic termite

(Note the location and the shape of both craters). 42
Figure 21. A typical arrangement of windings, retaining rings and critical

components of a 200 MW 2 pole turbo generator rotor
[Courtesy of C. A. Parsons Pty Ltd]. 47
xi
Figure 22. Common types of retaining ring designs. 49
Figure 23. External view of a typical radial connector fully assembled on a

200 MW synchronous generator rotor. 56
Figure 24. Electrical arcing damage at the interface between a retaining ring
and balance ring of a 120 MW synchronous generator rotor. 58
Figure 25. Cracks confirmed in a retaining ring at the bayonet region,

detected by Time-of-Flight examination. 61
Figure 26. Cross sectional view of rotor winding (a) radial cooling, (b)
axial cooling. 63
Figure 27. Coil construction in a 120 MW radially cooled rotor, two

parallel uninsulated copper strips forming one coil side (offset
cut-outs form zigzag radial cooling ducts). 63
Figure 28. Evidence of copper dust deposit on a 200 MW rotor winding

found during an 8-yearly routine overhaul. 66
Figure 29. Distortion damage in a 120 MW rotor coil resulting from

overheating caused by partial blockage of cooling ducts. 69
Figure 30. Overheated radial connection tube of a 200 MW rotor causing

solder in the negative side (upper section, removed) of up-shaft
lead to melt and migrate toward the positive side (lower section)
posing potential risk of a major rotor internal short circuit. 72
Figure 31. A radial connector assembly removed from a 200 MW generator

rotor. All components are severely overheated due to contact
surface reduction. 73
Figure 32. Fractures found in copper main connection tubes of rotor

inboard radial connectors in a 200 MW synchronous generator.
The tube is designed to carry over 3000 Amperes D.C. 74
Figure 33. A typical crack in up-shaft lead insulation tube in a 200 MW

generator rotor. 76
Figure 34. Illustration of magnetic field behaviour in a faulty generator

stator core [courtesy of ADWEL International Ltd] [26]. 89
xii
Figure 35. Typical ELCID test setup [courtesy of ADWEL International

Ltd] [26]. 90
Figure 36. A typical setup for a ring flux test on a 120 MW generator stator
following extensive core repair. 93
Figure 37. Stator core lamination tightness test using a core knife on a 120
MW generator stator. 96
Figure 38. A typical ripple spring stator slot wedge system. 98
Figure 39. Typical installation arrangement of a ripple spring stator slot

wedge assembly. 98
Figure 40. Stator slot wedge tightness test in a 120 MW generator stator. 100
Figure 41. Typical test set up of an off-line vibration test for a 200 MW
water-cooled waterbox style generator utilising frequency
spectrum analysis. 103
Figure 42. Fluorescent dye-penetrant examination of a 200 MW generator

rotor retaining ring viewed under ultra-violet light - revealing a
12 mm long stress corrosion crack. 107
Figure 43. Graphical illustration of Circumferential Ultrasonic Scanning

Technique TOFD utilised in crack detection of generator
retaining rings [Courtesy of Sonomatic — P. Day] [30]. 111
Figure 44. Typical arrangement of TOFD scanning unit on a 200 MW

retaining ring. 112
Figure 45. Typical example of a TOFD scan image containing diffraction

signals of a crack in a 200 MW generator rotor retaining ring
(using Zip Scan equipment shown in Figure 44) [Courtesy of
Sonomatic] [29]. 113
Figure 46. A crack detected in a 200 MW rotor retaining ring sized and
profiled using ultrasonic techniques illustrated in Figure 44
[Courtesy of Sonomatic]. 114
xlii
Figure 47. A typical example of Recurrent Surge Oscillograph (RSO) of a

120 MW generator rotor windings with retaining ring removed.
The discrepancy of superimposed signals indicates a short
circuit. [Courtesy of Siemens]. 116
Figure 48. Voltage-Drop test performed on a 120 MW synchronous

generator rotor winding. 118
Figure 49 A thermographic image of an Isolated Phase Bus (IPB) and its

earthing connectors of a 200 MW generator. 120
Figure 50. A thermographic image of a rotor radial connector at 90% full

load, 2200 amperes in a 200 MW generator rotor, revealing an
abnormally high local operating temperature. 121
Figure 51. A thermographic image of stator windings in a 40 MW air

cooled synchronous generator at full load operation. 121
Figure 52. New collector ring assembly fully installed on brushless AC

main exciter rotor. 123
Figure 53. A radiographic image of a three phase copper collector ring

assembly in a brushless main exciter rotor - showing a fracture
in Phase A. 124
Figure 54. The insulated copper collector ring with fractures, removed from
its rotor; confirming the fractures detected by radiographic
examination. 124
Figure 55. Thin mica sheets inserted between laminations to restore

interlaminar insulation. 132
Figure 56. Fibreglass wedges inserted in the damaged area between a

lamination packet and the 'I' section gas duct spacer to restore
tightness. 132
Figure 57. Small custom made fibreglass wedges, impregnated with

Araldite resin are inserted into 'relaxed' core lamination packets
to restore tightness. 133
xiv
Figure 58. A fibreglass wedge (stemming piece) being driven into a

loosened core packet. 133
Figure 59. Section of core lamination in a 200 MW stator after been

tightening with a 3 mm stemming piece. 134
Figure 60. Severe core lamination damage resulting from the propagation
of core end plate burning in a 120 MW generator stator. 136
Figure 61. Thermographic image of a stator core lamination hot spot, due to
core end plate burning fault, detected by ring flux test during a
major overhaul of a 120 MW generator stator. 137
Figure 62. Copper shorting traps connecting stator core key bars used to
remedy back-of-core burning fault [311. 142
Figure 63. Leakage flux distribution in generator stator core [311. 142
Figure 64. Showing a conductor ferrule of a 200 MW water-cooled stator

after the nozzle was removed. Two subconductors were found
cracked and being blocked to stop hydrogen gas leak into stator
coolant system. 145
Figure 65. Original conductor end nozzle assembly removed from a 200
MW stator (left), extended nozzle assembly spare (centre),
standard nozzle assembly spare (right). 146
Figure 66. Installation of an extended nozzle on a cracked conductor of a

200 MW stator. Note the length and position of the new
extended nozzle. 147
Figure 67. Trending of hydrogen leakage rate into stator coolant system of a
200 MW synchronous generator recorded during a fault
investigation and management of a hydrogen-in-stator-coolant
leakage due to a cracked subconductor. 152
Figure 68. Fracture mechanics metallurgical examination of a cracked

copper subconductor showing evidence of crack formation due
to copper work hardening (Microscopic examination x200
magnification). 154
Figure 69. Insulation blocks added to sides of end winding support brackets
to provide backing support for IRPF bags. 159
xv
Figure 70. Modification to the end windings of a 200 MW stator - showing

the added fibreglass reinforcing rings, waterbox and fully
installed conductor cross links. 160
Figure 71. Installation of the Inflatable Resin Pressure Filled (IRPF) bags
and new high tensile fibreglass studs in a 200 MW stator end
winding involute. 163
Figure 72. Typical arrangement of a hose-design generator stator end

windings [courtesy of Rolls Royce Industrial Power Group]. 166
Figure 73. A typical arrangement for electrical heating on a 120 MW rotor

retaining ring on re-installation. 174
Figure 74. A 120 MW turbo-generator rotor and its retaining rings housed
in a temperature controlled enclosure during a routine overhaul. 177
Figure 75. Surface treatment against corrosion on a l8Mn5Cr retaining ring

of a 120 MW generator rotor. 179
Figure 76. Location and geometric details of the 2 main cracks recorded
before machining on the 200 MW generator retaining ring. 181
Figure 77. Machining of a 200 MW generator rotor retaining ring to

remove cracks in the bayonet groove using a high precision
Vertical Turret Boring Machine. 182
Figure 78. Location and geometric details of the remaining cracks after
machining to a depth of 4.95 mm of the inner circumference of
the retaining ring bayonet. 183
Figure 79. Appearance of Crack A (Figure 76) after machining to a depth of

2 mm (viewing at x50 magnification) revealed intergranular
propagation of the crack. 184
Figure 80. Rotor slot wedges of a 200 MW hydrogen cooled generator rotor
- showing nylon insulation blocks designed to prevent electrical
contacts with rotor retaining rings. 186
Figure 81. Modification of coil top insulation pads to improve coils'

freedom of movement and to reduce copper abrasion of a 120
MW generator rotor. 188
xvi
Figure 82. New two-part replacement rotor coil top insulation strips. 191
Figure 83. Minimum copper dusting was observed on the same two-part
replacement rotor coil top insulation strips as shown in Figure
82 after 6 years in service. 191
Figure 84. Asset Management Strategy for dealing with copper dusting
problem in large synchronous generator rotor. 195
Figure 85. A damaged rotor coil due to overheating being partially lifted
from its winding and repaired. Note the distortion on the copper
coil and the reshaped cooling slot. 197
Figure 86. Assembly drawing of the rotor end of slot insulation system.
Note the locking arrangement of components to prevent
migration of the top insulation pads. 198
Figure 87 End windings and locations of inter-turn short circuits at the coil
cross-overs of a 28 years old 200 MW synchronous generator
rotor. 200
Figure 88. Typical arrangement of a rotor outboard radial connection

assembly. 203
Figure 89. Discolouration of all components in rotor radial connection

indicating severe overheating damage. 204
Figure 90. The connection palms have been machined and checked for
surface alignment with main connection tubes. 204
Figure 91. Electrical contact surfaces such as those of the main connection
tubes are further improved by electroplating with 8 jim to 12 jim
of silver. 205
Figure 92. A x30 magnification image on fracture surface of a 200 MW

rotor copper radial connection tube [Courtesy of FCA][39]. 209
Figure 93. Pictorial description of modification to the up-shaft lead

assembly for a 200 MW synchronous generator rotor. 213
Figure 94. A 200 MW rotor up-shaft lead assembly: modified and ready to
be inserted into its outer insulation shell. 213
xvii
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1. Waterbox generators (<300 MW) style that most affected by end
winding looseness problem and solutions adopted. 39
Table 2 1 8Mn4Cr typical specification. 50
Table 3. A case study of a 200 MW generator rotor retaining ring hoop

stress levels. 51
Table 4. Suggested routine test and inspection schedule. 79
Table 5. Suggested condition monitoring requirements. 81
Table 6. Visual inspection summary. 83
Table 7. Summary of modal frequencies before and after modification

[12]. 162
xviii
GLOSSARY
Base load generator Generating unit that normally operates near its rated
output conditions with minimum output variation.
Black-start A major event where all generators in a power system are

shutdown completely and need to be restarted by a small
self-starting generating unit. This usually occurs
following a major system failure in transmission or
generation systems.
Cigré International Council on Large Electric Systems.

(Conseil International des Grands Réseaux Electriques),
a renowned technical organisation based in France.
Copper dusting A phenomenon where excessive abrasion of generator
rotor copper conductors and insulation system produces a
copper and insulation powder. Copper dusting can cause
short circuits within generator rotor windings.
DLA Dielectric Loss Angle: a measurement in percentage of
resistive loss in electrical insulation material.
Earth fault Electrical break-down or short circuit from generator

windings to earth potential.
ELCID Electromagnetic-Core-Imperfection-Detection.
A trade name for an electrical test technique to detect
short circuits between core laminations in electrical
machines.
End windings The overhang section of the electrical machine's stator or

rotor windings outside of the magnetic core.
EPRI Electric Power Research Institute. A renowned research

institution specialising in electrical power systems based
in USA.
Ferrule A copper component fitted at the end of each generator

stator conductor to facilitate the electrical and plumbing
xix
connections between the stator conductor strands and the

end nozzle, as illustrated in Figure 8.
Inter-connection Transmission line connecting major load centres or

transmission networks.
IRPF Inflatable Resin Pressure Filled.
Load-following generators Generating units that operate between base load and peak
load modes. They are also known as mid-range
generators. Generators operating in this mode usually
have their power output fluctuating continuously from
20% to full name plate capacity many times in a day to
meet the electricity market demands. Typically, this type
of operation is found in gas fired steam turbine
generating Units.
MRA Maintenance Requirement Analysis: an asset

management tool designed to identify all possible failure
modes of equipment and recommend maintenance
remedial solutions.
MTBF Mean Time Between Failures.
National Electricity grid In Australia, this means the integral network of

electricity generation, transmission and distribution in the
five states of South Australia, Victoria, Tasmania, New
South Wales and Queensland which are interconnected
via high voltage transmission system.
NDT Non Destructive Testing: this term is commonly

associated with metallurgical examination of cracks and
defects in materials.
NEMIVICO National Electricity Market Management Company:

a body corporate responsible for the administration and
operation of the wholesale national electricity market in
Australia in accordance with the National Electricity
Code.
Nomex A trade name for a synthetic aromatic polyamide polymer

with superior electrical, chemical and mechanical
properties. It is used as a high grade high temperature
electrical insulation material in electrical machines and
other equipment.
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer.

xx
Peak - load generators Generating units that operate in a wide range of output
power and experience a large number of starts. They
usually run up and shut down two or more times per day
to meet peaky electricity demands. Their main function is
'topping up' the daily electricity demand curve.
Typically, this type of operation is suitable for 'fast start'
gas turbine and hydroelectric generating Units.
PTFE Polytetrafluoroethene; also known as Teflon; a high-

performance engineering plastic typically used in
generator stators in the form of flexible hose to reticulate
cooling water into each hollow stator conductor.
rpm Revolutions per minute.
RSO Recurrent Search Oscillograph:

An electrical measurement to detect short circuits or low
insulation resistance between coils within generator rotor
windings.
Spinning reserve Spare power generation capacity above actual electricity

demand allowing contingency for unexpected
disconnection of a generating Unit from a network.
Stator slot wedge A strip of insulation material or a system of insulation

packing and non-metallic leaf springs installed in stator
core slots to secure stator conductors in correct position
and tightness.
Stator core end plate Thick alloy steel plate installed at each end of stator core
lamination stack to provide protection for the core
laminations under the core clamping force and stray axial
magnetic flux penetration.
Stator manifold waterbox An insulated manifold box (typically of cast resin) used
to reticulate stator coolant water through hollow stator
conductors for cooling.
System demand The total electric power required by connected systems

under a particular load condition.
Two-shifting A cyclic operational mode of power generating Units

that, in addition to output variation during the day, are
shut down at night to save fuel (i.e. ON day shift, OFF
night shift). Nowadays, this mode of operation is
commonly found in gas-fired steam turbine and gas
turbine generating Units.
xxi
TOFD Time of Flight Detection: A high precision sophisticated

technique of crack detection in materials using reflected
ultrasonic waves.
VoLL Value of Lost Load: The maximum electricity market

pool price set by NEMMCO for the condition where
electricity demand exceeds supply. This price can vary
from country to country. For example, it was
AUD 10,000 per MWhour in Australia during 2005.
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
2
I INTRODUCTION
Over the last half century much advancement has been made in the field of large
synchronous generators. The need for larger unit sizes has driven the development of
better and more innovative designs. Manufacturing processes have steadily improved.
The advent of new insulation materials has contributed to increased reliability in
operation at lower cost. The so-called Class F fibre-glass epoxy insulation system, now
recognised worldwide as the best modern insulation system for commercial high voltage
generators, has all but replaced the hot dip varnish insulation systems known as Class B
insulation [1].
Sophisticated design optimisation, clever use of modern materials and more efficient
cooling systems have been some of the key achievements in the field of design and
manufacturing of large synchronous generators. For example, the emergence of new
technology in internal water-cooled conductors within hydrogen cooled generators in the
1960s was, for the power generation industry, a quantum leap in building higher
capacity generators to answer the quest of the rapid growth in power generation
demands with improved generation efficiency [2].

3
Toward the end of the 20th

century, privatisation reforms swept through the electricity
industry in many developed countries. It is now widely observed that, especially during
the transition period, there have been shortfalls of capital investment in upgrading and
replacing aged equipment in the electricity supply industry in all areas of generation,
transmission and distribution. Major investment decisions have been heavily influenced
by economic drivers, which predominantly focus on short term interests, causing a
serious decline in support for load growth and difficulties in maintaining a satisfactory
level of reliability for electricity supply. This is reflected in the reduction of spinning
reserve in the national electricity power systems [3]. Due to the economic realities of the
electricity market, there is also a tendency that many old generators built in the 1950's
and 1960's are still kept in service or even recalled from retirement, as in the case of at
least two power stations in South Australia. This has caused major concerns for power
generation companies for whom the reliability of operation of large synchronous
generators is of critical importance. Hence, irmovative measures need to be taken so as
to avoid the risk of catastrophic failures, minimise the impact of generator outages and
ultimately making the best use of existing generating assets.
As participants in the modern electricity market, generating units, inevitably, are
required to be more flexible and responsive. No different from turbines and power
station auxiliaries, large synchronous generators have been operated under increasingly
arduous conditions with significantly greater numbers of start-up and shut-down, faster
loading rates and a wider range of output fluctuation. Cyclic operation in peak load or
load following modes is more suitable to fast response gas turbine driven and hydro-
4
electric generating units, whereas the traditional large base load machines are designed
for large volume, steady output generation. Changing the operational mode of older
machines from base load to peak load or load following poses significant risks to large
generators, exacerbating problems related to ageing and, ultimately, reducing their
remanent service life. As a matter of fact, a number of problems have emerged over time
in generators, especially in those manufactured during the transition period of the 1 960s
and 1970s [4]. These problems have varied from fractures of stator end winding
conductors, causing hydrogen to leak into the stator coolant, to fretting damage of the
high voltage insulation system, causing partial discharge and, in some severe cases,
electrical short circuits [6][7][8]. Such problems are observed particularly in machines
of the type known as waterbox generator, discussed in further detail in Chapter 2, where
relevant constructional features are described along with a number of internal faults. The
faults described in detail cover stator core localised overheating, fractured stator
conductors, rotor retaining ring cracking, rotor coil deterioration and inter-turn short
circuits [9].
One highlight of these problems is the failures of stator end windings, which emanate, in
one way or another, from mechanical deterioration of the end-winding support
structures. Observations on symptoms are given which include evidence of insulation
fretting dust found in stator conductor interspace and on support structures. Fractures in
conductors have been attributed to copper work hardening due to unrestrained
movement of conductors [1] [10]. Chapter 2 also discusses associated effects such as
hydrogen gas leaking into the stator coolant water, posing an increased risk for failure.
5
Other problems such as stress corrosion cracking in rotor retaining rings are discussed
and illustrated [11]. It is concluded that electromechanical and thermal stresses are the
most significant contributing factors to mechanical and structure-related failures in
critical components in large synchronous generators.
Typical test and examinations usually carried out on a generator during an outage
including non destructive testing, end winding vibration induced broadband frequency
response measurement, standard routine winding electrical tests, Recurrent Surge
Oscillograph (RSO) and Electromagnetic Core Imperfection detection (ELCID). Some
tests are part of routine condition monitoring, others, gauging the effectiveness of
previous work or to be performed as preventative maintenance activities [12] [13] [14]
[15] [16].
Chapter 3 presents a range of test and investigation techniques commonly employed to
detect faults in large synchronous generators discussed in Chapter 2. An inspection and
test plan is proposed, providing broad guidelines for monitoring the service condition of
generators. The plan includes routine inspection, condition monitoring strategies and
appropriate test techniques. The plan is based on the Author's experience in dealing
with asset management issues and found to be appropriate for a number of specific
generators. It is recommended that the plan should be treated as a guide only as
experience shows that inspection and test regimes are best to be specific to individual
generators and depend on important factors such as operational roles, design specifics,
age, maintenance history and the owner's risk acceptance profile.

6
Early detection of failure in machines is absolutely critical in avoiding major damage.
Condition Monitoring (CM) is one of the most effective means of failure prevention by
early fault detection in modern asset management practice. In order to optimise the
maintenance strategies, the traditional time-based maintenance routines have been
replaced with condition-based activities. Although capital investment is required to set
up appropriate CM systems, such early fault detection can prevent major failures,
downtime and repay their investment many times over.
Offline diagnostics, on the other hand, play an important role in 'health spot checks' for
synchronous generators. They can be carried out routinely or as required and are great
complement to the online systems. A range of offline inspections and test techniques is
suggested throughout Chapter 3 for detection of specific faults of stator and rotor
components. In general, it is observed that visual inspection by an experienced
inspector, who is familiar with a particular type of generator, does not require
sophisticated equipment and can be by far the most beneficial in discovering many
faults and the early onset of faults.
This thesis focuses its attention on special non-routine tests, without discussing the
electrical test requirements for large synchronous generators governed by the
appropriate Australian and international standards (such as AS/NZS, ANSI, IEEE, IEC)
for specific test categories. It is assumed that the 'standard tests" such as insulation
resistance (IR), polarisation index (P1), dielectric loss angle (DLA), power frequency
7
(PF), ac and dc hi-pot, partial discharge test are applied by generator owners in
compliance with the applicable standards.
Chapter 4 presents a range of practical solutions which have been implemented in
remedying the faults discussed in Chapter 2. Some of these solutions have involved
repairs of defective components to restore the original designed conditions; others have
involved much more costly major modifications or upgrades to the existing components.
In most cases, the effectiveness of these remedial measures has been assessed by means
of tests before and after the implementation.
In addition, a range of preventive maintenance strategies is proposed based on
appropriate on-line and off-line fault detection and diagnosis techniques. These
strategies provide the basis for effectively monitoring the generator's health and
contribute to the formulation of long-term asset strategies that maximise service life and
reliability of the generators.

8
CHAPTER 2
FAULTS IN LARGE
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
9
2 FAULTSIN LARGE
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
Large synchronous generators are critically important to the reliability of power systems.
Any fault, no matter how insignificant it may be perceived to be, is a potential thread to
its operation. Unchecked faults may ultimately lead to catastrophic failure with dire
consequences.
The majority of internal faults of large synchronous generators are in one way or the
other, related to mechanical related origins, of which the mechanical wear and tear
including structural deterioration are amongst the most common causes. Electrical
components such as the stator conductors are designed with generous safety margins and
rarely develop faults from within themselves, provided that they are operated under the
specified operational conditions.
Some faults originate from inherent weaknesses in generator design or in manufacturing
techniques and are often difficult to be remedied. On the other hand, operating
conditions constitute the other significant contributor to the development of faults in
large synchronous generators. Particularly, excesses in operation beyond the original
design capabilities can cause major damage or exacerbate existing problems within the
generators.
10
2.1 FAULTS OF THE STATOR CORE
2.1.1 Constructional Features of Stator Core
Stator core of a large generator is made up of a large number of stamped thin segmental
magnetic steel laminations. Depending on the design and size of the generator, there
could be from 4 to 12 segments of laminations per layer. The lamination material
usually has high magnetic permeability and low electrical losses. Each segment of
lamination is coated with a thin layer of insulating varnish so that when the core
laminations are compressed together, each lamination is electrically insulated from one
another minimising eddy current losses when the core is excited.
Key bars of trapezoidal cross section are anchored axially along the internal bore of
stator frame to form a robust support structure for the core laminations. Each lamination
segment has dovetail shaped slots stamped on its outer periphery and parallel radial slots
stamped on its inner periphery to accommodate the conductors. When the core is built
up, each lamination segment is sequentially located and locked into the appropriate key
bars at the dovetail slots. This allows the lamination segments to be accurately located,
aligned and supported at the key bars. The lamination stacks are then tightly compressed
at stages under pressure to form a rigid core, providing a strong foundation for stator
windings to be housed at the same time completing the stator magnetic circuit, as
illustrated in Figure 1 and Figure 2.

11
Figure 1. Typical arrangement in the back of stator core of a 200 MW synchronous

generator.
Longitudinally, the core is divided into sections. Each section is sandwiched between
two rings of thicker core plates and I-section spacers. Once built with the adjacent
sections, they form a network of radial cooling ducts. These ducts provide essential
cooling for the deeper parts of core laminations and passage for control of hydrogen
flow. In most generator cores, these cooling ducts are built at short intervals of few
centimetres along the entire length of the core while others are built in a portion of the
core only, depending on the design of cooling gas flow control. Core lamination
intervals are called core packet.

12
At both ends of the core, where magnetic flux density is the greatest due to the high
concentration of magnetic fringing flux, additional cooling provisions are made. Shorter
core intervals result in more cooling ducts. At each of these intervals, the core internal
bore diameter is made progressively larger so as to increase the air gap reluctance. In
larger generators, a further reduction of eddy currents at these core end packets is
achieved by the use of Pistoye laminations. These laminations incorporate a cut-out
starting from the inner edge of the lamination radially extending outward for a few
centimetres. This slot effectively cuts the lamination surfaces affected by eddy currents
by half in both radial and axial directions, thus reducing the rate of heat generation by a
factor of 4.
In addition to radial cooling, large stator cores also incorporate axial cooling by means
of cooling channels running through the entire length of the core formed by aligning
holes in the laminations.
To maintain the core pressure, one core end plate of similar shape to the laminations is
placed at each end of the core stack to provide mechanical protection. During the core
building stage, both core end plates are pressed against the lamination stack and then
locked in position by the core compression fingers rings. These two rings are finally
secured by a number of large core bolds run full length of the core providing a
permanent static pressure on the core laminations.

13
Depending on the design chosen by different manufactures, some cores are electrically
insulated from the stator frame while others are solidly earthed at the back of the core
via a network of interconnected cage like copper strips placed axially along the back of
the core.
Figure 2. Typical arrangement of a 200 MW stator core, showing core steps,

lamination packets and Pistoye laminations.
14
2.1.2 Stator Core Faults due to Lamination Relaxation
As described in Section 2.1.1, the stator core is a cardinal component of a generator. Its
two main functions are to act as the principal magnetic circuit and provide housing for
stator conductors. From a generator construction and maintenance point of view, the
stator core is even more critically important since most other components are built on it.
Experience shows that core related problems are difficult and expensive to rectify. In
large generators, stator cores are inevitably of complex design and, if not constructed
correctly, major problems can and do occur after a few years in service. Some problems
can escalate to damaging stator windings. It is also important to follow the correct
procedures when the stator core is constructed, in addition to having the correct design
and materials. Each core lamination must be adequately insulated, pressed tightly
together and remain tight for the life of the generator. Loose core laminations can lead to
major core damage and catastrophic failures.
Figure 3 illustrates such a core fault. Following the discovery of a core fault during a
routine inspection, a thorough investigation was carried out on a 200 MW generator that
had been in service for 15 years. This particular generator suffered a core relaxation
problem. The condition deteriorates over time due to cyclic thermal and electromagnetic
forces acting on the laminations. In this case, the core was built with a thin layer of
compressed paper base material at approximately 100 mm intervals repeated for the
entire core length. Over time, the paper layers had been slowly compressed further in
service causing the relaxation. As the retaining pressure in axial direction reduces, core
15
lamination vibration increases allowing the thicker protective end plates on both sides of
the lamination packets to rattle against the 'I' section gas duct spacer and eventually
braking away. At the time of the repair, many similar areas were found to have
looseness and electrical arcing similar to that shown in Figure 3.
Evidently, the broken away pieces of the core lamination material, bouncing around in
the air gap when the rotor is in motion cause mechanical impact damage to both the
stator and rotor surfaces. Lamination short circuits were found in many places on the
stator core. The stator and rotor windings were contaminated with steel debris and
carbon from the areas of core burning.
Loosened core lamination
(ore packet thick end plate brokc 4 .•.,

plus evidence of electrical
% arcing due to lamination rattling
Figure 3. Core lamination looseness causing a thicker protective end plate of a stator
core lamination packet to rattle and break away, resulting in arcing,
overheating and mechanical damage.
16
2.1.3 Stator Core End Plates Hot Spots
For optimum performance, generator stator core designs incorporate many special
features. Of these, core efficiency is the main design feature measured by core losses.
Other features such as cooling, rigidity, durability against thermal cycling, and ease of
construction are also very important. Magnetic field distribution within the generator
during normal and abnormal operating conditions are also carefully considered in
generator core designs. Improper design or construction can lead to irreparable damage.
Dreaded problems such as core end plate burning is amongst those consequences.
Some older stator cores built in the 1960's and 1970's have been known to suffer a
chronic problem of local overheating at the end regions, labelled core end plate burning.
After the problem was experienced in several generators, it was found that the core end
plates of these generators were made of magnetic materials which are unsuitable and
highly susceptible to induced eddy currents. When generators operate in leading power
factor mode the air gap flux density increases excessively. This leads to a significant
increase in the fringing flux density in the end winding region, inducing eddy currents in
the core end plates, resulting in local overheating and burning. As the burning activities
occur on and behind the core end plate, usually in inaccessible locations, it is difficult to
detect. Figure 4 illustrates a typical magnetic field distribution in the end winding
region.
17
Rotor
Figure 4. Typical magnetic field distribution in the end winding region of a

synchronous generator [Courtesy of ABB].
Once the core burning starts, it forms a so called 'hot spot" and gradually grows. The
heat generated from the hot spots can cause damage to the surrounding lamination
insulation, encouraging further burning. In at least three severe cases, the hot spots were
found to have spread through the conductor insulation causing stator winding-to-earth
faults. In other cases, the damage was found to have extended to the generator air gap
and stator core teeth where the magnetic flux density is high, causing rapid core
deterioration.
A survey, carried out on fifteen 120 MW generators, ten in Australia and five in New
Zealand, found that they all suffered core end plate burning faults. In addition, two of
18
those generators had experienced stator winding earth faults caused by the propagation
of the core end plate hot spots, resulting in extensive damage to the stator windings.
Interestingly, all those generators had a similar stator core design. Figure 5 exemplifies
some typical hot spots on stator core end plate of a 120 MW generator.
The OEM of the affected generators did not anticipate the problem in these stator cores
and did not offer any warning to the generator owners about the fault until the stator
earth faults were experienced.
p Stator conductor
Core compression finger 1
Figure 5. Typical core end plate hot spots in a 120 MW generator stator.
19
2.1.4 Back-of-Core Burning Fault
Back-of-core burning fault, as its name suggests, occurs in the back of the core between
the stator core laminations and their support key bars. The burning is a result of
electrical arcing from the current transfer between core laminations and the key bars
through poor electrical contacts. The key bars have an important function to provide
accurate alignment and mechanical support for individual laminations through a dovetail
arrangement, as described previously in Section 2.1.1. Generally, there are about 20 to
30 key bars in a stator core of a 200 MW generator.
There are two main types of stator core commonly known as 1) insulated core and 2)
non-insulated core. As their names suggest, the insulated cores are electrically insulated
from the stator frame whereas the non-insulated cores have their laminations directly
built on the dovetail shape key bars, which are electrically earthed to the stator frame.
The insulated cores do not have problems of back-of-core burning and hence are not
discussed further in this thesis.
The key bars are electrically short circuited at the ends to form a squirrel cage, designed
to carry the induced currents caused by the stator leakage flux in the back of the core.
The induced currents flow between the network of key bars, core laminations and core
end plates and are highly complex in orientation, fluctuating in magnitude depending on
the operating condition and the degree of magnetic saturation in the stator core.
Especially during high leading power factor generation, the saturation of magnetic field
20
can cause the induced currents in the back of the core to intensify near the core ends.
This explains why most cases of back-of-core burning fault are found at the end
sections. Naturally, the induced currents tend to flow in the lowest impedance paths,
highly dependent on the contact resistance between the key bars and the core
laminations. Therefore the core design and construction techniques are critical control
factors for back-of-core burning problems. Back-of-core burning faults have been found
on the top, sides and bottom of turbo-generator stator cores. It is rarely found in hydro-
electrical generators.
Figure 6 exemplifies the back-of-core burning fault of a 200 MW generator found in
2004. The burning areas appeared to have started recently and were not seen in the
previous generator routine inspection in 1998. It is suspected that this fault relates to
two-shifting operations, although further investigation and research are required to
support this hypothesis. The generator had been operated as a base load Units from 1980
to about 1998 and increasingly in two-shifting mode in the last seven years.
Even though the back-of-core burning fault does not threaten an immediate outage to
the affected generator, it poses a major concern. As the electrical arcing activity occurs,
it produces metal globules at the fault location as a result of high temperature burning of
core lamination and key bar metals. Eventually, the globules dislodge themselves from
their 'birth place' and find their way into the generator air gap causing serious
contamination to the generator internal components with thousands of small broken
metal globules. This ramifies to secondary problems such as degrading the high voltage
21
winding insulation, creating magnetic termites on stator conductors, promoting inter-
turn short circuits on rotor windings, causing interlaminar short circuits to stator core
and other mechanical impact damage to rotor components such as slot wedges and rotor
retaining rings.
Unfortunately, access to the back of stator core is highly limited due to the construction
of gas baffles and chambers to control hydrogen flow within the generator. Generally,
only about 20% to 30% of the back of stator core is accessible. This makes thorough
inspections and repairs for this type of fault extremely difficult without major
intervention to the stator shell structure. Furthermore, the majority generators in the
medium output range below 300 MW are constructed in such a way that the core
laminations are integrated with the stator frame and the core stack can not be removed
as one whole component for repairs outside of the stator shell.
Thick protection plate of core

packets
Core laminations
Metal globules produced from

arcing activity between core
laminations and the key bar
A stator core key bar provides

anchoring for lamination to
frame
Figure 6. Back-of-core burning in a 200 MW stator, showing evidence of arcing

between stator core laminations and a core key bar.
22
2.2 FAULTS OF THE STATOR WINDINGS
Stator winding faults can have devastating consequences in terms of generating plant
availability. Although they can occur in any types of generator, some are more prone to
developing stator winding faults due to inherent design weaknesses. One such type is
known as the waterbox generator, which made its debut halfway through the 20th
centuiy. Figure 7 depicts the end view of a typical waterbox generator. Although
reasonably reliable when new, its inherent weaknesses became evident after about 10
years of operation. The design proved to be maintenance intensive and hazardous due to
occurrences of hydrogen leaking into the stator coolant.
Waterbox generators typically have output power ratings ranging from 200 MW to 500
MW. The unique features of these generators are the resin cast waterboxes, end winding
support comb, end winding involute support cone and semi-flexible conductors which
are all visible in Figure 7 with the exception of the conductors hidden behind the
involute support cone. These components characterising the end winding are described
in greater detail below.

23
Figure 7. End winding view of a 200 MW waterbox generator with end doors and
rotor removed during a routine overhaul [1].
2.2.1 Constructional Features of Stator Windings
2.2.1.1 Conductors
There are two layers of coil side within each stator slot. Each coil side consists of a
bundle of insulated prismatic hollow copper strands, referred to as sub-conductors. The
sub-conductors are individually insulated from each other to minimise internal eddy
currents, and are transposed along the stator core to minimise internal circulating
currents in between the strands, referred to as Roebel transposition, further improving

24
machine efficiency. These hollow sub-conductors are designed to carry the stator
currents as well as to reticulate the cooling water. At each end of the half coils, the
strands are pneumatically and electrically connected together and soldered to a hollow
termination nozzle making it a gas tight joint. This nozzle is mounted onto the back of
waterbox. Each termination nozzle takes cooling water from the waterbox for conductor
cooling at the same time carries electrical current. Each pair of corresponding
termination nozzles is connected together via copper links to complete the electrical
circuits of the windings. The termination arrangement is depicted in Figure 4 below.
End view Sectional view of stator conductor and

Termination nozzle arrangement
Figure 8. Arrangement of a conductor termination.
Due to the physical arrangement of the waterboxes, there is a larger gap in between the
adjacent waterboxes; the space in between the conductors of adjacent phase groups is
much greater than that of others in the same phase group. Since the stator core slots are
made with equal spacing, there are subtle differences in coil pitch lengths and shape
25
variations of conductors in the same phase group at the end winding regions as depicted
in Figure 12. This unique feature makes stock-holding of spare conductors difficult and
expensive. Most waterbox generators utilise so called, semi-flexible coils; that is the
middle section of the coil in the core region is more solid. In contrast, the overhang
sections are more flexible. Following the insulation wrapping process, the middle
straight section of the coils in the core section is pressed in formers to exact dimensions
and heated to cure the resin enriched insulation simultaneously. The overhang end
sections are, however, not pressed but insulated differently to the core section in such a
way that they are more flexible making coil installation process easier.
The insulation materials and coil construction methodologies have varied with time and
technologies available. The early generators utilised resin rich mica-bituminous hot dip
varnish insulation whereas the more recent generators have been equipped with resin
rich fibre-glass epoxy insulation system [17] [18]. Whilst the early insulation method is
labour intensive, it offers superior electrical properties to the high voltage windings,
particularly, the immunity to corona discharge. The more recent insulation method
offers a more efficient use of modern materials, better thermal characteristic for the
windings and is less labour intensive to build. However, the coils are more exposed to
risk of corona discharge and are susceptible to end winding vibrations [19].
26
2.2.1.2 End-Winding Support System
In the case of waterbox generators, a unique end winding support system is utilised in
order to restrain the stator conductors in the correct position against electromagnetic
forces. The stator end winding support system at each end of the generator consists of
one support comb to restrain the conductor ends and support the resin waterboxes, non-
metallic support brackets to provide back bone support for the end windings and to
connect the support comb to the stator frame structure at core end, a frustum cone on the
involute side and a network of nylon tie rods.
Each end-winding support comb consists of six matching segments fabricated from
resin-bonded fabric laminate material. It is mounted on the end of the support brackets
in parallel with stator core laminations to form a locating platform for the ends of the
stator conductors as shown in Figure 12 and Figure 9. Stator conductors are wedged into
the slots in the support comb for exact positioning. The stator conductors are further
secured in position with a resin-bonded fabric laminate ring fitted to the inner periphery
of the support comb by a series of radial nylon studs through the comb width. For
additional stiffness, the comb is secured to the stator core compression plate via a set of
long brass studs in parallel with the support brackets as can be seen in Figure 9. The
support comb also provides a platform for the winding involute support cone as
illustrated in Figure 10.

27
The support cone is of a frustum shape, its major periphery is mounted to the support
comb and the minor periphery is pulled toward the core datum plate by a series of long
nylon studs as illustrated in Figure 12 and Figure 10. It is designed to provide a strong
backing support for the end winding involute from the inside direction.
A series of opposing fibreglass wedges as shown in Figure 11 is driven in between the
outer surface of the cone and the stator end winding involute. This exerts a compression
force on the conductors of both layers, pushing them outward to the end winding
support brackets. It is expected that this compression force will remain relatively
adequate to retain the conductors tightly in position for the life of the generator.
Core end compression plate
I Stator conductors
Figure 9. End winding support system looking from behind the end winding involute
showing radial support brackets.
28
Support cone mounting ring I

connected to support "Comb"
Locating grooves for

fiberglass opposing wedges
between the support cone and
stator conductors
Figure 10. End winding support cone (half way removed from a waterbox stator end
winding).
Figure 11. Original nylon studs and opposing fibreglass wedges used in waterbox stator
end windings.
29
2.2.1.3 Waterbox
A waterbox assembly consists of a cast resin epoxy base with conductor mounting holes
and securing studs, a cover and a carbon free rubber gasket. Waterboxes are installed at
both ends of the stator winding for the purpose of reticulating the cooling water into the
hollow stator conductors. They also serve as an additional barrier of electrical insulation
between the high voltage conductors and the nearby outer casing at earth potential. Once
installed correctly with all conductors in position, the waterbox assembly becomes gas-
tight to an operating hydrogen pressure of about 300 kPa. Stator conductors of the same
phase group are mounted through the back of a waterbox in two rows corresponding to
the inner and outer layers of the stator windings. Electrical connections between the
inner conductors and outer conductors are made with copper clamps called 'conductor
links' forming stator windings as shown in Figure 7 and Figure 12.
Stator coolant water is pumped into each waterbox through hollow terminal leads at one
end of the generator. The cooling water is then forced through the conductors to the
corresponding waterbox at the opposite end before returning to the external cooling,
filtering and pumping system.
The waterboxes of generator stators in the 200 MW to 300 MW range are supported
only by the stator conductors themselves. When filled with stator coolant water, each
waterbox weighs approximately 100 kg. This creates significant static and dynamic
stresses on the conductors in service, thus significantly increasing the risk of crack
30
development within the copper conductor strands. Unlike that demonstrated in Figure
12, the waterboxes of larger generators 500 MW and larger are directly mounted to the
end winding support comb and do not exert strain on the conductor ends.
End winding support comb End-of-phase lead and coolant supply pipe
Stator coil end nozzle
Temporary blue bolt to protect

conductors against foreign
objects during generator outage
—
Figure 12. A typical end winding arrangement in a 200 MW generator, showing

waterbox base, coil links, coil end nozzles and spacing between conductor
ends.
2.2.2 Sub-Conductor Cracking Problem
In normal operation, the generator is filled with hydrogen gas at 300 kPa pressure and
the stator coolant system is charged with demineralised water at 200 kPa. The purpose
for the differential in the pressure is to prevent water leakage into the stator insulation
31
system. Should any small leaks occur in the stator coolant system due to faults such as
cracks in conductors or leak gaskets, hydrogen gas escapes into the stator coolant water
and is collected in a gas catchment chamber. An alarm is triggered and hydrogen gas is
vented safely into the atmosphere. Usually, hydrogen leaks are small and the loss of
hydrogen pressure is insignificant. However, if the cracks were allowed to grow,
excessive hydrogen gas in stator coolant water could seriously reduce cooling capacity
of the sub-conductors leading to local overheating, eventually, deformation of the
subconductors and severe damage to the stator conductor. Even though most stator
designs incorporate thermal protection features with thermocouples embedded in the
core and various stator slots, overheating of this nature tends to be localising around the
affected conductor and have minute impact on the average thermal distribution of the
stator. If the fault location is away from a thermocouple, its temperature is less likely to
be registered. In the extreme cases, the stator windings could suffer catastrophic failure.
Such a gas leakage into the stator coolant water is commonly called 'gas-in-stator-
coolant leak'.
There are many different causes of failure responsible for gas-in-stator-coolant
leakages; they can range from a defective rubber gasket or seals to cracks in hollow sub-
conductors. Many gas-in-stator-coolant leaks have been observed within waterbox
generators, majority of which have been caused by one or more cracked subconductors
as exemplified in Figure 13 and Figure 14. Fracture mechanic metallurgical examination
on fractured surfaces of a sample conductor removed from a generator suggested that
cracks were formed by copper work hardening [11] [20].

32
Crack found in a stator

subconductor caused by
copper work hardening
Figure 13. A close up photograph showing a substantial crack on a subconductor,

resulting from copper work hardening.
Four cracks were found in

a stator subconductor
caused by copper work
hardening
Figure 14. Visual inspection after the conductor bundle has been cut and insulation
removed showing visible cracks of several subconductors.
33
In addition to metallurgical examination, visual inspection of internal surfaces of similar
in service conductors were examined visually using a 0.75 mm diameter fibre optic
scope as can be seen in Figure 15. Clear evidence of copper work hardening was found
in many sub-conductors. Such fiberscope examination is a very useful non-destructive
examination technique in locating cracks in stator conductors of generators without the
need of removing the conductors. The most common location of cracks in sub-
conductors is within the proximity of the support comb: the pivoting point. To date, this
technique is still the most successful in finding cracks in stator subconductors. Other
techniques, such as X-ray examination, have been explored but not found successful.
The stator coolant system is designed in such a way that gas bubbles in the stator
coolant water are trapped in a gas catchment chamber. An alarm signal is automatically
sent to the control room should the trapped gas reach a predetermined volume.
The trapped hydrogen itself is strictly controlled and safely released to the atmosphere.
Cracks in subconductors are usually very small and the volume of hydrogen loss is
negligible comparing to the total gas volume in the generator. However, the major
concern is that when excessive hydrogen gas contaminated the stator coolant, the water
becomes saturated with bubbles and significantly looses its cooling capacity. This could
potentially risk total destruction of subconductors due to overheating.

34
Figure 15. Copper work hardening (original cause of cracking) revealed by visual
inspection of internal surface of a sub-conductor using 0.75 mm diameter
fibre-optic scope.
Gas-in-stator-coolant leakage due to cracked subconductors has to date caused many
shut down outages to large generators. Fortunately, faults of this nature are not
instantaneous and allow the generator to be in service for sometime before taking repair
action, provided that appropriate operational strategies are applied and less than three
subconductors sustained cracks. Specific operational strategies are designed on a case-
by-case basis once the fault is detected and diagnosed. They help 'nursing' the generatOr
over a critical period, such as high load demand, to ensure adequate electricity supply to
customers.
35
2.2.3 End Winding Looseness Problem
Investigation of the end winding structure of many generators have found that in most
cases where cracked subconductors are found there is evidence of excessive inter-
conductor movement within the end-winding and relative to their support structures. As
the conductors vibrate in service, they rub against one another and their support system,
thus generating the so-called insulation fretting dust, as exemplified in Figure 16 and
Figure 17. The fretting dust is relatively harmless to the generator and is a useful
indicator for visual inspection of looseness. However, excessive amount of insulation
fretting dust is a cause for alarm as it is indicative of a significant loss of insulation
material; a sign of dangerous degradation of conductor insulation system, thus increased
risk of discharge and electrical faults!
Visual inspection is arguably the most practical and effective method for detecting
insulation fretting and deterioration of end winding insulation related to conductor
vibration.
The relaxation of the conductors and their support systems invariably leads to the
loosening of the support comb and the involute frustum support cone, which then
vibrates in sympathy with the conductors, causing insulation fretting, as illustrated in
Figure 18. This accelerates the rate of deterioration of the end winding support system.
36
I Stator conductors of end windings

misalignment
Insulation fretting dust generated

by conductor movement against
an end winding support bracket
Figure 16. Insulation fretting damage at a support bracket resulting from insufficient
restraint of stator conductors.
Unfortunately, it is very difficult to conclusively monitor the vibration externally while
the generator is in service. This is due to the complexity of the stator end winding
structure and the huge amount of damping associated with conductor insulation. These
factors render diagnosis, difficult.

37
Figure 17. End winding relaxation causing abrasion wear on conductor insulation
indicated by insulation fretting dust.
Another contributing factor, that is responsible for the loosening of conductors, is the
method of construction of the end windings. Waterbox generators utilise a large number
of nylon studs to restrain the stator conductors in the end winding regions. It has been
found that many of the studs are stretched or have become unlocked in service. This
further exacerbates the relaxation of the end windings as seen in Figure 18.
38
Figure 18. Stretched and unlocked nylon tie rods further promoting end winding
relaxation.
Apparently, most waterbox design generators suffer from the end winding looseness
problem. The design inherits a so called semi-flexible end winding making it a major
weakness of the generators. There are some 30 waterbox generators below 300 MW
output with a unique end winding construction ever manufactured in the world and at
least 15 of them have been confirmed to have suffered end winding looseness problem
in one form or another as shown in Table 1.

39
Table 1. Waterbox generators (<300 MW) style that most affected by end winding
looseness problem and solutions adopted.
Power Station 0/P No. Nominal Year Insulation Type No. of Number of
in Average of Loose End Stators with
Location MW Servi Operati Corn Winding Solution
ce ng missi Stators Adopted
Hours on
Torrens Island PS 200 2 220,000 1976- Impregnated 1 1 Stator

Units B! & B2 1977 mica-glass hot adopted
dip bituminous Solution 1
(Australia)
Torrens Island PS 200 2 200,000 1979- Impregnated 2 2 Stators

Units B3 & B4 1980 mica-glass adopted
conformable bag Solution 1
(Australia)
Kwinana PS 200 2 240,000 1975- Impregnated 2 No solution

1976 mica-glass hot adopted
(Australia) dip bituminous
Muja PS 200 2 200,000 1979- Impregnated 2 2 Stators

1980 mica-glass adopted
(Australia) conformable bag Solution 2
Hazelwood PS 200 4 260,000 1960- Impregnated 1 1 Stator

Units 3-6 1968 mica-glass hot adopted
dip bituminous Solution 22
(Australia)
Hazelwood PS 200 2 230,000 1968- Impregnated 1 1 Stator

Units 7-8 1970 mica-glass adopted
conformable bag Solution 1
(Australia)
Huntly PS 250 4 150,000 79-85 Impregnated 4 4 Stators

mica-glass adopted
(New Zealand) bituminous, Solution 1
conformable bag
Camden PS 200 8 220,000 67-69 Impregnated 2 2 Stators

mica-glass hot adopted
(South Africa) dip bituminous Solution
2
Stator was rewound with hose design windings.
Stators were rewound with original waterbox design windings.
40
The insulation fretting has been found to occur between the conductors themselves and
involute support cone, end winding support brackets and end winding support comb as
depicted in Figure 16, Figure 17, Figure 18 and Figure 19. In some severe cases,
significant fretting dust was also found at the stator slot emergence region. Such fretting
indicates a serious compromise in high voltage insulation grading system of the
generator windings and that the conductors have suffered vibration for a long time.
Misalignment of stator conductors was also found in more recent waterbox generators
where the manufacturer utilised the so-called 'conformable bags' to create side supports
between adjacent conductors in place of the conventional insulation blocks as separators
as in Figure 16. Again, once the conductors are misaligned from their original position,
end winding looseness is further exacerbated.
It can be confidently concluded that the excessive movement of conductors, due to
insufficient restraining support of the end windings, compounded with the weight of the
waterbox, cause excessive stresses on the conductors, leading to copper-work hardening
and crack formation.

41
Figure 19. Fretting dust found on stator conductors at the stator end winding support
comb, an indication of serious conductor vibration for an extended period of
time.
2.2.4 Conductor Damage by Foreign Objects - Magnetic

Termites
Cleanliness of generator internal space is extremely important. A small metallic object
accidentally left in the generator during an overhaul or a fragment of lamination broken
away from the core, for example, can cause major failures. Figure 20 illustrates damage
to conductor insulation after a small metallic object found its way into the generator end
windings. As the metallic object is pushed into a tight space in the end winding by the
internal cooling gas flow, and together with the strong magnetic field produced by the
42
stator conductors, it could spin around its own axis, grinding away the conductor
insulation on its path. This leads to rapid degradation of conductor insulation. In some
severe cases, it has been recorded that the metallic object cuts its way through the
conductors causing water leakage and subsequent electrical faults. Through the abrasion
with conductor insulation materials which contain a high percentage of fibre-glass and
mica, the metal object also looses its own mass. In more fortunate cases, like that shown
in Figure 20, the magnetic termite either loses all of its own mass or spun off before
cutting into the copper conductors and stops the process. This type of fault is commonly
known in the generation industries as magnetic termite or generator worming. The
following case study will explain this phenomenon in further detail.
Stator conductor bar insulation was 1

damaged by a metallic foreign object -
a magnetic termite.
J
Figure 20. Stator conductor insulation damaged by a magnetic termite (Note the
location and the shape of both craters).
43
2.2.4.1 A Case Study of Magnetic Termite Fault
A 200 MW generator had undergone a major modification to its end winding support
structure in 1998. In the modification process, the end winding involute support cone
was removed for inspection and installation of the new resin filled inflatable bag as
shown in Figure 10. Two stator conductors were found damaged by magnetic termite as
shown in Figure 20. On removal of the end winding support cone, it was observed that
the surrounding area of the insulation crater was excessive contaminated with insulation
powder. This evidenced that some grinding activity between the conductor insulation
and a metallic object had occurred. However, the metal object could not be found. It
could have lost all of its mass in the grinding process or could have been blown away by
the cooling gas at some stage. Fortunately, the magnetic termite did not reach the copper
subconductors. The insulation crater was measured to be approximately 12 mm in
diameter and 3 mm deep. The conductor wall insulation thickness at this location is
nominally about 5 mm. The damaged area was approximately in the middle of the end
winding involute, away from generator earth. The affected conductors, while adjacent to
each other they, were in the same phase group and posed no threat in terms of insulation
grading. The conductors were simply repaired by filling the craters with electrical grade
resin.
It has been known that similar incidents in different generators of similar design were
not as fortunate, where a magnetic termite cut its way through the copper subconductors
causing water leakage to the windings following by an electrical fault.

44
Cause of failure investigation concluded that the most probable origin of the metallic
object was either a fragment of metal that was accidentally brought into the generator
enclosure during a maintenance outage or a small ball of metal produced from a back-
of-core burning that was dislodged and been carried to that location by the generator
hydrogen wind. The dust collected at the craters was analysed. Unfortunately, the result
was inconclusive because an insufficient amount of dust sample was collected. Evidence
suggested both of the above causes are equally probable.
Maintenance history verified that in 1984, four years after initial commission, the
generator suffered a major outage due to a stator coolant leakage. One subconductor was
found cracked and blocked. However, the records also indicated that the generator
cleanliness during the 4 week repair was not satisfactory. Clean condition was not set up
around the generator to prevent contamination by foreign objects. A small metal object
could have accidentally been brought into the generator and become the magnetic
termite!
The latter probable source of the foreign object could also be explainable. The generator
stator has been found to suffer back-of-core burning problems as discussed in more
detail in Section 2.1.4. As the back-of-core burning activities occurred, it produced
metal globules made up of a mixture of copper and core lamination steel as shown in
Figure 6. It is highly possible that a globule could have been picked up from a back-of-
core burning area and blown into the end winding involute by the strong hydrogen wind,
from which the magnetic worming process began.

45
2.3 ROTOR FAULTS
2.3.1 Constructional Features of Synchronous Generator

Rotor
Only high speed turbo cylindrical generator rotor is discussed in this thesis. Large turbo
generator rotor is manufactured from one-piece alloy steel forging with winding slots
and ventilation slots machined in the forging. The rotor shafts are usually hollow and
supported at both ends by white metal journal bearings. Most high speed turbo
generators of significant size would normally be hydrogen cooled and their rotor shafts
provide a good sealing collar for the hydrogen seal to perform satisfactorily. Some rotor
designs utilise sliprings as means of connecting the rotor windings to the main
excitation DC source, either from a static excitation system or a DC main exciter. Other
designs utilise a brushless excitation system involving an AC main exciter and rotating
rectifiers eliminating the need for rotor sliprings. In both cases, the physical connections
from the rotor winding to its external DC supply are made through axial leads placed in
the centre bore of the shaft at the exciter end called 'up-shaft leads'. Radial connections,
also called 'radial pins' complete the electrical connection between the up-shaft leads
and the rotor windings.
Design considerations of the rotor insulation system are not only to satisfy the electrical
requirements for the windings but more importantly, to withstand the enormous
centrifugal forces acting on the windings. Figure 21 depicts a typical arrangement of a

46
large turbo generator rotor. The rotor end windings are robustly built with strong
insulation packing blocks in between each coil groups in both radial and axial directions
to prevent coil distortion that could result from mechanical forces under steady state and
transient conditions. Each end winding is held in position by a retaining ring and a
balance ring.
The rotor end windings are insulated from their retaining rings with a strong insulation
wrapping that allows sufficient electrical insulation property but also withstands the
mechanical pressure between the end winding coils and the retaining rings. Furthermore,
it is also critical that the design of insulation system, rotor winding coils and their
retaining systems have careful considerations for thermal expansion for the winding
coils to avoid distortions of the copper coils.

_____
47
triner Turn Rotor Coil Cop Ring

Packing 1balancc
I
sstot ;
I - —— - Inboard
/ .t- -— - - - bar
Ou4bocard Rcidial
I
/ :-
-- ..
.. — .
Wedge
Rotor . -- --
'
- .
Uner - -,- .
—
- / . -< .. --
(j
C
slot /1
- ----i- - —
.
Foc€
- - 4,
/
...-——. .-
('r
- -' - —— -— :_J/ Direc+gort
•—k3
_:.:". .v - . / -.
—..—. —
-
—- .','
/ / \__
/
I
— I
Toofh ' Packir,9
Figure 21. A typical arrangement of windings, retaining rings and critical components of a 200 MW 2 pole turbo generator rotor
[Courtesy of C. A. Parsons Pty Ltd].
48
2.3.1.1 Rotor End Winding Retaining Rings
As the name suggests, retaining rings are of cylindrical shape that manufactured from
extremely high yield strength steel alloy, designed to withstand enormous centrifugal
forces from the weight of rotor copper end windings. The retaining rings' main function
is to retain the rotor end windings. The design details of retaining rings can vary
between manufacturers. However, they commonly have one end of their cylinder
interference fitted to the rotor body and the other to a so called balance ring. On
installation, the end rings are heated to a designed temperature usually about 250°C. As
the thermal expansion overcomes the interferential fit, the retaining ring is slid over the
insulated end winding onto the rotor shrink landing while being hot. It is extremely
important that the interference fit it designed and manufactured correctly so that the end
rings stay tight in position to at least 120% of the rotor rated speed. To further secure the
retaining rings in position and to prevent the retaining rings to move away from the
shrink landing, a locking mechanism is built into the nose section in the form of a
bayonet, step, clip ring or screw thread as shown in Figure 22.
In practice, retaining rings are found to migrate axially away from the rotor centre
especially during rotor over-speed tests and the interference fit does not provide
adequate security. To prevent the retaining rings from migrating out of their designed
location, various methods of additional securing methods are provided. In the case of
parallel cylindrical type as depicted in Item 2 of Figure 22, a large metal annulus is
49
interferential fitted to the shaft and locked against the outboard end of the retaining ring.
This annulus is also used as a balance ring for trim balancing the rotor.
Other types, so called 'cantilever' design retaining rings as illustrated in Figure 22,
utilise locking mechanisms such as bayonet (Item 1), cir-clip (Item 3) or screw threads
(Item 4) to secure the retaining ring in correct position. The balance ring associated to
this design is simply an annulus interferential fitted to the inner diameter of the retaining
ring at the outboard end but not directly fitted to the rotor shaft.
1. Bayonet 2. Parallel Cylindrical
3. Parallel Cylindrical Stepped 4. Screw Thread
Figure 22. Common types of retaining ring designs.
To withstand the extremely high stress levels produced by rotor end windings under the
influence of centrifugal forces, the retaining rings are manufactured from special steels
50
with extremely high mechanical tensile strength. A specification of typical high tensile
strength 1 8Mn4Cr austenitic steel is exemplified in Table 2 below.
Table 2 1 8Mn4Cr typical specification.
Nominal Mechanical Properties Chemical Composition

(% by Weight)
Tensile strength 11 5OMPa C 0.55
0.2% Proof Stress 1000MPa Mn 18.5
Impact strength 75 J Cr 4.5
Thermal 16.5E6 0C! N 0.090

Coefficient
Elongation 30% Ni 1.0 max
Reduction in area 45% S 0.0 15 max
P 0.060 max
Si 0.50
Al 0.030
In addition to extremely high mechanical stresses, retaining rings are subjected to high
levels of alternating magnetic flux emanating from stator end windings, resulting in
undesirable additional heating on them. This heat can negatively affect the overall
efficiency of the generator and endangers rotor end winding insulation. To avoid this
overheating, retaining ring must be non-magnetic. Austenitic steels overcome many of
the technical problems and, by warm or cold working, high mechanical strength can be
achieved.
51
Table 3 shows typical stress levels that in the rotor retaining ring of a 200 MW turbo-
generator encounters. The calculations were carried out using finite element analysis
utilising data from a case study of reference [21].
Table 3. A case study of a 200 MW generator rotor retaining ring hoop stress levels.
Generator Information
Generator rating 200 MW
Cooling medium Hydrogen
Age of retaining ring 25 years
Nominal dimensions:
OD 1080 mm
..ID 920mm
Length 900 mm
Rotor running speed 3000 rpm.
Retaining ring material 1 8Mn4Cr
Maximum Hoop Stress Levels at Shrink Fit
At Speed 3000 rpm. 604 MIPa
At Speed 3600 rpm. 618 MIPa
The most commonly used metal compositions for generator rotor retaining rings are:
• 8% Manganese, 8% Nickel, 4% Chromium, referred to as 8MIn8Ni4Cr steel alloy,
used prior to mid 1950's;

52
• 18% Manganese, 4% Chromium, referred to as 1 8Mn4Cr steel alloy. This steel
composition superseded the previous 8Mn8Ni4Cr material. It could be forged to a
much higher level of proof strength. There are about 16,000 to 18,000 1 8Mn4Cr
retaining rings in service worldwide. Both of these grades of austenitic steels are
susceptible to stress corrosion cracking because they do not contain a sufficient
quantity of Chromium to avoid corrosion. Failures of generator retaining rings
were usually catastrophic resulting in total destruction of the generator. In many
cases, the broken segments flew out of the generator, seriously damaging adjacent
machines. Therefore early crack detection is absolutely critical. Routine inspection
4 yearly internals is recommended by most manufacturers.
• 18% Manganese, 18% Chromium, usually referred to as l8Mnl8Cr steel. This
steel is known as the best material to date for generator retaining rings. Replacing
its predecessors l8Mn4Cr and 8Mn8Ni4Cr; l8Mnl8Cr provides superior proof
strength and not susceptible to stress corrosion cracking. Modern steel forging
techniques, especially cold worked in nitrogen atmosphere further improve its
immunity to stress corrosion cracking.
In the making of base material for generator retaining rings, the steel ingot is subjected
to an extraordinary sophisticated forging process to maximise the yield strength of the
steel. The final product is an extremely high tensile non-magnetic stainless steel that is
capable of withstanding enormous forces. The early 1 8Mn4Cr material, although having
very high tensile yield strength, high density, being stainless and non-magnetic, is
susceptible to stress corrosion cracking. This problem was discovered a number of years
53
after the material had been used in many generator retaining rings. To date, there are
approximately 16,000 generator end ring made from 1 8Mn4Cr Austenitic steel [22].
The stress corrosion cracking phenomenon occurs when the material is subjected to the
presence of moisture while under high stress. Microscopic cracks develop at the
intergranular boundaries of the material and gradually propagate through the retaining
rings. For generator rotors, especially those operating at 3000 rpm. and above, failure of
a rotor-retaining ring can lead to catastrophic failure and intensive damage to nearby
equipment.
The forging of improved material 1 8Mn 18Cr austenitic steel alloy is identical to the
previous counterpart 1 8Mn4Cr. However, this material has much stronger yield strength
and most importantly, free from stress corrosion cracking. l8Mnl8Cr alloy is now
considered as being the best and the most preferred austenitic steel for generator rotor
retaining rings due to its superior material properties.
Most retaining rings used in on large turbo-generator rotors in the world today are cold
worked, non-magnetic, austenitic manganese steels. The first non-magnetic alloy-
retaining ring was recorded in 1910. The early rings contained Nickel but later, due to
the shortage of this metal in 1930s, Nickel was replaced with Manganese. This material
is also known as l8Mn4Cr material or more scientifically, FeMn18Cr4C05 steel.
Unfortunately, this material is susceptible to Stress Corrosion Cracking in presence of
moisture and even more so with halogens or chlorine. There were a number of
catastrophic failures of 1 8Mn4Cr material retaining rings around the world causing total
54
destruction of the generator involved. During the early 1 980s this material was replaced
with a much higher corrosion resistance material, designated l8Mnl8Cr material or
FeMn18Cr18C05 steel that provides excellent overall properties and is widely used today
[22].
2.3.1.2 Rotor Windings
In the case of a high speed, 3000 rpm, large turbo generators, the rotor has a two pole
winding made up from serial connected double helical bare copper coils forming North
— South magnetic poles. Each turn of the rotor winding is insulated from each other with
thin insulation strips, called 'inter-turn insulation' forming rotor coil stacks. The coil
stacks are then insulated from the rotor body with strong fibre-glass insulation troughs
call 'slot liners'. The coils are retained in the slots by strong metallic slot wedges that
are keyed in the rotor slots by their inverted-T shape and the retaining ring at each end.
Cooling circuits are formed in the windings by using a network of hollow conductors
and carefully designed radial cooling ducts made up by cut-out slots or perforated holes
along each coil turn.
In most rotors, the cooling gas is forced through the coils in both axial and radial
directions. Carefully designed ventilation features are incorporated in the coil stack in
each rotor slot and in the slot wedges to maximise the gas flow through the rotor. The
bulk of exhaust gas from the rotor flows into the air-gap and then through stator core
55
cooling ducts to further remove heat from the stator. As the rotor windings nonnally
carry thousands of Amperes, a properly designed cooling system for rotor coils is
extremely important. Figure 21 depicts a typical construction of a high speed
synchronous generator rotor.
2.3.1.3 Rotor Radial Connectors
Rotor radial connectors constitute another one of the critical components of the
generator rotor. The connectors provide electrical connections from rotor windings to a
DC supply via sliprings or rotating rectifiers. The main components of the connectors
are made of high conductivity hard drawn copper, fitted to and electrically insulated
from the rotor shaft. As the connectors rotate with the rotor, their design must have
robust mechanical construction and must have a locking mechanism to ensure that their
components are secured in position. hi hydrogen cooled generators, they are also
required to be gas tight to prevent gas leakage to the atmosphere. A typical arrangement
of a radial connector assembly is shown in Figure 23.

56
Figure 23. External view of a typical radial connector fully assembled on a 200 MW
2.3.2 Rotor Retaining Ring Faults
2.3.2.1 Stress Corrosion Cracking
When in service, rotor retaining rings endure extremely high levels of stresses, as
explained in Section 2.3.1.1. In addition to the centrifugal forces produced by the rotor
end windings, the retaining rings' own mass and the shrink fit forces contribute a
significant radial loading on the rings. Iii fact, studies have found that only
approximately 25% of the force is contributed by the end windings' mass and 75% from
the retaining ring itself. These forces stress the retaining rings to over 50% yield
strength at the normal operating speed [24]. For this reason, all retaining ring designs
57
pay special attention to avoiding stress raisers such as sharp corners and tight radii,
aiming for as simple geometry as practicable.
In-service failure of rotor retaining rings is catastrophic. Many studies and failure
investigations on generator rotor retaining rings have been undertaken in the 70's and
80's by large power generation utilities and technical organisations such as EPRL They
all come to the same conclusion, namely that the intergranular stress corrosion cracking
of nonmagnetic materials such as 1 8Mn4Cr steel is responsible for most failures of rotor
retaining rings [33].
Statistically, while the failure rate of rotor retaining rings is less than 0.01 percent, the
consequence of this type of failure is enormous. In most cases where a retaining ring
contained cracks greater than the critical crack size, its failure leads to a total destruction
of the generator [34]. The majority of retaining ring replacements is due to crack
discovery below critical crack size by routine Non Destructive Testing (NDT), risk
management or preventative asset management initiatives. For example, according to
the experience of one OEM, about 80% of non-magnetic 1 8Mn4Cr retaining rings
inspected had indications of stress corrosion defects either requires replacement or
remedial work, of which, approximately 5 percents requires immediate replacement
because of critical size defects, and the rest was refurbished and returned to service for
later replacement [24]. To date there is still a considerably large number of 1 8Mn4Cr
retaining rings remaining in service with strict control of generator internal environment
and regular NDT programs.

58
2.3.2.2 Electrical Arcing on Rotor Retaining Rings
This fault, while considered minor and often overlooked, is quite common especially in
older generator rotors. Electrical arcing damage is often found at the interface between
the retaining rings and rotor body or balance rings or rotor slot wedges. The arcing spots
are a result of electrical arcing across the components driven by negative phase sequence
currents generated on the rotor surface during generator's abnormal operations such as
motoring, pole slipping or lost of excitation. A typical retaining ring arcing spot is
shown in Figure 24. Such arcing spots could alter the material properties locally,
especially hardness. In the worst case, an arcing spot could lead to initiation of cracks
and eventually cause catastrophic failure to the retaining ring.
Rotor retaining ring
230 40 50 60
1.
Electric arcing damage on a

retaining ring caused by negative
phase sequence currents
Figure 24. Electrical arcing damage at the interface between a retaining ring and
balance ring of a 120 MW synchronous generator rotor.
59
2.3.2.3 A Case Study
The following is a case study involving a 200 MW hydrogen cooled, 2-pole

synchronous generator rotor, in which, the retaining rings utilised bayonet locking
design as illustrated in Item 1 Figure 22 and Figure 25. During a routine in-situ
ultrasonic examination, two significant cracks were discovered amongst a cluster of
microscopic cracks in the turbine end retaining ring. In-situ ultrasonic examination, such
as described in Section 3.2.9, is an alternative metallurgical NDT technique searching
for cracks and other material defects in rotor retaining rings from outer surface without
removing the retaining ring from the rotor.
Following the discovery of cracks, the retaining rings were removed from the rotor for a
more detailed dye penetrant examination. A major crack measured 12 mm long x 6.68
mm deep and a minor crack measured 8.6 mm long x 0.9 mm deep were discovered in
the bayonet locking area {25].
The cracks were removed by initial machining to a depth of 5 mm recommended by the
OEM. Further local grinding was carried out until all cracks were completely removed.
Following a finite element analysis of the repaired retaining ring, the OEM approved the
retaining ring to go back in service while new replacement rings were purchased.
Maintenance history showed that the generator had a good track record of hydrogen
dryness and purity. However, in the initial delivery, the rotor was found to have been
60
contaminated with seawater during transportation from the factory to the power station.
Instead of a thorough dismantling and cleaning, only the turbine end retaining ring was
removed for inspection and two slot wedges were replaced due to heavy corrosion.
Unfortunately, records of the original cleaning procedure and NDT inspection of this
work were not found.
Giving that the crack location was found to be near the original watermark on the rotor,
and the historical evidence, it was concluded that the cracks would most probably have
started at the initial corrosion piuing on the retaining ring.
Following the repair as explained above, both retaining rings were ultrasonically
examined in 1994, 1996, significantly more frequent than normal industry practice, and
finally replaced with l8Mnl8Cr material in 1999. While the old l8Mn4Cr retaining
rings were confirmed to be free of cracks, the replacement was decided on the basis of
asset risk management and insurance recommendation.

61
Cracks still visible after 5 mm Area of retaining ring been

machining and 0.5 mm grinding machined off 10 mm in diameter
excavation and polishing to remove the cracks
Figure 25. Cracks confirmed in a retaining ring at the bayonet region, detected by
Time-of-Flight examination.
2.3.3 Copper Dusting Problem in Rotor Windings
Copper dusting has been a difficult problem for power generation industries for decades.
This problem is more commonly found in high-speed two or four poles distributed
winding rotors with construction similar to that described in Section 2.3.1.
Up until the 1990's the two traditional rotor designs that dominated the market were the
axial cooled and radial cooled rotors. They gained their names by the design philosophy
of their cooling circuits.

62
The radial cooled rotor design utilises channels underneath each winding slot, called sub
slot, to deliver the cooling gas to the centre of the rotor from both ends. The cooling gas
is forced under the rotor end windings to pressurise the sub slots, then bleeding radially
outward through perforations along the rotor coils as depicted in Figure 26(a). The
cooling gas continues its travel past the air gap and exhausts through stator core cooling
ducts before transfer its heat to Hydrogen coolers typically placed horizontally behind
the stator core or vertically at each end of the stator. In order to maximise heat exchange
efficiency between the copper coils and the cooling gas, each coil turn in the slot section
of the rotor winding is made up of two layers, so called half coil, of bare copper strips
uninsulated from each other. The half turns are brazed to the curved sections in the end
windings to complete the coil. Each copper strip has elongated slots cut-out for its entire
straight length. The slots are slightly offset from the centre in opposite direction so that
when stacked up together they form a zigzag path for cooling gas to flow through as
shown in Figure 27.
In radial cooled rotors, a significant proportion of copper dust is generated in between
the pairs of half turns. The rest is generated by the rubbing action at the interfaces
between the copper coils and the fibre glass insulation surrounding them such as slot
liner, top insulation pads and inter-turn insulation.

63
Rotor Surface Rotor Surface

I
Slot wedge Slot wedge

I
[Top insulation pad Top insulation pad
Top half turn Hollow Copper

Copper conductor conductor
Bottom half turn Axial vent duct

copper conductor
Iritertum insulation Slot liner
Zigzag gas duct Inter-turn

for radial gas flow insulation
Slot liner
Sub-slot for axial

gas flow
(a) (b)
Figure 26. Cross sectional view of rotor winding (a) radial cooling, (b) axial cooling.
Rotor tooth Rotor coil assembly in rotor slot Elongated cut-out slot of double IT
1 layered copper rotor coil
forming zigzag cooling ducts
Figure 27. Coil construction in a 120 MW radially cooled rotor, two parallel
uninsulated copper strips forming one coil side (offset cut-outs form zigzag
radial cooling ducts).
64
The axial cooled rotor design, on the other hand, utilises individually insulated hollow
copper conductors with no copper-to-copper contact as demonstrated in Figure 26(b).
The cooling gas is forced along the internal space of hollow conductor coils in the axial
direction to remove the heat. This rotor design is inherently less susceptible to copper
dusting problem due to the absence of the parallel half turns.
Copper dusting is generated both when generator is on-line and off-line with a different
dynamic mechanism. When the generator rotor is rotating at full speed, all rotor coils
are pushed outward against the rotor slot retaining wedges by enormous centrifugal
forces. This causes the rotor coils and their insulation system to lock up together [36].
As the rotor current varies, the differences in the rate of thermal expansion between the
copper coils and their adjacent components such as the fibre glass top insulation strips
and slot liners generate relative movement between them. Fibre glass is a popular choice
for generator rotor insulation slot liner and top insulation strip for its superior
mechanical strength and electrical insulation properties. Unfortunately, after few years
in service, the glossy epoxy layer on fibreglass breaks down and the sharp glass fibre is
exposed, bringing it in contact with the rotor copper coils, accelerating copper dust
generation.
The frictional force between the copper coils and their fibre glass insulation system is
proportional to the friction coefficient of the materials and the centrifugal forces of the
coils, both of which can assume significant proportions. On the other hand, the thermal
65
expansion of copper coils is much greater than that of insulation materials and overcome
radial friction forces. This results in abrasion between the copper coils and its
surrounding insulation system. While the differential movement is relatively small, its
forces and friction coefficient are very high causing significant abrasion on the copper
coils.
Once produced, the fine loose copper dust is spread over the entire generator internal
components including the high voltage stator windings, terminal bushings and rotor
coils, resulting in further reductions in insulation resistance, thus increasing the risk of
electrical flashover failures.
It is commonly found that hydrogen cooled generator is contaminated with oil from the
hydrogen seals. Subsequently, the copper dust tends to form a copper and oil paste
around the rotor coils where the dust was generated. Naturally, this paste is highly
conductive and could cause turn-to-turn short circuits in the rotor windings, again
increasing the risk of electrical faults.
The most severe scenario occurs when the generator is operated in two shifting mode;
that is to say that the generator is run up and shut down daily operating with the full
range of output variation. In this operating mode, thermal variation of rotor coils is
maximal in terms of rubbing action. Figure 28 shows a typical case of copper dusting in
a 200 MW generator rotor after eight years in service, the last three years of which
deployed in two shifting mode of operation.

66
Following a shut down, turbo generators are required to be rotated at low speed,
typically 5 rpm. to 50 rpm. for a few days allowing the turbine rotors to cool down
preventing turbine shaft distortion called shaft hogging resulting from uneven thermal
dissipation. This slow rotation process is commonly referred to as barring or turning.
While on barring the rotor coils are not affected by centrifugal forces and are free to
move in a flopping motion within the slot liners under the influence of gravity. In each
revolution, the coils are lifted by the rotor's rotation from one side and dropped on the
other side of the rotor slot. Ironically, this motion causes all copper coils half turns to
rub against the slot liners and each other in both transverse and tangential directions
causing significant generation of copper dusting within the rotor windings.
if,-.
Rotor coil top insulation Rotor copper coil Copper dust deposit generated from
pad, showing exposure of top turn rubbing action between copper coils
sharp glass fibers and fiber glass insulation
Figure 28. Evidence of copper dust deposit on a 200 MW rotor winding found during
an 8-yearly routine overhaul.
67
2.3.3.1 Consequences of Rotor Copper Dusting
The generation of copper dusting can have a devastating impact on the operation and
reliability of generators. The copper dust is highly conductive and can cause short
circuits between rotor turns, commonly called rotor shorted turn, or to ground,
commonly called rotor earth fault.
In relative terms, the rotor shorted turn problem is relatively less serious. The voltage
between two adjacent coils is in the order of only a few volts. However, the inter-turn
insulation is very thin: once a sufficient amount of copper dust is deposited across two
adjacent coils, the rotor current would partially by-pass the rest of the winding causing
imbalance in the magnetic field, resulting in an increase in shaft vibration. Sudden step
changes in shaft vibration with the fundamental component at the exact generating
frequency is usually the tell tail of a rotor winding inter-turn short circuit fault.
The rotor earth fault, on the other hand, is much more serious and usually leads to
extensive secondary damage to the rotor. Due to the massive inductance of the rotor
windings, an earth fault could produce devastating arcs leading to burning damage to
rotor components surrounding the fault. Fortunately, earth faults in rotor windings,
directly caused by copper dusting alone, are relatively uncommon. They normally occur
in cohort with other problems within the rotor or its protection systems. In addition to
continuous online vibration monitoring systems, most of large turbo generators have a
rotor earth fault protection system that continuously monitors the rotor impedance.
68
Furthermore, because the rotor DC current source is independently supplied from its
main exciter or static excitation system and the generator rotor bearing pedestals are
electrically insulated from the station grounding to protect the bearings. The first rotor
earth fault would normally trigger an alarm from the rotor earth fault protection system
but would not cause any damage. However, if a second rotor earth fault occurs
concurrently, the damage can be extensive. The rotor forging now provides a current
path connecting the two faults causing extensive arcing. For this very reason, once
receiving the first rotor earth fault alarm, the power station staff must investigate and
repair the problem as a matter of urgency to avoid the devastating consequences of a
second earth fault.
Such rotor earth faults can also cause secondary damage to the core and stator windings.
As the debris generated from the rotor electrical arcing faults bombard the high voltage
stator windings, extensive damage can be inflicted on electrical insulation and core
laminations.
2.3.4 Rotor Coil Overheating
Distortion damage of rotor coils is commonly found amongst large turbo generator
rotors. hi comparison to salient pole rotors, large high speed distributed winding rotors
have a relatively complicated system of rotor coils, insulation, separator blocks,
retaining rings and so on. In addition, all components in the rotor windings are designed
69
to move in harmony with each other, within certain design limits, to cope with the
inevitable thermal expansion and contraction of rotor coils. The ventilation systems in
these rotors are complex and play a very important role in their operation.
Figure 29. Distortion damage in a 120 MW rotor coil resulting from overheating
caused by partial blockage of cooling ducts.
Deterioration or misalignment of insulation components in the rotor windings often
cause blockages to the ventilation system and coil overheating. In the case shown in
Figure 29, a minor deterioration of the step locking mechanism at the end of the fibre
glass insulation pads allowed the insulation system to migrate axially toward the
retaining rings causing partial blockage of the rotor coil cooling duct. This results in
local overheating and thus the distortion damage to the copper coils shown in Figure 29.
There is no known condition monitoring technique available to detect this type of
problem other than routine visual inspection.

70
2.3.5 Rotor Inter-Turn Short Circuit
As described in Section 2.3.1.2, large synchronous generator rotors have relatively solid
copper coils and a thin insulation layer between each turn with elaborate cooling
arrangements. As the voltage between the adjacent coils is only a few volts, such inter-
turn insulation is typically as thin as 0.5 mm to 1 mm. It is usually made of strips of
asbestos based insulation material in older rotors or Nomex insulation in modem rotors.
Due to the movements of rotor coils in operation and the enormous centrifugal forces,
the inter-turn insulation is abraded against the copper coils and being compressed over
time. This deterioration exposes turbo generator rotors to a risk of short circuits between
contiguous coils. This kind of fault is so called 'rotor inter-turn short circuit'. Older
rotors and those subjected to arduous two operations are more likely to develop
this type of fault.
The effect of rotor inter-turn fault is less dramatic than some other types of fault and a
rotor with a single fault can continue to be in service for some time. In many cases, the
majority of rotor short circuits are in the end windings where the crossovers between
coil groups are made. Never the less, this kind of fault is a warning that the rotor is
approaching the end of its designed life and will require a complete rewind in the
foreseeable future [37].

71
2.3.6 Rotor Radial Connector Faults
The two most common faults with radial connectors are overheating of their
components and cracking of the thread forms of the main copper connection tube near
the rotor up-shaft leads as exemplified in Figure 31 and Figure 32, respectively. The
former fault can escalate to secondary heat damage to the gas seals within the assembly
resulting in dangerous hydrogen leaks. The later fault can cause overheating of the main
copper connection tube and retaining mechanism leading to dangerous risk of

dislodgement of the radial assembly.
Thermographic examination has been successfully used to monitor the overheating fault
of radial connectors. A typical thermal image of an overheated outboard radial
connector is given in Figure 50. Following hydrogen leak alarm in the rotor radial
connector compartment of a 200 MW generator, thermal imaging was carried out while
the generator was online with the rated rotor current of 2500 amperes and rated speed of
3000 rpm. A special thermal imaging camera together with a high speed video recorder
was used to capture the image. Following the detection of the hot spot, the radial
connectors were dismantled revealing evidence of serious overheating damage to all
electrical components of the radial connector assembly as shown in Figure 31. All
electrical components of the defective radial connector assembly and all seal
components had suffered extensive heat damage.

72
The heat generated from the faulty radial connector was so intense that it caused the
solder in the associated negative D-section of the up-shaft leads to melt and migrate
toward the positive side as shown in Figure 30. The solder was found within 2 mm from
bridging the two polarities, posing a major damage risk from an internal short circuit
within the rotor bore.
'Up shaft lead insulation tube
/ Soft solder melted from one side

of up shaft lead (removed),
/ migrated toward the other side
j Up shaft lead conductor - "D-Section"

designed to conduct full rotor current.
—
Figure 30. Overheated radial connection tube of a 200 MW rotor causing solder in the
negative side (upper section, removed) of up-shaft lead to melt and migrate
toward the positive side (lower section) posing potential risk of a major
rotor internal short circuit.
73
.4
Evidence of heavy electrical

current flow in the stainless
steel tie bolt causing severe
.9
overheating
Insufficient electrical contact surface

on the main connection palm causing
overheating
Figure 31. A radial connector assembly removed from a 200 MW generator rotor. All
components are severely overheated due to contact surface reduction.
With the second failure mode, unfortunately, there is no known online condition
monitoring technique of crack detection in the connection tubes. This type of fault can
only be detected through routine examination when the radial assemblies are
disconnected and removed from the rotor. In the case shown in Figure 32, the inboard
radial connector assemblies were removed from their rotor after 18 years in service
during a routine overhaul. It was noticed that there was no indication of abnormalities in
the generator performance prior to the overhaul. On removal, both inboard connection
tubes were found to have been broken at their thread forms near the rotor in bore up
shaft leads. This forced the rotor current to flow through the stainless steel tie bolt.
However, it was interesting that the stainless steel tie bolt or any other component in the
radial assembly did not show any evidence of overheating damage. The most logical
explanation is that being the inboard radial connectors, in service they are always
74
immersed in a dry hydrogen gas and receive sufficient cooling. If so, this would
emphasise once again the tremendous efficiency and benefits of hydrogen cooling in
synchronous generators. Further metallurgical examination was carried out on the
fractured components, as described in Section 4.2.6.
L.
Figure 32. Fractures found in copper main connection tubes of rotor inboard radial
connectors in a 200 MW synchronous generator. The tube is designed to
carry over 3000 Amperes D.C.
75
2.3.7 Rotor Up-Shaft Lead Fault
Up-shaft lead assembly provides electrical connection from the outboard radial
connectors to the inboard radial connectors of large hydrogen cooled synchronous
generator rotors. The up-shaft lead assembly is inserted in the rotor shaft bore and
usually contains gas tight seals to prevent hydrogen leaks. The up-shaft lead assembly
functions as an electrical conduit conducting DC current to energise the rotor windings.
A typical up-shaft lead assembly comprises two heavy 'D' cross sectional copper bars,
an insulation separator between the D-sections and an insulating tube that doubles up as
a shell for the whole assembly as shown in Figure 33. The outer end of the leads is
connected to the outboard radial connector assembly and the inner end is connected to
the inboard radial connectors as depicted in Figure 21.
Cracks similar to that shown in Figure 33 are routinely found in insulation tubes through
regular inspections. It is also observed that cracks recur on the same connection tube.
The insulation tube is made from paper resin impregnated bakelite or fibre glass based
insulation materials in modem rotors. Given that the rated rotor voltage is usually
around 400 volts, even with a crack the insulation tube should provide adequate
electrical insulation grading. However, the concern is that when the crack is
contaminated with moisture or conductive dust, it can develop a significant risk of
electrical earth fault or across the windings within the rotor shaft bore. Such faults,
whilst relatively rare, can cause considerable damage to the rotor.

76
It would seem that some up-shaft lead designs are prone to cracking inevitably. Design
features coupled with the centrifugal forces from the D-sections in service and the
pulling forces of radial connectors during assembling could induce excessive strain on
the insulating tube thus initiating crack development.
Figure 33. A typical crack in up-shaft lead insulation tube in a 200 MW generator rotor.
77
CHAPTER 3
FAULT DETECTION AND DIAGNOSIS

78
3 FAULT DETECTION AND

DIAGNOSIS
3.1 TEST AND INSPECTION PLAN
There is a wide range of inspection and test techniques that are available for large turbo
generators. Individual techniques are designed for specific purposes. Generator owners
usually select and apply a set of inspection and test regimes to monitor the service
condition of their generators aiming to optimise the risk profile and economic balance
[28].
Thisthesis describes a range of inspection procedures and tests that are appropriate and
have been applied to particular types of large turbo generator. The degree of detail given
varies depending on its relevance to the objectives of the thesis.
The following Table 4 and Table 5 show typical inspection and test plans for hydrogen
and water cooled large synchronous generators.

79
Table 4. Suggested routine test and inspection schedule.
Description Routine Required Required Comments

Frequency Rotor Generator
Removed Degassed
STATOR
Stator DLA measurement 4 yearly No No More frequent as

required
Insulation resistance test 4 yearly No No More frequent as

required
Core ELCID Test 8 yearly Yes Yes
Core ring flux test As required Yes Yes Usually after major
core repairs
AC power impedance tests As required No No
Winding pneumatic tests 4-6 yearly No Yes Water cooled stator

only
Winding visual inspection 4-6 yearly No Yes
End winding vibration test 8 yearly No Yes Off-line test
Core front visual inspection 8 yearly Yes Yes
Back-of-core inspection 4 yearly No Yes
Core lamination tightness 8 yearly Yes Yes

check
Slot wedge tightness test 8 yearly Yes Yes
Slot wedge NIDT As required Yes Yes
Waterbox dye-penetrant 8 yearly No Yes Waterbox generators

examination only
ROTOR
Retaining ring dye-penetrant 8 yearly* Yes Yes * 6-8 yearly for

examination (rings removed 1 8Mn4Cr material,
from rotor)
* 8-12 years for
l8Mnl8Cr material.
80
Description Routine Required Required Comments

Frequency Rotor Generator
Removed Degassed
Retaining ring in-situ 4 yearly** Either Yes ** 4 yearly for

ultrasonic examination 1 8Mn4Cr material,
** as required only
for l8Mnl8Cr
materials
Rotor bore inspection 8 yearly Yes Yes
Slot wedge NDT 8 yearly Yes Yes
Insulation resistance test Annually No No
AC power impedance tests As required No No
Rotor Volt-drop test 8 yearly Yes Yes Retaining rings

removed
RSO test 1 yearly No No
Radial connection contact Annually No No

surface resistance check
Radial connection IR test Annually No No

81
Table 5. Suggested condition monitoring requirements.
Description Routine Rotor Comments

Frequency removed
STATOR
Partial discharge test Annually/online Online is preferable
Hydrogen dew point monitoring Online
Stator temperature monitoring Online
Gas in stator coolant monitoring Continuous
Hydrogen purity measurement Continuous
Hydrogen pressure measurement Continuous
Stator coolant conductivity Continuous

measurement
Stator coolant pressure Continuous

measurement
ROTOR
Shaft vibration measurement Online
Rotor shorted turn detection Online
Rotor resistance measurement Offline
Rotor Voltage measurement Continuous
Rotor shaft current measurement Continuous

82
3.2 DIAGNOSTIC AND INSPECTION TECHNIQUES
3.2.1 Visual Inspection
Experience shows that visual inspection is one of the most practical and useful
techniques in inspection and condition monitoring, hi addition to being simple and cost
effective to perform, visual inspection covers a wide range of examination criteria and,
in many cases, it invariably discovers new defects that have not been detected by
sophisticated equipment. However, visual inspection should only be utilised as a
preliminary examination technique and not replace other analytical inspections and tests.
In general, visual inspection is carried out at the beginning and the end of generator
overhaul or outages. A quality assurance system is prepared to guide the inspector who
performs the visual inspection and to record all findings.
Table 6 gives a summary of important areas in large synchronous generators that should
be inspected. It also suggests typical indications for different types of faults that the
inspector should pay particular attention to and advises appropriate remedial solutions.
83
Table 6. Visual inspection summary.
Stator Conductor Conductors, Insulation brown Tighten or replace or

Winding looseness slot entries, dust andlor modify support
Inspection end winding support paste structure as required
structure.
Conductor Conductor nozzles Foreign objects, Remove objects,
nozzle through opening oxide built up, investigate origin of
internal blockages foreign objects
inspection
Subconductor Subconductor Crack indication, Assess nature and
work opening through oxide build up, extend of crack,
hardening conductor nozzle blockages remove cracks or
with a small distortion blockages.
fiberoptic scope If necessary, install
extended nozzle or
replace conductor
Partial All conductors, White/black Confirmation with PD
discharge winding support powder/paste, measurement
structures, slot sight of history, rectify faults
entries, insulation semi-conductive
wrapping paints, replace
delamination conductor if
necessary
Insulation All conductors in Bulge of Plan for next
bitumen flow end windings conductor inspection, replace
particularly near insulation conductor as
slot entries wrapping required
Conductor All conductors in Non uniform Confirm history of
distortion end winding gaps in between external system
involute conductors, disturbances, inspect
particularly the changes in levels support structure &
straight sections of conductors repair damage,
check protection
settings
Conductor All winding support Movement, Repair/tighten support
support structures, brackets, fretting dust, structure
structure lacing cords, tie grease,
looseness bolts, bracing distortion,
system non-uniformity.
Stator winding Terminal bushings, Cracks, oil leaks, Investigate cause of
terminals terminal connection Evidence of failure, repair
palms overheat, copper defects as required
discolouration,
insulation burn
mark
84
i. Jnding cross All winding cross Distortions, Investigate cause of

phase leads phase leads coolant water failure, repair
including joints leakage, defects as required
insulation
deterioration
Stator Slot Slot wedge Interface between Movement, Perform slot wedge
Retaining looseness wedges and stator fretting tightness test, tighten
Wedge core laminations dust/paste wedges as required
Inspection Slot wedge Slot wedge top Visible cracks, Replace wedges,
cracking surface insulation dust or retighten all wedges
grease on slot
wedges
Slot wedge Stator core slots, Slot wedges have Re-wedge the entire
migration Slot entries moved away slot, perform slot
from original wedge tightness test
location to all slots
compare to
others
Conductor Stator core slots Fretting dust, Remove all wedges,
movement in partial discharge inspect conductors,
the core slot dust, migration remove conductor
section of conductors for inspection if
necessary, tighten all
slot wedges
Stator Core Front of core Core laminations in Lamination burn Repair hot spot, tighten
Inspection abnormalities stator bore mark, core lamination by
lamination stemming if
looseness and necessary
fretting, impact
damage.
Back-of-core Back-of-core Hot spots behind Review future routine
burning through hydrogen key bars, inspection schedule
coolers particularly fretting, metal to monitor progress
where the core is in globules and of the burning
contact with burn marks. activities.
support key bars
and stator frame.
85
Core end plate Core end plates near Burn marks on Monitor development
hot spots lamination core end plates, of hot spots by
compression high temperature installing
fingers readings of core thermocouples or
thermocouples temperature
sensitive stickers on
the spots, restrict
generator's
operation to lagging
power factor only.
Stator Inner doors Connecting flange Electrical arc Repair flanges as
Inner Door surfaces between pitting, sight of necessary, ensure
Inspection segments overheat, conductive grease is
cracking correctly applied on
installation of doors
segments.
Rotor End windings End winding coils Distortion, Reform coil if required,
Winding abnormalities and separator Overheating, investigate cause of
Inspection insulation blocks wear and tears fault, rebuild end
winding to original
conditions
End winding End winding Burn marks, Investigate cause of
insulation insulation wrapping wear and tears, faults, replace
wrapping under retaining movement from insulation wrapping,
rings original location confirm adequacy of
insulation build-up.
Rotor bars Inspect through Distortion or Repair coils as
cooling ducts of blockage of required, ensure all
each rotor bar at cooling ducts, coils are free to
the straight sections rotor coils, expand axially,
discolouration of replace all coil caps
rotor coils, and refurbish or
copper dust and replace top
paste build-up insulation pads
Up shaft leads Remove leads from Cracks on Replace insulating
bore for inspection insulating tube, tube, repair thread
overheating of forms as required,
copper leads further investigate
particularly at for cause of fault
the connection and repair leads if
to radial overheating is found.
connectors,
damage of thread
forms
86
Radial Electrical contact Overheating and Replace all seals, repair

connectors surfaces, thread hot spots, defects as required,
abnormalities forms, seals and o- damaged replace connection
rings. threads, cracks tube if crack is
of components found
Rotor Rotor bore Rotor bore Corrosion, crack Remove corrosion and
Forging abnormalities indications pitting by horning,
Inspection perform ultrasonic
examination if
suspect crack
formation, remove
crack
Pole faces Rotor pole faces Indications of Investigate history of

abnormalities crack, external power
overheating, system disturbances,
loose balance perform ultrasonic
weight, impact examination if
damage suspect crack
formation, check and
correct radii of
transverse slots,
tighten and lock
loose weight as
required.
Hydrogen seal Hydrogen seal Crack or rough Perform ultrasonic
collars collars surface due to examination if
abnormalities rubbing suspect crack
formation, re-
machine collars if
necessary
Rotor sub-slots Applicable to sub- Crack indication Perform ultrasonic

abnormalities slot rotor design on rotor forging, examination if
only. Inspect with a corrosion, suspect crack in the
long, flexible fibre damage to rotor rotor forging, if
scope under rotor coil stack serious damage is
coil stack from insulation liner found in the slot
ends liner, total rotor
rewind may be
required.
87
3.2.2 Stator Core ELCID Test
ELCID (Electromagnetic Core Imperfection Detection) is a test method devised in
United Kingdom by the Central Electricity Research Board Laboratories, U.K., which
was later commercially developed by ADWEL Industries as portable test equipment. It
has been found to be useful in many applications of large generators and motors and
provides a reliable, low cost alternative core test technique to the traditional ring flux
test [26].
Traditionally, stator core interlaminar insulation is tested using the ringflux test method.
This test involves an excitation of the stator core to near rated flux density in the yoke
by means of temporary coils wound perpendicularly to the core yoke and an external
voltage source, simulating similar magnetic condition of a core in service. Should short
circuits of core lamination exist, the heat generated by localised eddy currents is then
detected using an infra-red camera. Whilst this test method has been proven successful
over decades for its reliability in detecting core faults and quantifying the severity of the
faults, it unfortunately requires a large power source and considerable time, and
resources to complete. Depending on the size of the core subjected to test, it usually
requires many thousands of volts to adequately excite the core to near its rated flux
density. It is a rather cumbersome test to set up and to perform. In contrast, ELCID test
has been proven to be very reliable in detecting and locating the majority of short
circuits within stator cores. Offering advantages of simplicity and reasonable accuracy,
88
it has become the far more popular test than and the more preferred alternative to the
traditional ring flux test. [27]
Since its development, ELCID test has been a useful tool for the power generation
industry as a simple, flexible and safe test to perform on large generators and motors.
The test only requires the stator core to be excited to approximately 4 percent of its rated
flux. Thus, the excitation power source required is much smaller and at a much lower
voltage. The test typically only requires two persons to set up and perform, taking
approximately 4 to 8 hours in comparison with approximately 1 week in the case of ring
flux test. Any imperfections in the core such as interlamination short circuits cause fault
currents to circulate, which are detected by a Chattock sensor head coil and measured by
an ELCID signal processing unit.
However, ELCID test accuracy is somewhat compromised at the extremities of the core
where the turbogenerator core begins to step out in diameter as described in Section
2.1.1 and Figure 2. The test operator is required to use a smaller sensor head to manually
scan individual stator tooth in this area. In addition, whilst the ELCID is excellent in
detecting core faults at the core teeth from up to bottom of stator slots, its accuracy and
the reliability in detecting faults deep in core yokes is debatable. Therefore choosing the
most suitable test method to detect core faults must be made on a case by case by case
basis. In practice, majority of stator core faults occur in core teeth near the air gap, for
which ELCID test is an excellent choice. On the other hand, if a full core assessment is
required following a major stator core repair or a core fault deep in the stator yoke has
89
been suspected, the ring flux test is a better choice. Appendix D describes a typical test
procedure of ELCID test and gives some typical test results.
ELCID test is particularly useful as a confirmation test following a minor core repair or
a condition monitoring routine for turbo-generators and large motors.
BARS —_.
CURRENTS INDUCED
BUILDING THROUGH DAMAGE
Figure 34. Illustration of magnetic field behaviour in a faulty generator stator core
[courtesy of ADWEL International Ltd] [261.
90
Figure 35. Typical ELCILD test setup [courtesy of ADWEL International Ltd] [26].
3.2.3 Stator Core Ring Flux Test
In contrast with ELCID test, stator core ring flux test is a high energy test employed to
verify the integrity of stator core lamination insulation. In this test, the core is excited to
near 80% of the designed rated magnetic flux at the core yoke, emulating similar
operating condition of the generator in service. Should a short circuit have occurred
between core laminations of the stator under test, circulating current will be induced at
the fault location resulting in local heat generation. An infra-red camera is then used to
scan the core temperatures to determine the location and extend of the fault.
91
To produce the magnetic flux required, a temporary high voltage coil similar to an iron
core toroidal inductor as depicted in Figure 36 is affixed to the core under test. The
excitation coil is designed with correct number of turns looped around the core and
energised with alternating currents at generator operating frequency via an auto
transformer for voltage control. The number of ampere-turns required can be calculated
from any of the many references available. The IEEE Standard 432-1992 provides the
following expression:
l.O5XVLL
Voltage per turn of test coil
2x xN
Where: VLL = Rated line-to-line voltage
= Winding factor
N = Number of series turns per phase in the stator winding
Once the desired flux is established in the stator core, it is maintained for one hour,
allowing the core temperatures to become stable. The core temperatures should be
maintained below that encountered during normal operation. The temperature rise of the
core is monitored while thermal imaging is used to search for hot spots. By means of
comparison, the temperature rise of the good core areas is then compared to the
temperature rise profile of any defect locations. If a fault is found it is characterised,
marked and repaired appropriately.

92
Core repair method can vary significantly to best suit the defect. Usually, core defects at
the air gap are minor and may only involve core stemming, core edging or lamination
re-insulation. Significant defects that occur deep within the core yoke would inevitably
require lamination re-stacking. Chapter 4 discusses in detail the repair processes.
The ring flux test method has proven to be successful over many decades and is the best
verification for the condition of a core lamination insulation system. It is almost always
employed as one of the factory proof tests during new stator core construction and in
conjunction with major core repairs. However, this test is quite expensive to perform
and it requires a large medium voltage power source, significant time and resource. The
excitation voltage for this test is usually in the order of several kilovolts for a large
stator core. The high voltage application and the high magnetic field generation
implicate occupational health and safety concerns of personnel and equipment involved.
It is also important that care must be taken in determining the ampere-turns required for
the excitation coil so that the average core temperatures does not exceed its designed
limit.
93
Excitation coils energised by a

6.6kv auto-transformer
3.2.4 Stator Core Lamination Tightness Test
Looseness of stator core lamination in turbo-generators and large motors is one of the
most common causes leading to serious core damage if left undetected. Large generator
stators rely on the remanent compression of the core restraining structure to remain tight
throughout their lives. It is acceptable that some degree of relaxation of core laminations
and their support structures such as tie bolts settle in after a few years in service or after
the generator suffers overheating or major system disturbances. However, core designs
should have allowed for this and the core pressure should still remain adequate after
those disturbances. Unfortunately, some stator cores do not have the design margin or
94
the ability to recover the compression forces and become loose. When core laminations
become excessively loose, they vibrate under the influence of core electromagnetic
forces. The chafing of adjacent laminations causes damage to their insulation leading to
interlamination short circuits. Heat produced from the short circuits causes further
deterioration of the core interlaminar insulation surrounding the fault. From this point,
the process could spread rapidly resulting in major core failure in the form of local
overheating. In some cases, the core faults release metal debris into the air gap resulting
in secondary damage to the rotor and contamination to the high voltage windings.
It is impractical to monitor this type of fault online. Experience has shown that in most
cases of core failure of this nature, the fault can go undetected for a long time.
Eventually the heat generated from the fault burns through the wall insulation of the
nearby stator conductors causing electrical earth fault protection trip to the generator.
Section 2.1.2 is described core faults due to lamination relaxation and Figure 3 depicted
a typical core fault due to lamination relaxation at its early stage. Fortunately, on that
occasion the fault was detected early by an inspection engineer during a routine
maintenance. The repair was relatively simple and no damage was found on the nearby
conductors. The core was tightened by using a technique called core stemming, restoring
adequate pressure on the lamination. This solution will be discussed in more detail in
Section 4.1.1.
It is therefore very important to check the tightness of stator core laminations as part of
generator routine inspection program. The inspection procedure is relatively simple but
95
effective to detect such faults. The tightness is checked by inserting a thin tapered
toughened knife blade between the core laminations by hand. Such a tool is commonly
called a core The thickness and the taper angle of the core knife are precisely
machined to predetermined dimensions so that a consistence assessment criterion is
applied throughout the inspection. The depth of insertion of the knife blade is noted
during the test. The test heavily relies on the experience of the test technician. Although
somewhat subjective, it is usually quite obvious to an experienced inspector when loose
laminations are found. The test is still the simplest and the most practical way to
determine the tightness of core laminations with the least intrusion and minimal risk of
damage to stator core lamination insulation [35].
Either full or partial test can be applied to stator cores. A full test is defined such that
each core lamination packet is tested at a minimum of one location. With the cores that
do not have radial cooling ducts the test is carried out at approximately every 100 mm
interval along each core tooth. This test is more effectively applied in conjunction with
visual inspection by an experienced inspector and the test resolution can vary depending
on the condition of the core.
It is recommended that a full test is carried out at least twice in the lifetime of a
generator, usually once in the initial 5 years in service then once at its mid-life or after a
significant overheating incident. Then a follow up partial test or visual examination is
applied at subsequent major overhauls when the generator rotor is withdrawn.

96
Figure 37. Stator core lamination tightness test using a core knife on a 120 MW
generator stator.
3.2.5 Stator Slot Wedge Tightness Test
Stator conductors rely entirely on their slot wedges to retain them tightly in position. It
is extremely important that all stator conductors remain tightly restrained in their slots to
avoid conductor vibration due to the electromagnetic forces during operation. Excessive
conductor vibration in stator slots, also known as bar bounce, will cause loss of wall
insulation resulting in reduction of conductor's dielectric strength and damage to the

97
semi-conductive lining4, promoting partial discharge [42]. Therefore detection of loose
stator slot wedges and ensuring their tightness in stator slots are very important
condition monitoring and maintenance activities.
Similar to the core tightness test, the stator slot wedge tightness test, also called tap test,
is relatively subjective and requires experience of the test technician to make
assessment. The test objective is to determine the degree of relaxation of the stator slot
retaining wedges. The slot wedges are lightly tapped along their entire length with a 200
gram ball peen hammer or a steel rod of similar weight while the test technician listens
to the sound of the wedge and feels its vibration with his fingers simultaneously. When
being tapped, a loose wedge produces a noticeable hollow sloppy sound and sometimes
accompanied by a small movement. On the other hand a tight wedge produces a solid
ringing sound with no movement. From this observation, an experienced test technician
can determine the degree of looseness of the wedges and record the result for mapping.
A typical example of stator slot tightness test result is given in Appendix B.
There are many different designs and constructions of stator slot wedge systems, largely
dictated by the size of the generator, the mechanical characteristics of insulation system
and the wedge material. Wedge designs can vary from a simple solid slot wedge to more
sophisticated systems utilising fibre glass residual tension springs known as ripple
springs as shown in Figure 38 and Figure 39.
Used in I-IV machines as a counter measure to control partial discharge between conductors and core.
98
Figure 38. A typical ripple spring stator slot wedge system.
Insert: magnifying view of arrangement of

all components under a main slot wedge
including ripple spring, two-part opposing
wedges and filling spacer.
Figure 39. Typical installation arrangement of a ripple spring stator slot wedge
assembly.
99
The test criteria for a decision of wedge tightening are well established on the basis of
experience. Whist they can vary between generator manufacturers and the owners, as a
guide, it is generally accepted that any given slot should be re-wedged if:
• more than 1/4 number of wedges are found not to be sufficiently tight, or
• three or more adjacent wedges in the same slot are loose.
In addition, given the importance of the first and last wedges, also known as end
wedges, which are subjected to much higher level of stress than the remainder, these
should be re-wedged if they become loose.
There is no fixed frequency of the wedge tightness test. It depends on the operational
utilisation of the generator, its operating temperatures, cleanliness (particularly freedom
from oil contamination), the design of the stator coil insulation system and the wedges.
It is strongly recommended that the wedge tightness test is carried out on the stator core
each time the rotor is withdrawn. The test records should be compared with the previous
test records to monitor the trend of any deterioration. A sample of test results is
provided in Appendix B.
There is semi automatic test equipment commercially available that emulates the
manual testing with a small tapping robot. However, the test equipment is expensive and
not always available. While the manual test is highly subjective, to date it is still the
most popular, effective and economical test method to implement.

100
Figure 40. Stator slot wedge tightness test in a 120 MW generator stator.
3.2.6 End Winding Vibration Testing
High vibration on stator end windings can lead to a variety of failures including cracked
stator sub-conductors, conductor high voltage insulation abrasion damage and partial
discharge [42]. It is therefore important to measure the vibration of end windings.
Infonnation collected from the measurements can be a valuable contribution to
predictive maintenance programs.

101
In most cases, to obtain comprehensive measurements, a relatively large number of
vibration transducers must be installed, amounting to a high cost of installation.
Statistically, there is a small percentage of faults attributable to end winding vibration.
The stator end windings and their support systems, especially of larger generators, are
designed with a high degree of robustness. In addition, routine inspection of the stator
also provides reliable information about the tightness of the end windings. Experience
shows that, in most cases, insulation fretting dust is found wherever the end windings
have become loose. Generator owner should consider monitoring vibration levels of the
end windings. Trending of the vibration will help determine the optimum time to
strengthen the end windings preventing further deterioration.
3.2.6.1 On-line Condition Monitoring
Continuous on-line vibration measurement is accomplished by installing vibration
transducers to strategic locations on the windings such as coil end connections,
waterboxes, winding leads, support structures and so on. For components such as
waterboxes, the transducers are installed to measure vibrations in both tangential and
radial directions. Naturally, the transducers are installed with appropriate insulation in a
manner that the high voltage electrical integrity of the winding is not compromised in
anyway.
102
Acceptable vibration limits vary significantly from generator to generator. Generally,
however, a good rule of thumb is to keep the maximum vibration to less than 50
micrometres peak to peak (unfiltered), with no natural resonance within the frequency
range between 50 Hz to 70 Hz and 100 Hz to 140 Hz. These limits can normally be
advised by the OEM's.
3.2.6.2 Off-line Evaluation
An alternative to the on-line measurement is the off-line technique utilising frequency
spectrum analysis. This technique is also known as Modal Analysis. With the generator
rotor withdrawn, vibration accelerometers are installed temporarily at strategic locations
on the end winding depending on particular vibration modes one desires to measure.
Each end winding is then excited with a broadband electro-dynamic actuator used as a
controlled vibration source connected to the end winding structure at the inner perimeter
of the support comb or a suitable location at the region of conductor ends via an input
force transducer and a transmitter. The input force is measured at the input transducer
and the vibration response measured from the temporary accelerometers on the end
winding structure, the waterboxes and the conductors. The forces are measured in
vertical and horizontal directions but not the axial direction. By analysing these signals,
the natural resonance frequencies of the end windings and their support structures at
different vibration modes can be determined [12][13][14][15][16].

103
Figure 41. Typical test set up of an off-line vibration test for a 200 MW water-cooled
waterbox style generator utilising frequency spectrum analysis.
3.2.7 Stator Windings Pneumatic Tests
For water-cooled generator stators, it is critical to ensure that the stator coolant system is
gas tight. Pressure and vacuum tests are performed on the stator windings to prove that
the stator coolant system is gas tight after a routine overhaul or to detect and diagnose
leaks. Specific test procedures together with safety precautions are provided by the
OEM of the generators and must be strictly adhered to.

104
It is very important to note that, prior to applying pressure test, water must be
completely removed from the stator conductors. It has been found that the simplest and
most practical procedure is to first completely drain the stator coolant water from the
windings. Each conductor is then blown with dried compressed air to further remove the
remained water in stator winding subconductors. The entire windings or each individual
phase is evacuated at near absolute vacuum for several hours. This is not only to
absolutely ensure that all water droplets and moisture are removed from the
subconductors but also to prove that there is no air leaks in the system. Only when the
vacuum test satisfies the criteria set by the OEM, the pressure test can be applied. This
procedure is extremely important to eliminate the risk of water ingress into the winding
high voltage insulation system.
3.2.8 Stator Core End Plate Hot Spot Inspection
The core end plate burning fault is difficult to be detected with a reasonable degree of
confidence while the generator is in service. To date, visual inspection is still the best
known method to detect and monitor this problem. Unfortunately, it requires an outage
of the generator with the end covers removed. For a hydrogen-cooled generator, this task
can take a few days and some considerable cost.
In some rare fortunate cases, the fault is detected by the thermocouples embedded
immediately behind the core end plate within a few centimetres of fault location.
105
Unfortunately, there is a practical limit of the number of thermocouples that can be
embedded in the core and they can not be relied on for detection of localised
overheating faults such as core end plate burning. A core end plate hot spot that occurs
more than a few centimetres away from a thermocouple may not be detectable.
3.2.9 Generator Rotor Retaining Ring Inspection
As discussed in Section 2.3.1.1, rotor retaining rings are critically important to
generators. Therefore, they require appropriate inspection and testing regimes. The early
magnetic materials used in manufacturing retaining rings are satisfactory in terms of
strength and resistance to corrosion but they are undesirable in terms of electromagnetic
properties and contribute significant efficiency loss to generators. In contrast, the non-
magnetic materials, also known as austenitic steels, such as l8Mn4Cr and its group,
offer greater mechanical strength and superior electromagnetic properties. Unfortunately
they are susceptible to stress corrosion cracking when exposed to humidity.
Before stress corrosion cracking was discovered in l8Mn4Cr material family, the
material had already found its way into a great number of generators causing massive
problems to the power generation industry. In order to eliminate the risk of catastrophic
failure to large synchronous generators, either the retaining rings of such materials have
to be replaced or their operating environment must be kept dry to avoid stress corrosion.
106
Giving the criticality of rotor retaining rings, generator manufacturers and power
generation research organisations recommend that all retaining rings must be routinely
inspected to detect early sights of defects such as stress corrosion cracking and electrical
arcing. Furthermore, the inspection regime of the older materials such as 1 8Mn4Cr,
1 8Mn5Cr, 8Mn4Cr4Cr and magnetic steels should be far more stringent than that of the
newer materials l8Mnl8Cr. There are several inspection techniques, which will be
discussed next.
3.2.9.1 Traditional Dye-Penetrant Inspection
This inspection technique requires the retaining rings to be removed from the rotor, with
corrosion protective coating removed and thoroughly cleaned. The rings are then soaked
in a highly sensitive fluorescent solution called dye-penetrant for 10 to 16 hours as
recommended by the manufacturer. The fluorescent solution is designed to penetrate
into microscopic cracks, surface defects and pitting on the ring surface. The rings are
then thoroughly cleaned to remove excess dye-penetrant solution on the surface. A
developer solution is sprayed over the entire surface of the rings as a thin layer of very
dry powder specifically designed to extract the dye concealed in any minute cracks or
pitting by capillary action. The rings are then examined under an ultraviolet light to
reveal defects.
107
To date, Dye-Penetrant inspection is highly regarded as the most reliable inspection
technique in detection of stress corrosion cracking on generator retaining rings.
Although the inspection technique does not give any indication of the crack depth, it can
detect very small cracks and helps measure crack length relatively accurate. During the
examination stage, even minute surface defects such as corrosion pitting and scratches
are clearly revealed with striking clarity in addition to identifying stress corrosion cracks
as in Figure 42.
Figure 42. Fluorescent dye-penetrant examination of a 200 MW generator rotor

retaining ring viewed under ultra-violet light - revealing a 12 mm long stress
corrosion crack.
108
Next, a metallurgical assessment is carried out by an experienced technician to
determine the nature of the fluorescent indications. The defects are then removed by
local grinding and polishing if they do not meet the acceptance criteria.
Acceptance criteria can widely vary between manufacturer and professional engineering
organisation, and are widely affected by the nature of the indication, operational history
of the retaining rings and the owner's attitude to risk.
A reasonable set of criteria adopted by EPRI and Ontario Hydro - Canada is as follows:
i. Linear defects greater than 1 mm in length, in the form of cracking,
ii. A linear array of 3 or more point defects with less than 3 mm between points,
iii. Random groups of 3 or more point defects within a circle of less than 5 mm
in diameter,
iv. Random groups as (iii) above but less than 5 mm from a similar group.
A point defect is defined as a surface defect of less than 0.5 mm in diameter. Any defect
detected by inspection to match any of the above criteria is regarded as a significant
defect and must be removed by grinding or polishing.

109
While the above criterion is not a fix ruling and the owners can adopt their own
examination criteria it has been derived from a great deal experience and research
efforts. Many of NDT service providers base their criteria on the above [311.
3.2.9.2 In-Situ Inspection
Even though the dye-penetrant examination is accepted as the best technique to detect
stress corrosion cracking it requires the retaining rings to be removed from the rotor and
thoroughly cleaned. The process is labour intensive and involves lengthy outage of the
generator. Especially in the last 10 years, the competitive power generation market
increasingly puts more pressure on generators to reduce routine maintenance outage
time and frequency.
In-situ inspection of retaining rings using ultrasonic sound waves becomes more widely
employed. Using this technology, the retaining rings can be examined without the needs
of withdrawing the rotor and removing the protective coating that usually applied to
1 8Mn5Cr retaining rings.
A newer ultrasonic examination technique is the Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD)
technique. Presently, it is a very popular technique to inspect generator retaining rings
for stress corrosion cracking (SCC) without needing to remove retaining rings from the
rotor. Despite some minor technical limitations, the test method provides generator
110
owners a welcome alternative to the traditional liquid dye penetrant NDT and a better
replacement for the older manual Pulse Echo (PE) technique, which inherently have
difficulties in detecting very small cracks where there are no ultrasonically reflective
substrates. With the help of modern computer technology TOFD technique has been
significantly refined and automated in the last ten years giving the users a much higher
degree of confidence and time savings. The technique is generally recognised as having
a high level of accuracy to detect cracks greater than 1 mm. The limitation relates to the
nature of SCC, where the crack roots have the tendency to branch out following
material intergranular boundaries, making crack detection difficult. For this reason the
test accuracy and liability can not be guaranteed for very small cracks of less than 1 mm
deep {29].
Typically, diffraction responses arising from the tip of a crack occur at a different time
than those arise from the interference fit making defect discrimination relatively simple.
In the case of a crack growing from a back wall, the difference between the travel time
from the crack tip and the back wall standing wave is the critical measurement. The
TOFD method uses two transducers; one operating as a transmitter, the other as a
receiver. The transducers are aimed from opposite directions and focused on the area of
interest; all mounted on a motorised scanning unit as depicted in Figure 43 and Figure
44. A longitude mode is normally used so that the signals of interest, those from the
crack tip and the back wall arrive before any mode converted signal, thereby simplifying
interpretation of the measurements. The transducers are custom made to suit the
geometry of the retaining rings under test. A suitable coupling fluid such as glycerine or
111
thin oils is pumped between the transducers and the retaining ring to provide ultrasonic
coupling and lubrication. The measurements can then be presented in the form of
graphical images or raw data as exemplified in Figure 45.
Figure 43. Graphical illustration of Circumferential Ultrasonic Scanning Technique

TOFD utilised in crack detection of generator retaining rings [Courtesy of
Sonomatic — P. Day] [30].
112
This technique has been proven very successful provided that the test is carried out by
an experienced technician who has high level of competence to interpret the

measurements. Figure 45 shows a typical TOFD image of raw test results from a 200
MW rotor retaining ring that contained a significant crack described in the case study in
Section 2.3.3. Following the initial detection with TOFD scanning the cracked was
confirmed and more accurately sized using Pulse Echo ultrasonic technique. The crack's
profile was predicted as shown in Figure 46. The end ring was then removed; the crack
was confirmed at the exact location indicated by TOFD examination. The crack was
subsequently removed by a combination of machining, grinding and polishing. The
actual crack was found to have similar profile and measured to be less than 0.5 mm
113
deeper than the prediction by ultrasonics examination, an impressive accuracy. Further
more during the crack removal, it was also observed that at its root, the crack branched
out to multiple finer cracks. This confirmed the fundamental limitation of the TOFD
method as described above and the typical characteristic of stress corrosion cracking
phenomena.
Figure 45. Typical example of a TOFD scan image containing diffraction signals of a
crack in a 200 MW generator rotor retaining ring (using Zip Scan equipment
shown in Figure 44) [Courtesy of Sonomatic] [291.
114
255mm
4.58mm depth Rotor Retaining Ring

4,
"Bayonet" Area
Retaining ring "shrink face"
Figure 46. A crack detected in a 200 MW rotor retaining ring sized and profiled using
ultrasonic techniques illustrated in Figure 44 [Courtesy of Sonomatic].
3.2.10 Rotor RSO Test
Recurrent Surge Oscillograph (RSO) is designed to detect inter-turn short circuit in
generator rotors and symmetrical windings. The test is very sensitive and gives an
indication of the early stages of an inter-turn fault. It can detect high resistance short
circuits of up to 10 [37].
RSO test is based on the principle of time domain reflectometry by sending a fast
fronted step voltage waveform in order of a few volts from both sides of the rotor
windings. The reflected signals are measured and compared using a suitable
115
oscilloscope. A digital storage oscilloscope is preferable as it is fast and can store the
waveforms, for future reference.
If the waveforms are identical, the windings do not contain short circuits. Otherwise, a
short circuit may be present. The variations can be easier to determine by superimposing
the signals. Variations closer to the beginning of the waveforms (left hand side) suggest
the short circuit is nearer to the slip-rings and the contrary for those nearer to the middle
of the windings [31]. Figure 47 illustrates a typical RSO waveform of a 120 MW, two-
pole, synchronous generator rotor windings. The oscillograph was recorded after the
retaining ring was removed during a routine overhaul. It indicated that the rotor
windings did have a short circuit nearer to the pole cross-over.

116
Channel 1: 1 V/div
Channel 2: 1V/div
Time: 5
Figure 47. A typical example of Recurrent Surge Oscillograph (RSO) of a 120 MW

generator rotor windings with retaining ring removed. The discrepancy of
superimposed signals indicates a short circuit. [Courtesy of Siemens].
RSO test has many advantages. It is quick and simple to perform. It has a major
advantage over the traditional volt-drop test as described in Section 3.2.11 in monitoring
the windings while the rotor is rotated and can be performed with the retaining ring on
or off. It is also useful to rotor manufacturers in verifying the integrity of rotor windings
at progressive stages during construction [37]. Furthermore, it is a highly sensitive test
and can detect high resistance faults. A slight discrepancy of the waveforms can cause
uncertainty whether a high resistance short circuit is present or winding contamination.

117
3.2.11 Rotor Coil Volt-Drop Test
It is important to assess the integrity of inter-turn insulation in generator rotor. Failure of
inter-turn insulation causes short circuits between the adjacent rotor coils resulting in
local overheating, increase in rotor shaft vibration and deformation of rotor coils.
Complementing the online Recurrent Surge Oscillograph (RSO) technique, the rotor
Volt-Drop test offers a useful offline measurement technique that provides an accurate
map of inter-turn insulation condition.
With the retaining rings, end winding insulation wrapping and all coil separator blocks
removed from the rotor as shown in Figure 48, the rotor windings are energised with a
current of 100 amperes DC from a constant current source. The voltage between every
pair of adjacent coils is accurately measured at all four corners of each rotor coil. The
overall supply voltage and current are recorded and kept as constant as possible for the
entire duration of the test. The ambient temperature at the rotor is also recorded. The
measurements are recorded in a tabular format as shown in Appendix C. This test data
form a map of voltage drops between each section of rotor coils from which the
resistances can also be calculated.
Detailed assessment is then carried out based on the voltage drop measurements. An
abnormally low voltage reading indicates a partial or complete short circuit of the
118
adjacent coils. Recording the coil resistances using this mapping technique makes the
finding of fault locations relatively simple.

119
3.2.12 Thermographic Examination
Thermographic examination is a useful tool to monitor the conditions of generators. It
has been widely used for checking the hot joints in earth connections, rotor radial
connectors, stator terminal connections and stator winding temperature profile as
illustrated in Figure 49, Figure 50 and Figure 51.
The examination technique is particularly useful in air-cooled generators, where
thermographic examination has been successfully utilised to monitor temperature
distribution of stator end windings. An infra-red camera is used to view through special
crystal windows installed on the stator casing. Thermographic images are strikingly
informative about the actual operating temperature profile of individual conductors in
the stator end windings and local hot spots while the generator is operating online. This
information allows an accurate assessment of stator end winding operating conditions,
cooling system efficiency and local winding hot spots to be made. Figure 51 illustrates
the utilisation of thermographic examination technique in assessing the stator end
winding temperature profile of an air cooled synchronous generator.
Unfortunately the same benefit can not be obtained for hydrogen cooled generators due
to the safety concerns. The thermal vision can only be obtained by an infra-red camera
in direct visual view. Despite some limitations in applying thermal imaging to hydrogen
cooled generators, this examination technique has great potential for wider use adding
120
new dimensions to condition monitoring and diagnostic strategies for large synchronous
generators and other electrical machines.
47.2 oc
2
46
S outer shell
44
42
40
38
36
34
Normal earth Connector 1;: 32
30
'.7
Figure 49 A thermographic image of an Isolated Phase Bus (IPB) and its earthing
connectors of a 200 MW generator.
121
Hot spot on main connection L

palm indicated poor electrical
contact surface
Figure 50. A thermographic image of a rotor radial connector at 90% full load, 2200
amperes in a 200 MW generator rotor, revealing an abnormally high local
operating temperature.
4$ 3.
a
iOO.0 0C
-80
4
0
0 4
4.
-60
4
4
-40
I-
20.0
Figure 51. A thermographic image of stator windings in a 40 MW air cooled
synchronous generator at full load operation.
122
3.2.13 Radiographic Examination
Many faults in electrical machines have been detected using radiographic examination.
It is a useful technique in finding mechanical failures in electrically insulated
components where removal of the insulation is not practical. Cracks in generator
components such as stator conductors, rotor radial connectors and collector rings in air
cooled main exciters have been successfully detected using this technique.
Figure 53 illustrates a case study in utilisation of radiographic examination technique in
electrical machines for fault finding. The case study involved a three phase brushless
main exciter of a 200 MW synchronous generator. The main exciter rotor utilises a
collector ring assembly that comprises four electrically insulated copper rings connected
to the rotor's three phase parallel windings. The collector assembly provides the parallel
paths for the rotor windings and to congregate the rotor currents to the rotating diode
system. The collector ring assembly is located under the rotor retaining rings as shown
in Figure 52. The original design of the individual rings involved three expansion
chevrons allowing for material settlement under the centrifugal forces and thermal
expansion. The collector ring assembly of this particular design has experienced
fractures at the expansion chevrons. Thus, a non destructive routine inspection
technique was required to monitor the condition of the copper rings without removing
the ring's insulation wrapping.

123
In setting up, a small radioactive source is placed approximately 600 mm in front of the
collector ring's expansion chevrons and a suitable radiographic film is placed directly
behind the chevrons. With a precise exposure time applied, radiographic images such as
that shown in Figure 53 are obtained revealing the remaining shape of the individual
chevrons without the need for removing the electrical insulation wrapping. From these
images, the condition of the rings can be assessed based on the curvature of the
chevrons, allowing cracks to be detected. In this particular case, a fracture in the A-
phase ring was clearly shown in the radiographic image. Subsequently, the collector ring
assembly was removed, disassembled and the crack was confirmed as shown in Figure
54.
AC. main exciter end

windings
Three-phase copper
collector ring assembly
Expansion chevrons
Figure 52. New collector ring assembly fully installed on brushless AC main exciter
rotor.
124
Electrical
Figure 53. A radiographic image of a three phase copper collector ring assembly in a
brushless main exciter rotor - showing a fracture in Phase A.
Figure 54. The insulated copper collector ring with fractures, removed from its rotor;
confirming the fractures detected by radiographic examination.
125
CHAPTER 4
SOLUTIONS
126
4 REMEDIAL SOLUTIONS
This chapter offers discussions on failure mechanisms, cause and effect relationships
and, most importantly, practical remedial solutions for each problem described in
Chapter 2. Where possible, the effectiveness of remedial solutions is appraised in terms
of verification testing or comparative inspection.
Options for remedial solutions can range from simple repairs to major modification of
original design or a complete rewind of the generator. Best decision does not only take
into account the best technical solution but also economic justification against the back
drop of the generator's whole of life.
4.1 SoLuTioNs TO STATOR PROBLEMS
Some generator stator designs are more maintenance intensive than others. Majority of
generators below 180 MW output are hydrogen cooled or air cooled. They are relatively
simple in design and maintenance in comparison with their larger water-cooled
counterparts. There are two main types of water-cooled generator stators; the most
127
popular design is the so-called 'hose design' stator. They constitute the largest number
of water-cooled generators in the world. The other type is the so-called 'waterbox
design' stator: by far less popular in the global fleet! Details of this stator design were
explained in Section 2.2.1 of this thesis.
Apart from being more maintenance intensive and having limitations in terms of
operating temperatures compared with 'hose design' generators, waterbox generators
inherit many technical problems as described in Section 2.2. These problems hinder the
operations, commercial availability and flexibility of these generators. They have rapidly
become unpopular due to these problems whilst the other type of stators proved to be
cost effective and reliable.
A compromise in the reliability of generators can be translated into major financial risks
in terms of loss of generation opportunities or energy contract obligations. For example,
in the worst case scenario, where electricity demand exceeds supply, electricity price can
reach VoLL value of AUD 10,000 per MWhr, thus failure of a 200 MW generator could
incur a financial penalty of as much as of AUD 2 million per hour (This calculation is
based on Australian electricity market VoLL price in 2005). Therefore, finding optimum
solutions for each of the problems in the generators is critically important.
Experience has proven that optimum technical solutions are obtained from good
collaborations between the OEM and the generator owners, where design knowledge is
in good mix with practical user experience.

128
Stator end windings have a relatively low stiffness and complicated geometry making
them vulnerable to a range of problems as described in Section 2.2. These problems are
even more pronounced in waterbox generators. Investigation into the root causes of
failures have revealed that problems such as sub-conductor cracking, insulation fretting
and waterbox cracking, which seriously impede the operation of the generator, can be
traced back to one common cause: end winding relaxation!
4.1.1 Remedy for Stator Lamination Relaxation
As described in Section 2.1.2, core laminations must remain tightly pressed together for
the entire life of the generator to avoid local overheating related problems. In the
presence of a strong magnetic field such as in the air gap any short circuits between
stator core laminations can quickly set up low resistance paths for eddy currents on the
core surface leading to destructive core faults. Loosened core laminations, particularly
in the tooth region can rattle and eventually can even break away as was shown in
Figure 3. The broken away segments then collide with the high-speed rotor causing
further impact damage to rotor surface and other stator laminations.
There is a number of condition monitoring techniques available on the market
attempting to monitor the stator core against local overheating. For example, one of
these techniques is to paint each major section of the generator such as core front, core
back, core end plate and end windings, with a different special type of paint. In the case
129
of local heating occur in a particular area, the paint will release specific chemicals that
can be detected by routine gas analysis. This technique is used at a number of power
stations because it provides an additional means of monitoring generator stator for this
particular parameter: local overheating. There are limitations to this technique though.
Many areas in a generator stator are not accessible and can not be painted such as back
of the core, the sections between conductor layers and under stator wedges. The
coverage of the special paint is limited to about 60% of sections where local overheating
can occur. Faults can not be detected if they occur outside of the painted areas. In
addition, a core fault can develop very quickly depending on its cause. In many cases,
the gas analysis may not be adequately frequent to detect the fault before it becomes a
major problem. However, as generally accepted by the power generation industry, no
condition monitoring technique is perfect and partially successful condition monitoring
is still better than none [35].
In the case of a stator core fault due to lamination relaxation, core stemming is the most
popular repair technique. This repair technique aims to restore the lamination tightness
economically without disturbing the rest of the core such as re-stacking. It effectively
reduces vibration of stator core laminations at the most highly stressed area of the
generator: the air gap.
The case illustrated in Figure 3 involves loss of material from the thick plate of
lamination packet and the 'I' spacer. This type of damage is repaired as follows:
130
After a thorough cleaning to remove contaminant at the fault area, small
sheets of mica are inserted in between each of the laminations in the fault
region to ensure that the interlaminar insulation is restored as shown in
Figure 55. Invariably, a core knife - as depicted in Figure 57 - may be
required to separate the laminations for successful insertion of mica sheets.
Small custom-made fibreglass wedges can then be used to replace the
missing thick end plate of the lamination packets as shown in Figure 56. It is
important that all the fibreglass wedges are permanently locked in position
with appropriate electrical grade epoxy to ensure they will not dislodge in
service. Further tightening can be achieved by inserting more fibreglass
wedges between laminations in the nearby regions. Again each fibreglass
wedge should be locked in position with appropriate epoxy as demonstrated
in Figure 57 and Figure 58.
ii. The worked area is then closely examined and electrically tested to ensure no
interlaminar short circuits remain, using ELCID test equipment. The
procedure is repeated for all fault areas.
iii. An overall lamination tightness examination is then carried out to the entire
core surface of the stator bore as described in Section 3.2.4. Where
lamination tightness is not satisfactory, further tightening is carried out
(Figure 59).
iv. To ensure that the stator core is free from interlaminar short circuits, a
complete ELCID test is then carried out. If short circuits are found, the
131
affected area is etched with 10% Phosphorous acid to remove any possible
short circuits.
v. All worked areas, especially where the fibreglass wedges have been inserted,
are painted with very low viscosity thread locking adhesive such as
Loctite29O Super-Wick-in. The low viscosity high capillary action adhesive
penetrates deep into small gaps between laminations to prevent any future
vibration of core laminations.
vi. Finally the core surface is painted with appropriate light colour electrical
varnish to assist future follow up visual inspections.
Effectiveness of this repair technique on the affected generator was verified by a follow
up inspection five years later. It was found that all laminations in the stator bore
remained tight and no local core 'hot spot" was detectable.

-
132
Figure 55. Thin mica sheets inserted between laminations to restore interlaminar
insulation.
Thick fiberglass insulation wedges

inserted between lamination packet and
damaged "I" section spacer to replace
the missing thick plate of core packet
and the material lost of the "I" spacer
t
Figure 56. Fibreglass wedges inserted in the damaged area between a lamination packet
and the 'I' section gas duct spacer to restore tightness.
133
Fiberglass stemming piece with

Araldite resin
Figure 57. Small custom made fibreglass wedges, impregnated with Araldite resin are
inserted into 'relaxed' core lamination packets to restore tightness.
Araldite coated fiberglass

stemming wedge
Figure 58. A fibreglass wedge (stemming piece) being driven into a loosened core
packet.
134
Lamination packet after

tightening. Note the black paste
was squeezed out of lamination
after tightening.
_.__.__5
Figure 59. Section of core lamination in a 200 MW stator after been tightening with a 3
mm stemming piece.
4.1.2 Dealing with Stator Core End Plate Faults
Prevention is better than cure for the stator core end plate burning faults. As the hot
spots result from excessive eddy currents generated on the core end plates, their
propagation can be stopped by minimising the fringing axial magnetic flux

perpendicular to the core end plate or replacing the core end plate with one made of
non-magnetic material, together with significantly increased cooling at the core ends.
135
The above action is by far the more economical and effective approach for an existing
core. However, to minimise the fringing axial magnetic flux in the core end region, the
generator's reactive power capability needs to be confined to lagging power factor
operations. Thanks to the technological advancements in modem power electronics,
Static VAr Compensators (SVC) can be utilised to make up for the shortfall in leading
reactive power supply of the power system. This operational restriction option has been
adopted in all cases of generators affected by core end plate burning fault, known to the
Author.
A case study for this type of fault was conducted on a 120 MW generator, first
commissioned for service in 1970. The generator has the type of core end plates that are
susceptible to localised burning. The generator was operated as per its original
specification, including supplying leading reactive power to the grid at night time on a
regular basis. In 1983, the generator was tripped due to a stator earth fault. Fault
investigations revealed that the conductors were damaged due to extensive core
lamination burning. Further, it was found that the core end plate had been suffering
local burning for a long period of time without being detected. Figure 60 illustrates the
extent of the damage to the core end plate, core laminations and stator conductors. The
heat generated from the hot spots caused extensive damage to the surrounding core
laminations and eventually burnt through the stator conductor insulation resulting in a
stator earth fault. Two stator conductors were damaged beyond repair and were
subsequently replaced. Burning damage was found on many core teeth.

136
a.
Stator conductor
j
Core lamination damaged resulted -
from core end plate burning

] — — -
Figure 60. Severe core lamination damage resulting from the propagation of core end
plate burning in a 120 MW generator stator.
Remedial action involved the following: all burnt areas at the air gap boundaries and
elsewhere accessible were cleaned and inspected. They were then ground using non
conductive aluminium oxide grinding stone followed by an etching process to remove
any possible short circuits of core lamination. The core's damaged areas were etched
using electrolytic probes driven by a 20-ampere DC current source and 10% phosphoric
acid as electrolyte.
The effectiveness of the core repair was verified, at several stages, by conducting a ring
flux test as described in Section 3.2.3 and illustrated in Figure 36 to ensure that the core
137
was completely free from lamination short circuits. Figure 61 depicts a stator core 'hot
spot' found during the first ring flux test. Once proven to be free from core lamination
short circuits, the damaged areas were coated with very low viscosity Loctite29O Super-
Wick-in to provide the lamination additional strength. The entire core front surface was
finished with two coats of a suitable electrical grade varnish.
Figure 61. Thermographic image of a stator core lamination hot spot, due to core end
plate burning fault, detected by ring flux test during a major overhaul of a
120 MW generator stator.
Twenty two hot spots, similar to those shown in Figure 5, were found in both core end
plates behind the core retaining brackets. Due to access limitation those hot spots were
irreparable.
138
In preventing further propagation of the hot spots, the generator was permanently
restricted to operate in lagging reactive power only and visual inspections were carried
out on the core end plates to monitor the hot spots approximately every four years.
Twenty two years since the reactive power restriction was first applied to the generator,
no evidence of propagation of the hot spots has been found. This has proven the
effectiveness of the fault prevention strategy: the diagnosis of the cause of failure
analysis was thus proven to be correct!
For an existing core, the repair of the core ends to totally remove the risk of core end
plate burning and to restore its full operating capacity at leading reactive power is very
expensive and time consuming. To achieve this objective, all stator conductors, the core
end plates and a section of laminations at core ends will have to be removed. The core
end plates will then have to be be replaced with non magnetic materials. The core end
regions would also incorporate additional features to remove the heat and to minimise
eddy currents on the end laminations due to the influence of fringing magnetic flux.
Fortunately this type of fault is much less common in modern generators than before.
The end sections of stator core are specifically built to prevent this type of problems.
The following main design features have been adopted in modern generators:
• Use of non-magnetic materials for the core end plates.
• Increased magnetic reluctance at core end regions: This is achieved by a gradual or
step increase in the internal diameter of the core ends by utilising core step
139
packets as illustrated in Figure 2. These end lamination packets are usually shorter
than the normal packets to allow for more heat dissipation. This technique has
been widely used and has proven to be very effective to reduce magnetic stresses
in this core region.
• Increased cooling at the core end regions: This is achieved by incorporating as
many cooling channels in between the end lamination packets as possible.
• Reduced eddy currents in the end core packets: This is achieved by building the
end packets with special laminations, commonly known as Pistoye laminations.
This type of lamination contains a small air gap in each tooth running radially
from the top of the tooth to about the bottom of the stator slot. This special
lamination is designed to significantly reduce the effects of eddy currents in the
core end regions as illustrated in Figure 2.
4.1.3 Dealing with Back-of-Core Burning Fault
As discussed in Section 2.1.4, back-of-core burning fault occurs in the back of the stator
core between the laminations and the core key bars. The complexity of stator
construction makes it extremely difficult to access the back of the core, making routine
inspection, fault finding and rectification a very challenging task. The two main factors
responsible for back-of-core burning faults are:

140
• the movements of stator core laminations relative to the core key bars, and,
• the magnetic leakage flux in the axial direction and in the back of the core.
Remedial solutions for this type of fault can vary depending on the physical construction
of the generator stator, in particular, how the core stack was designed and manufactured.
In the case of larger generators, greater than 300 MW, the stators become exceedingly
heavy for transport loading capacity of some bridges. For this reason, large stators are
commonly built in two separate components: the inner core and the outer shell. The
inner core consists of stator core lamination stack that is built into a sub-frame and the
stator windings. The outer shell consists of the stator main frame (the outer casing),
footings and facilities to accommodate the inner core, gas baffles and hydrogen coolers.
The inner core and the stator main frame are transported to the power station site as two
separate components. Following installation of the main frame to foundation, the inner
core is then slid into the stator main frame to form the complete stator. This type of
construction is more expensive to manufacture but it allows the inner core to be
extracted from the stator for inspection and repairs for faults such as back-of-core
burning.
A remedial solution has been adopted in a number of large generators to control the
damage due to the back-of-core burning fault. Copper shorting straps are installed to
electrically connect the adjacent key bars forming a squirrel cage arrangement in the
141
back of the core. This provides a low impedance path for the stray currents to flow
between the key bars and therefore by-passing the intermittent high impedance interface
between the key bars and core laminations. This modification has been successful and
has been proven to stop the further propagation of back-of- core burning faults [31].
In contrast, the core laminations of smaller generators are built directly into the stator
main frame as one integral part. While this construction is less expensive to
manufacture, it does not allow the core stack and the core end sections to be removed
from the stator shell. This limitation exacerbates the difficulties in repair and inspection
for back-of-core burning faults.
Notwithstanding, 'prevention is better than cure' approach can be effective by deploying
the following actions:
• minimise core vibration,
• minimise two-shifting operation to reduce core thermal expansion I contraction,
• minimise the stray currents in the back and the end of the core by minimising
leading reactive power generation,
• carry out regular visual inspection and record core conditions and ultimately,
• replace the affected core with an insulated core.

142
Core key bar

1
Stator core laminations

1
Figure 62. Copper shorting traps connecting stator core key bars used to remedy back-
of-core burning fault [3 1J.
Core
Leakage Flux ——
Figure 63. Leakage flux distribution in generator stator core [311.

143
4.1.4 Subconductor Cracking
Experience shows that stator subconductor cracking fault is more common in waterbox
design generators than hose design generators and crack location is more often found at
the support comb as exemplified in Figure 12. Consequently, the solutions reported here
are specific to waterbox generators. Fewer hose design stators experience similar
subconductor cracking but less consistent in crack locations. Solutions for such
generators differ from case to case. All stator conductors in the same layer of a hose
design generator stator are identical making strategic spare holding is simple and cost
effective. In most cases, if spare conductors are available, conductor replacement is a
preferred option. In contrast, as alluded to in Figure 12, conductors in each phase group
of a waterbox design stator are different due to the physical arrangement of the cast
resin waterboxes making spare holding expensive.
There are several options to repair cracked sub-conductors as explained in the following
sections.
4.1.4.1 Blocking Cracked Sub-Conductors
Following a normal dismantling procedure to gain access to the defective conductor, the
conductor nozzle (as shown in Figure 8) at each end is removed. Individual

subconductors are pressure tested and visually inspected using a small fiberscope to
locate the cracks. Once identified, the cracked sub-conductors are blocked at both ends
with small rectangular titanium plugs and high temperature soft-soldering. The original
144
conductor nozzles are then soldered back to the conductor's ferrules with a lower
melting temperature solders. Vacuum and pressure tests are then carried out on the
whole conductor to prove that it is gas tight before reinstating the rest of the generator.
This repair procedure is relatively simple and usually rectifies the problem. However, it
has three limitations. Firstly, it is only recommended for a maximum of three cracked
subconductors in the same conductor. In the case of more than three cracked
subconductors being found, either all the cracks have to be removed by shortening the
conductor end or the entire conductor is replaced as explained next. Secondly, once the
subconductors are blocked, they will no longer have cooling water to remove their
internal heat and become hotter than surrounding ones. The heat load has to be carried
away by the surrounding subconductors. Thirdly, the cracked subconductors will now
have a slightly higher internal resistance due to the reduction in the conductive cross
sectional area at the fracture and carry less current, putting additional load on the
surrounding parallel contiguous subconductors. Historically, this repair method has been
successfully applied to many generators without any negative consequences.

145
End winding support comb
Stator conductor
Conductorferru/e with
• nozzle de-soldered and
removed
.
Cracked subconductors blocked with -
Titanium wedees and soft solder
• —•',
00 •••
0 0
0
Figure 64. Showing a conductor ferrule of a 200 MW water-cooled stator after the
nozzle was removed. Two subconductors were found cracked and being
blocked to stop hydrogen gas leak into stator coolant system.
4.1.4.2 Removing Cracks by Shortening the Conductor
Where there are more than three cracked subconductors at the same end of a conductor
and provided that all the cracks are within 200 mm from the end of the conductor, it is
recommended that all the cracks be removed by shortening the conductor as illustrated
in Figure 65. Once all cracks are confirmed completely removed, a new ferrule is
installed at the new location, further inward from the end winding support comb.
Because the joint between the ferrule and conductor strands carries half of the stator
current and also need to be gas-tight it is commonly made with high quality silver solder
146
bronze brazing. An extended conductor nozzle is then installed to the new ferrule. Soft
soldering is used as sealing media, ensuring a gas tight joint. The extended conductor
nozzle is similar to the original nozzle with a longer barrel section to make up the
conductor length that is cut away. It is installed in such a way as to restore the location,
functionality and alignment of the conductor at the waterbox as illustrated in Figure 66.
Although this method is more invasive than the previous one, it eliminates the need to
replace the entire conductor. Especially, in the case where the defective conductor is in
the outer layer, in order to replace one outer conductor, a large number of inner
conductors would have to be removed for gaining access resulting in great expenses
(refer also to Figure 8, Figure 12, Figure 65)
Figure 65. Original conductor end nozzle assembly removed from a 200 MW stator
(left), extended nozzle assembly spare (centre), standard nozzle assembly
spare (right).
147
End winding support comb

temporarily cut away for access
—w
Original conductor nozzle
New location of ferrule
A new extended nozzle
Restored conductor alignment

and sealing flange position to
waterbox
Figure 66. Installation of an extended nozzle on a cracked conductor of a 200 MW

stator. Note the length and position of the new extended nozzle.
4.1.4.3 Replacing the Cracked Conductor
Where both of the above options are not suitable, a third option can be adopted: the
complete conductor is replaced with a spare. Replacing the entire stator conductor is
technically the best solution to remove all problems associated with cracked
subconductors or any other defects. However, it is much more expensive, apart from the
additional physical work required such as removal of the generator rotor and
dismantling of the stator end winding support structures. As explained in previous
section, if the defective conductor was in the outer layer, a large number of inner
conductors must be removed to gain access. The removal of the inner conductors also
148
exposes the stator conductors to a significant risk of potential damage while they are
temporarily removed, handled and reinstalled. For example, in the case of a 66 slot, 2-
pole distributed winding stator, a total of 27 inner conductors would have to be removed
before a defective conductor in the outer lay can be removed. This process is labour
intensive, expensive and highly risky to conductors, especially in older generators. The
risk is exacerbated in the case of mica-bituminous type insulation systems. As the
conductors have been installed tightly in the stator core for many years of operation, the
soft mica-bituminous insulation tends to form itself into the core slot profile. Especially
at the core cooling ducts, with the absence of side restriction, the insulation layers are
free to expand causing noticeable increase in the conductor overall dimensions.
Furthermore, expansion of the wall insulation accelerates while the conductors are
temporarily kept outside of the stator with the presence of moisture and elements in the
ambient air. This causes difficulties in reinstalling the conductors back to their exact
original position without damaging to the conductor outer insulation layers and the
semiconductor lining. Consequently the conductors could develop new problems,
especially increasing potential of partial discharge [42J.

149
4.1.5 Stator Coolant Leakage Repair: A Case Study
This case study is about a hydrogen leakage incident into the stator coolant system of a
200 MW hydrogen-water direct cooling synchronous generator. The generator stator
windings have a total of 627 0-rings installed at the conductor end nozzles and 12
synthetic rubber gaskets in the cast resin waterboxes to seal the hydrogen from entering
the stator coolant system as illustrated in Figure 12. A minor defect in any one of these
0-rings or a waterbox gasket or a crack in a waterbox would cause hydrogen to find its
way into the stator coolant water system in a similar manner to that of a crack in sub-
conductors, as explained in Section 2.2.2.
Following a gas in stator coolant alarm, in order to be better prepared for the outage, it
is important to determine the cause of the leakage and to predict whether the seal system
or the cracked sub-conductors are responsible. With a large number of possible sources
of leakage as described above, diagnosis can be a challenge. In addition, if the fault
occurs during the high demand periods such as summer, it is economically critical that
the generator remains in service as long as possible and if possible, be repaired in
autumn; a lower generation demand time. Thus understanding the leakage
characteristics and exercising appropriate actions to delay the outage without
unacceptable risk to the generator is very important.
The hydrogen-in-stator-coolant-leakage occurred in summer 2000, a high demand
period. As an important part of the fault investigation, the leakage rate was continuously
150
monitored to gain understanding of the nature of the leakage. At the beginning of the
investigation, a 'step temperature" test was carried out where the generator was operated
at approximately constant but several different steps of slightly elevated temperatures of
about 5°C to 10°C each step. The generator was also started up and shut down several
times while the leakage rate was monitored. The main objective of the test was to
determine whether the seal system was defective or a cracked subconductor was
responsible for the leakage. Experience has shown that if the hydrogen leakage rate
significantly varies during or after the temperature excursions, it is more likely that the
hydrogen has leaked through the seal system. On the other hand, if the leakage rate
deteriorates only slightly over time and is less independent of temperature, cracks in
subconductors are the likely cause of the leakage.
The rate of hydrogen leakage is calculated from the time it takes to fill up the hydrogen
catchment chamber. Should this time be less than 20 minutes; the generator has to be
shut-down for repair to avoid major damage to the generator.
Should the diagnosis be that the generator is suffering from a possible cracked
conductor the following emergency procedures are instituted:
• minimise reactive power generation (unity power factor operation is the most
benign mode of operation in this case);
• minimise fluctuation of generator power output including the number of start-ups
and shut-downs;
151
• reduce loading rate (also called ramp rate to 1 MW per minute instead of
normally 5 MW per minute;
• minimise the duration of high active power output.
This procedure aims at minimising the thermal and electromechanical stresses on the
generator conductors reducing the rate of deterioration of the cracked conductor, at the
same time keeping the generator in service for power generation demand at maximum
availability. Although such operational strategy can be onerous to achieve at times of
high electricity demand, it is an effective strategy to delay the outage to a more
convenient time, thus avoiding financial penalties to the generator's owner.
In the case study presented here, the leakage rate was recorded throughout the
investigation, concurrently with the output generation parameters such as active power,
reactive power and stator current, as shown in Figure 67. This information is helpful for
predicting the outage time for the repair. Appendix A offers the actual data for the
construction of this graph.

152
Trending of Hydrogen Leak Stator System of A Synchronous Generator

Date of Releases
09:36
1
1 Period 2 Period I
08:24
I a
a
07:12 a
a
a
06:00 C
n
a
a
04:48 a
a
80 -ItliflUiflhli) E
03:36 I.-
02:24
.,
I
01:12
0000
MW Mvar Stator Amps (x 100) Hours between release (Hours between
Figure 67. Trending of hydrogen leakage rate into stator coolant system of a 200 MW
synchronous generator recorded during a fault investigation and
management of a hydrogen-in-stator-coolant leakage due to a cracked
subconductor.
As can be seen from Figure 67, hours between releases (the red trace) showed three
important indications:
10th
In the early phase from January 2000 to 21St January 2000, where the
generator was operated at the normal market demand without any restrictions to its
output, the leak deteriorated quite rapidly from approximately 6 hours between
releases to approximately 4 hours in 11 days. The 'step temperature' test was also
carried out in this period, which suggested that the generator may have suffered
cracks in stator subconductors. The restrictive operational strategy was imposed

15th
on January 2000.
153
• In the next period from January 2000 to 31st January 2000, the generator was
operated at contained minimal outputs as much as practicable, mostly at 60 MW
and 0 MVAr. The leakage rate was observed to be steady at approximately 3.0
hours between releases with virtually no deterioration.
• During the period from 1st 20th

February 2000 to March 2000, the leakage
mechanism were investigated for better understanding and a more flexible
operational strategy was implemented that allowed the generator to produce as
much active power output as possible close to 200 MW when required, reducing
to a minimum output of 60 MW at night. The leakage rate responded well with
this operational strategy and showed a slow but steady deterioration. From this, an
approximate prediction of the outage time was projected as shown by the smooth
red exponential graph in Figure 67. The prediction showed that the leakage rate
would have reached 20 minutes between releases by middle of April 2000; a
convenient time to carry out the repair to the generator.
During this period, the generator was operated under strict supervision to ensure the
restrictive operational strategy was followed as much as possible.
Inspection revealed that two subconductors contained cracks. The defective
subconductors were repaired by the blocking method, described in Section 4.1.4.1. A
fracture mechanics metallurgical examination on the cracks suggested that copper work
hardening was responsible for the fault. A microscopic examination at a x200
magnification is depicted in Figure 68.

154
Once again, this fault strengthened the conclusion that the excessive movement of the
conductors in the end winding region due to inadequate support and the stresses acting
upon the conductor ends by waterboxes have caused the copper work hardening within
the sub-conductors.
Figure 68. Fracture mechanics metallurgical examination of a cracked copper

subconductor showing evidence of crack formation due to copper work
hardening (Microscopic examination x200 magnification).
155
4.1.6 End Winding Looseness
Relaxation of stator end windings has been recognised as a major cause of failure
leading to many generator problems described in Chapter 2. It impacts many large
synchronous generators and, to some extent, large induction motors with different end
winding designs. Specifically in the case of waterbox design stators, this problem is
widespread for an unacceptable number of machine outages.
Generator stator end windings structure is complex but low in stiffness and has highly
nonlinear damping coefficients. Unless provisional re-tensioning features are built into
the end winding support structure as in some large hose design stators, re-tensioning of
the end winding structure can involve major re-design and implementation. Such
modifications to the original end winding structures should have the primary objective
of improving the overall stiffness to minimise the vibrations of conductors. The success
is measured by how much the natural resonance frequency is shifted away from the 100
Hz fundamental [12] [38].
In order to effectively manage this problem, several solutions have been implemented.
Notably, the solutions were selected mainly on the basis of economic considerations.
Since this problem is more common in waterbox generators, special attention was paid
to this type of generator. A sample of twenty six waterbox design generators below 300
MW reveals that, to date, Solution 1 was implemented in 8 generators; Solution 2 was

156
implemented in 4 generators. Two stators were rewound to the original waterbox design
windings. Table 1 provides further details from the survey.
Following is a set of solutions which has been successfully applied to remedying the end
winding looseness problem.
4.1.6.1 SOLUTION 1: Modi7ying Existing Generator Stator Winding

Support Systems
Detailed investigations on ten large generators that suffered similar problems of loose
stator end windings concluded that there were four main contributors to the problem:
(1) inadequacy of structural bonding between the conductors themselves and their
support structures,
(2) inadequate strength of non-metallic tie rods over time at elevated operating
temperatures, causing them to stretch and become ineffective,
(3) overall inadequacy of structural stiffness of the end winding support combs, and
(4) inadequate bonding support of conductor ends to support combs.

157
Thus, this solution aims to improve the stiffness of stator winding support structures and
reduce the vibration of stator conductors resulting in a significant reduction of risk of
subconductor fracturing. It is a trade-off solution in balancing the effectiveness and
economic benefits in comparison with complete rewinding. It involves a major
modification of the existing end winding support structures but retains the original resin
waterboxes.
One of the key features of this solution is the utilisation of the unique propriety product
called Inflatable Resin Pressure Filled (IRPF) bags. Compared with the original
opposing fibreglass wedge system, the IRPF bags system offers a superior alternative of
tightening the conductors in end winding regions. The large contact surface area
between the bags and the conductors produces much less pressure on the insulation
while exerting strong overall forces on the conductors. This eliminates the risk of
indentation and spot abrasion of conductor wall insulation. This technique is particularly
effective on waterbox generators where the conductor insulation in the end winding
region is relatively soft. After having been installed in the required locations, the bags
are filled with slow curing resin under pressure, producing strong forces on conductors
and other components. Once the resin is fully cured all conductors are tightly held
together in their permanent positions and the bags conform to the conductor profiles,
thus achieving a superior restraining system for the end windings.
To effect this solution, various sections of the existing end winding restrain system are
removed and the following modifications implemented:

158
1) Inner Involute Modification:
The original end winding support cone (Figure 10), also called involute cone, provides a
support structure for the conductors. A system of long fibreglass opposing wedges was
driven between the cone and the inner layer of conductors to retain the conductors in the
end winding involute tightly together as described in Section 2.2.1.1. The original
fibreglass opposing wedges was replaced with Inflatable Resin Pressure Filled (IRPF)
bags as shown in Figure 71.
During the installation, the bags are injected with a high pressure synthetic resin. This
process is designed to exert strong forces on both conductor layers pushing them
together and toward the end winding support brackets. The pressure is maintained until
the resin is fully cured, locking the conductors tightly in position.
One of the major advantages of this technique is that the flexible IRPF bags conform
themselves to the irregular profile of conductors minimising the pressure on the
insulation while maintaining strong forces to retain the conductors in desired position.
For this reason, the IRPF bags are nicknamed 'conformable bags'.
2) Outer Involute Modification:
A similar system of IRPF bags is also installed behind the outer layer pushing the
conductors toward the generator centre line. New insulation blocks are added on the
159
sides of the existing end winding support brackets providing backing support for IRPF
bags as illustrated in Figure 69. Similarly, once the bags are pressurised with resin, they
push the conductors away from the end winding support brackets alleviate the rubbing
between the conductors and the end winding support brackets and together with the bag
system from the inner involute, tighten the conductors more effectively.
New axial fiberglass tie rods for

end winding support cone
Original end winding support

bracket
Added insulation block to provide

backing support for the IRPF bag
A fully inflated LRPF bag installed

between the added insulation block J
and end winding conductors
Figure 69. blocks added to sides of end winding support brackets to provide
backing support for 1IRPF bags.
3) End Support Comb Modification:
The end winding support comb consists of six separate segments individually mounted
on triangular support brackets. Investigation concluded that this construction did not
provide adequate strength for the comb, especially in the radial direction. To improve
160
the structural stiffness of the end winding support comb, a large fibreglass ring is
installed to the outer and inner perimeters of the existing support comb. The rings are
locked onto the comb with a system of high tensile fibreglass tie rods and small IRPF
bags as illustrated in Figure 70.
IRPF bag between new

rAddCd single piece fiberglass
ring installed to the original fiberglass reinforce ring
support comb and support comb
I
Original end winding support

—
comb
,1
L
11
:
\ 1
Resin waterbox with all
conductor cross links installed
/
Fiberglass reinforcing rings
C,
added to the inner involute
cone to improve stiffliess
Figure 70. Modification to the end windings of a 200 MW stator - showing the added
fibreglass reinforcing rings, waterbox and fully installed conductor cross
links.
4) Tie Rods Uptirade:
Investigation had revealed that the nylon rods used in tightening major parts of the end
winding, especially those used with the end winding support cone, did not have
sufficient tensile strength. Many of the rods were found stretched or to have come
161
undone in service. Thus all nylon rods were replaced with modern high tensile fibreglass
rods. The new rods offered 4 to 5 time higher strength than the original nylon ones,
contributing to higher stiffness of the end windings.
5) Support Comb Slot Modification:
Before entering the back of waterbox for termination stator conductors were supported
in the locating slots of the end winding support comb. The conductors were originally
wedged in position with small solid fibreglass wedges. Looseness of conductors was
found in the comb slots with evidence of insulation fretting dust. The solid fibre glass
wedges were removed and replaced with small IRPF bags. Once inflated to the designed
pressure and the resin was fully cured, the total contact support area was found
approximately double the original system. This provides significantly better support for
the conductors in the region of highest mechanical stress in the end windings.
6) Effectiveness Assessment
Effectiveness of the modification was assessed using the comparative technique of
modal analysis. Before and after the modification, each end winding was excited with a
broadband electro-dynamic actuator used as a controlled vibration source. The actuator
was affixed to the end winding structure at the inner perimeter of the support comb via a
force transducer and a thin force transmitter. The input force was measured at the force
transducer and the vibration response was measured at selected locations using
162
accelerometers temporarily attached to the end winding structure and the waterboxes.
The forces were measured in vertical and horizontal directions but not the axial
direction. Improvements in the stiffness of the end windings were gauged by analysing
of the signals. Table 7 shows typical values for the natural resonance frequency of the
end winding structures within a waterbox generator before and after the modification
[12].
Table 7. Summary of modal frequencies before and after modification [12].
Mode Natural frequencies (Hz) Description of mode shape

number Exciter End Turbine End
Before After Before After
1 59.8 69.1 58.5 69.1 Vertical bounce

2 69.6 77.1 68.2 79.8 1St Ringing mode
3 85.8 95.5 87.7 99.1 Ringing mode

4 1St
99.1 108.1 99.8 107.4 waterbox mode
109.6 116.6 2nd

5 112.4 123.7 waterbox mode
125.6 133.9 3rd
141.3 154.3 4th
150.9 5th
8 163.2 148.9 157.3 waterbox mode
Mode number 2, the so-called first ringing mode, is the most important mode in modal
analysis of generator end windings. It reflects the dynamic strength of the end windings:
the higher the frequency measured, the stiffer the end windings. This test result indicates
163
that at this ringing mode alone, stiffness of the modified end windings improved
considerably: at least 10% at the exciter end and 17% at the turbine end.
Table 7 also shows an increase in the natural resonance frequencies for all respective
natural modes. The general increase in the natural resonance frequency of these modes
implies a 20% to 40% global rise in stiffness of the end windings after the
modifications. From this it can be concluded that the modifications achieved their
objective of providing superior binding strength between the end windings and their
support structures. [15]
\\
\
\\
\
\
\
Stator conductors of inner layer

in the end winding involute
New IRPF bags installed prior

to installation of involute
support cone to replace the
original fiberglass opposing
wedges
New axial fiberglass tie rods

replaced the original nylon tie
rods
Figure 71. Installation of the Inflatable Resin Pressure Filled (IRPF) bags and new high
tensile fibreglass studs in a 200 MW stator end winding involute.
164
4.1.6.2 SOLUTION 2: Conversion of the Existing End Windings to

PTFE Hose Design
Further tests were carried out on the modified end windings with all resin waterboxes
removed from the end windings. It was found that all modes of frequency response
improved by an order of magnitude [12].
This important finding suggested that a further reduction of end winding vibration and
arduous mechanical stresses on stator conductors can be achieved by eliminating the
resin waterboxes and converting the stator coolant reticulation system to PTFE hose
system such as shown in Figure 72. By eliminating the main sources of vibration on the
end windings, the conversion is expected to deliver significant improvement in
reliability of the generator stator against any further end winding looseness and cracked
subconductors.
A complete design feasibility study was carried out to consider all technical details for
the conversion. It was concluded that it is technically feasible to convert the stator
coolant reticulation system of a waterbox generator stator to a hose design system
without replacing the stator conductors.
While the conversion will eliminate the use of resin waterboxes, alleviating static
stresses on the conductor ends and significantly reducing maintenance requirements, it
has one major drawback: because the stator conductors are retained, any existing copper
work hardening already present within some conductors can not be eliminated. In the
165
long-term, these could develop into cracks causing gas-in-stator-coolant-leakages.
However, the cost of this conversion is significantly less than that of a complete rewind,
as discussed in Solution 3 below.
4.1.6.3 SOLUTION 3: Complete Stator Rewind
Complete rewind of the generator stator will totally eliminate the three major
contributing factors of fault:
i. the existing insufficient strength winding support system,
ii. stator conductors that already have experienced copper work hardening as
depicted in Figure 15,
iii. the resin waterbox system.
In the case of waterbox style stators, additional benefits are gained in terms of reduction
in on-going maintenance and improvement in operating temperature limitation as the
cast resin waterbox will be eliminated. The modern PTFE hose design stators have
proven to be much more reliable and of low maintenance. The complete rewind option
would invariably incorporate the conventional hose design and modem class 'F'
fibreglass epoxy insulation system. However, this ultimate technical solution has a
166
major draw back: - its price! Figure 72 illustrates a typical hose design generator stator
windings.
Depending on the generator particulars, specific requirements of generator owner such
as delivery time and contractual issues, for example, in 2005, a complete stator rewind
of a 200 MW would cost approximately AUID 7 millions.
Figure 72. Typical arrangement of a hose-design generator stator end windings

[courtesy of Rolls Royce Industrial Power Group].
167
4.1.7 Conductor Damage by Foreign Objects - Magnetic

Termites
The damage caused by magnetic termites is regarded as a hidden failure. It can not be
detected by standard condition monitoring equipment. Once started, the worming
activity proceeds undetected until the symptoms such as gas in stator coolant leakage or
stator electrical faults are detected. At that stage, the termite has already cut its way
through the stator conductor wall insulation.
In some known fortunate cases, similar to that described in Section 2.2.4, the termite
stops before reaching the copper conductor because either its body mass is completely
eroded in the process or blown away by the hydrogen wind within the generator. In such
a case, the damaged conductor is reparable. Repairs of this type of damage greatly
depend on the extent and the location of the fault:
• If the fault occurs in the end-winding region away from stator core and there is
neither an electrical fault nor stator coolant leakage, the repair is relatively simple.
The 'worm crater' can be filled with an appropriate electrical epoxy filler to
restore the insulation rating and to prevent contamination. Where possible,
additional mica-glass insulation tape can be applied to the damaged area for added
protection.
• If the fault occurs in the end-winding region away from the stator core and there is
no electrical fault but gas in stator coolant is detected, the magnetic termite has cut
its way through at least one subconductor. Again, since the location of the fault is
168
adequately away from earth, repair may be possible without the need of conductor
replacement. However, extreme care must be taken during the shutdown and de-
gassing process of the generator to prevent water ingress into the stator conductor
insulation. The designed differential pressure between the stator coolant system
and hydrogen gas must be maintained until the stator coolant system is completely
drained from the generator. Hydrogen gas should then be removed from the
generator as soon as possible to minimise the risk of hydrogen leakage into the
subconductor inner space forming hydrogen pockets in the stator coolant system.
It must be also noted that, in an event of gas in stator coolant leakage, it is not
possible to determine the exact location of the fault until the generator is
dismantled and all conductors are pressure tested. In any case, to avoid potential
risk of wetting conductor insulation, the same precautionary measures, as
mentioned above are to be applied to all water-cooled generators during the
degassing process. Provided that the number of damaged subconductors is no
more than three, they can be blocked to stop hydrogen in stator coolant leakage;
similar to that discussed in Section 4.1.4. The conductor insulation is then repaired
as described in the previous part of this section.
• If the fault occurs close to the stator core, it usually leads to a secondary failure
involving an electrical fault or a deterioration of DLA measurement. In this
situation, it is recommended that the affected conductors be replaced: on-site
repairs of high voltage stator conductors do not ensure an acceptable degree of
reliability.
169
Preventative measures are the best solution for this type of fault. The following
measures have been successfully implemented in generator maintenance practice and
recommended as a minimum requirement to prevent magnetic termites.
i. Ensure cleanliness of the generator inner space. Especially during overhauls
and repairs the end doors are removed, exposing generator stator to
contaminations such as weather and foreign objects. It is absolutely critical
that a 'clean condition" in the form of a lockable enclosure is set up around
the generator stator as soon as possible after the end doors are removed. All
personnel and tools entering the enclosure should be monitored. Some power
stations even go to the extent of guarding the entry of the enclosure. To
prevent small metal objects from being accidentally carried under footwear
into the generator space, aids such as stick mats placed at enclosure entrance,
dedicated non-metallic part rubber sole shoes or fabric overshoes are used.
ii. Arrange routine visual inspection and cleaning of generator stator core, end
windings, back of core, inner frame and all compartments within the stator
space.
iii. Carry out routine core lamination tightness test and ELCID test.
170
4.2 SoLuTioNs FOR GENERATOR ROTOR
4.2.1 Dealing with Stress Corrosion Cracking on Rotor

Retaining Rings
There is a significant amount of research and experience on this subject, the bulk of
which was done and acquired in the 1970's and 1980's when the power generation
utilities provided extensive resources into the studies of this problem. Retaining ring
failure in service is much more than a major catastrophe for the generator involved: but
it constitutes a potential safety risk to personnel and the surrounding equipments in the
power station..
Studies point to a main cause of failure: stress corrosion cracking, a phenomenon of
crack propagation in the austenitic steel alloy initiated by corrosion pitting and
propagating under influence of high tensile stresses, invariably leading to catastrophic
failure of rotor retaining rings. It has been found that stress corrosion cracking occurs
along and through grain boundaries of the material. These cracks form under a
combination of tensile stress and corrosive environment. The failure mechanism has
been described in Section 2.3.1.1.
Although retaining ring failure is catastrophic, such failure constitutes a small
percentage compared with the total number of retaining rings in service. There is no
exact record available for the total number of retaining rings have been replaced,
171
however, is it believed that over 50% of non magnetic retaining rings have been
replaced with the latest material 18-Magnesium 18-Chromium alloy, also known as
l8Mnl8Cr or l8Mnl8Cr material. The majority of retaining ring replacements is
through either asset management initiatives or risk management initiatives or from
small, under critical crack size cracks, discovered during routine inspections. The
remaining 1 8Mn4Cr and 1 8Mn5Cr retaining rings in service are operated under strictly
controlled operating environment in terms of exposure to moisture and corrosive gases.
In 1991, Cigré Study Committee SC11 published Guidelines in the journal Electra,
Number 139 in December 1991, which also reported that '...The new l8Mnl8Cr
material is immune to stress corrosion and does not require periodic inspection for that
reason. The economics of the periodic inspection of 1 8Mn5Cr rings may justify the use
of the superior l8Mnl8Cr material with its improved fracture toughness..." [32].
Surprisingly, whilst the new l8Mnl8Cr material has many superior metallurgical
properties, especially to stress corrosion cracking over the earlier 1 8Mn5Cr material,
small cracks were discovered in ten 1 8Mn 18Cr retaining rings in a sample of 10,000
retaining rings manufactured. Fault investigations concluded that those defective rings
were subjected to exceptionally aggressive chemical contamination such as halide
solutions or other corrosive gases. Some of the cracks were up to 65 mm long and 40
mm deep but no catastrophic failure had occurred [23]. This has reinforced the claim
regarding the inherently very high fracture toughness of the 1 8Mn 18Cr material. OEM
recommendations on routine inspection strategies for 1 8Mn 18Cr rotor retaining rings
now specify their operating environment. In the case of closed cooling circuit generators
172
such as air, hydrogen, hydrogen-water cooled generators, periodic examination is not
mandatory for l8Mnl8Cr material as long as the cooling media is maintained at

acceptable level of dryness.
In the case of austenitic steel retaining rings made of common materials used previously
— such as 8Mn8Ni4Cr, 1 8Mn4Cr, 1 8Mn5Cr, the rings must be replaced if they have
detectable cracks, however small. Otherwise, the following strategies are acceptable and
commonly adopted by many machine owners in order to manage the retaining rings at
minimum risk.
4.2.1.1 Regular Examination
Generator rotor retaining rings made of older materials should be removed from the
rotor and non-destructively examined on a regular basis; usually every 4 to 6 years
depending on the operational duty and environmental conditions. More frequent

examination is recommended for those generators subjected to more start-stop
operations and less rigorously controlled cooling media for elements such as moisture
and corrosive gases. The most successful examination technique for stainless retaining
rings is dye-penetrant examination as described in Chapter 3 Section 3.2.9. In addition
to the benefits of thorough examination of retaining rings, this practice also provides an
opportunity to inspect and overhaul the rotor windings.

173
Despite the above benefits it is, however, costly to remove the retaining rings from the
rotor and there is a degree of measurable potential risk of overheating and mechanical
damage to the retaining rings in the removal and refitting processes. To be removed
from the rotor, the retaining rings are heated with either electrical heating elements
strapped on the outside surface or with gas fire heating ring or more recently, with
induction heating coils. Figure 73 shows a typical arrangement of a rotor retaining ring
been refitted with electrical heating elements. In carrying out the removal and refit
procedure, it is critically important that well proven work procedures are employed to
minimise the risk of damage to the retaining rings. Incidents such as local overheating of
retaining rings due to improper heating rate, incorrect installation of heating elements
causing flash-over on the ring surface, an inexperience technician applying excessive
force to the rings before they are sufficiently expanded causing physical damage to the
shrink fits could cause excessive damage.

174
4.2.1.2 Ultrasonic Examination
An alternative method of the dye penetrant inspection is ultrasonic examination as
described in Section 3.2.9. Here, the in-situ NDT examination utilises ultrasonic
techniques to search for cracks in the retaining ring material without the need to remove
the retaining rings from the rotor. Much refinement of this technique has been made in
the last 20 years and it has become much more reliable and more widely accepted by the
power generation industry. Nowadays this technique is further refined by the use of a
small robotic arm to examine retaining rings without removing the rotor from the
generator housing.
175
4.2.1.3 Environmental Control
To minimise the risk of onset corrosion and therefore avoiding stress corrosion cracking
on retaining rings, it is absolutely critical that they are kept dry in service and during
routine outages. The operating environment should be maintained at maximum
practicable dryness by means of dehumidification equipment such as hydrogen driers
and monitored with hydrogen dew point monitoring systems - either manual or
automatic.
For example, in the case of steam driven hydrogen cooled generators, for economic
reasons, it is common that the turbine lubrication oil system is shared with hydrogen
seal oil system. Gland steam from turbine rotors often contaminates the lubrication oil
system, especially during start-up. The moisture contained in the lubricating oil then
finds its way into the generator hydrogen seals system and contaminates the generator
hydrogen gas. The moisture contamination problem is further exacerbated in those
generators which are subjected to a large number of start-stop operations. For this
reason, it is critical that generator hydrogen driers and moisture removers in lubricating
oil system, such as static filters or centrifuge water-oil separators, are well maintained at
a high performance standard to ensure their optimum performance and minimise the risk
of wet hydrogen.
This strategy is however somewhat impractical for open circuit single pass air cooled
generators, since the moisture content in the atmospheric cooling air is, most of the
176
time, much higher than desirable and very expensive to control. For this reason, the only
safe solution for this type of generator is to replace the older material retaining rings
with modern l8Mn 18Cr material.
It is equally important that the environment surrounding the retaining ring is kept dry
during the routine overhauls, repairs or inspections. This critical aspect is, unfortunately,
often overlooked by generator owners and service contractors. Under unfavourable
ambient condition, such as 80% relative humidity at 5°C ambient temperature, surface
rust has been found on rotor retaining rings and other rotor components overnight. The
retaining rings ought to have been housed in a hermetically controlled enclosure in such
a way that the surrounding air is warmer or drier than the outside atmosphere to prevent
initiation of corrosion. This can be achieved by simply utilising enclosures such as the
one shown in Figure 74. in conjunction with electric heaters, heat lamps and
dehumidifier units. The environmental control method can significantly vary with the
geographic location of the rotor; however, experience has shown that as long as the
retaining rings are maintained at approximately 2°C above the ambient temperature at all
times, corrosion on retaining rings is successfully prevented. Normally, it is easier and
more practical to control the storage temperature than humidity as the enclosure is
regularly accessed by technicians who work on the rotor and the retaining rings during
the outage.
177
Furthermore, it is extremely important that under no circumstances the retaining ring is
covered with plastic material in direct contact as this could promote a risk of moisture
formation on the ring in a relatively short time.
In the case of air cooled generators and most modern hydrogen cooled generators, off-
load heaters are automatically switched on as soon as the generator is de-synchronised
to prevent moisture condensation on the retaining rings and other components.
Rotor and retaining ring

temporary storage enclosure
Rotor end winding I week

after cleaning and overhauling
Figure 74. A 120 MW turbo-generator rotor and its retaining rings housed in a
temperature controlled enclosure during a routine overhaul.
178
4.2.1.4 Surface Protection
In assisting to combat the stress corrosion cracking problem, surface protection against
corrosion on generator rotor retaining rings is an important practice for 1 8Mn4Cr,
1 8Mn5Cr and other previously used materials. Usually, the external surface of retaining
ring is painted with appropriate epoxy based paints and the inner surface with Teflon
based paints that can offer low friction coefficient as well as corrosion protection.
However, it is not practicable to achieve a complete coverage on all surfaces; for
instance, shrink fit surfaces can not be painted. Whilst there is some debate as to
whether retaining rings should be painted for corrosion protection, there is general
acceptance in power generation industry and on the part of OEM's that, for older
materials, painting does provide an acceptable degree of corrosion protection.
In contrast, due to the superior material properties and the immunity to stress corrosion
cracking of l8Mnl8Cr stainless steel alloy, retaining rings manufactured from this
material do not require surface protection. This does not only eliminate one maintenance
activity but more importantly further improves the sensitivity of in-situ ultrasonic non-
destructive examination.
179
Retaining ring re-installed

and painted for protection
aeainst S
Electric heater with automatic thermostat to

control temperature surrounding retaining ring
Figure 75. Surface treatment against corrosion on a l8Mn5Cr retaining ring of a 120
MW generator rotor.
4.2.1.5 Crack Removal
It is common that small cracks are detected from the older materials such as 1 8Mn5Cr
during routine inspections. Often they are microscopic cracks adjoining the corrosion
craters called pitting. As the corrosion pittings are very small they tend to intensify the
stress concentration leading to cracking. When cracks are detected in retaining rings it is
absolutely critical that they are completely removed by machining or local excavation
and polishing using appropriate abrasive discs. It is also critical to examine the defective
area with high precision surface replication during crack removal to ensure that all the
180
cracks and their roots are completely removed. Stress calculations either by traditional
methods or finite element stress analysis should be performed to verify the remaining
strength of the retaining ring after the cracks are removed. In most cases, the OEM of
the retaining rings can provide assistance in performing stress calculations and repairs.
For economical reasons, it is uncommon for a power generation utility to keep spare
retaining rings, unless they have a large number of identical generators in their fleet. On
the other hand, delivery times are long due to strong demand and special material used.
Thus, the utilities may not have any other options but to repair the defective retaining
rings and return the generator to service while obtaining the replacement rings.
Fortunately, in most cases retaining rings can be repaired by completely removing the
cracks and performing stress calculations to confirm the remaining strength, unless
cracks are larger than so called critical sizes.
4.2.1.6 A Case Study
In the case study described in Section 2.3.2, cracks were detected by ultrasonics Time-
of-Flight-Detection (TOFD) method with the retaining rings in-situ, as described in
Section 3.2.9. The defected retaining ring was later removed from the rotor and further
examined using a combination of microscopic examination, replication and ultrasonics
techniques. Two main cracks, denoted as Crack A and Crack B were found amongst a
constellation of microscopic cracks as recorded in Figure 76.

181
I.
.' ---j
4.3
I,
I
1
f L12 35
is ,(
I
L
6'7.f
•1•• 1 1 If I,
og
Figure 76. Location and geometric details of the 2 main cracks recorded before
machining on the 200 MW generator retaining ring.
Fortunately, the cracks had occurred in the bayonet region of the retaining ring where
the operational stress is relatively low. Following the initial estimate of crack depths
using ultrasonic examination techniques, the bayonet region of the retaining ring was
machined to a depth of 4.95 mm to remove Crack B and part of Crack A.
The retaining ring was set up on a high precision Vertical Turret Boring (VTB) machine
as shown in Figure 77. Influenced by the enormous centrifugal forces of rotor end
windings, retaining rings almost always become slightly elliptical. A special clamping
system was deployed as shown in Figure 77 to restore the parallel cylindrical shape of
the retaining ring during the machining operation.

182
In addition, a temperature controlled enclosure was erected covering the entire VTB
machine and the retaining ring to prevent stress corrosion cracking from occurring
during the machining operation.
Temporary clamping ring to

force the retaining ring back into
round shane during machinino
/
Retaining ring being machined
J
Figure 77. Machining of a 200 MW generator rotor retaining ring to remove cracks in
the bayonet groove using a high precision Vertical Turret Boring Machine.
After machining to a depth of 4.95 mm of the inner circumference of the retaining ring
bayonet, Crack B was completely removed and Crack A had changed its shape and size
as shown in Figure 78. It was found that Crack A had broken up to many smaller cracks
branched out in different directions following the material grain boundaries; a
distinctive characteristic of stress corrosion cracking.

183
Figure 78. Location and geometric details of the remaining cracks after machining to a
depth of 4.95 mm of the inner circumference of the retaining ring bayonet.
At various stages of the machining process, microscopic replica examinations were
carried out to monitor the development of the cracks. It was observed that while
penetrating deeper into the material, the cracks changed their directions and shape
rapidly following intergranular boundaries. This observation confirmed the surface
stress corrosion cracking to be of the same nature as intergranular stress corrosion
cracking. Figure 79 illustrates this finding with a x50 magnification of Crack A after 2
mm of material thickness was removed.

184
Stress corrosion crack propagation was found

along material inter-granular boundaries
I •
Figure 79. Appearance of Crack A (Figure 76) after machining to a depth of 2 mm

(viewing at x50 magnification) revealed intergranular propagation of the
crack.
185
4.2.2 Remedy for Electrical Arcing on Rotor Retaining

Rings
When arcing damage such as that shown in Figure 24 is detected, it is critical that it is
completely removed, either by local grinding excavation or polishing. The actual
removal technique can vary depending on the severity of damage. Similar to crack
removal, the arcing defect should be monitored with metallurgical techniques such as
microscopic visual and dye penetrant examinations progressively in conjunction with
hardness testing while material is removed from the retaining ring. It must be ensured
that all hardened material and all possible microscopic cracks, especially at the bottom
of the arcing spot, are completely removed.
4.2.2.1 Fault Prevention
The most effective means of preventing the arcing spots on the retaining rings is to
avoid negative phase sequence currents generated on the rotor. This can be achieved by
ensuring that the generator protection system is well maintained, reliable and all
protection tripping logic and timing are set to appropriate values.
In addition, the fitting arrangement between retaining rings and other rotor components
can be designed to avoid stray electrical currents from crossing the components. This is
somewhat impractical and uneconomical to implement on existing rotors with older
designs as usually there is little scope for modification in this part of the rotor. Modem
generators have adopted many new features to prevent this fault. Figure 22 shows an
186
example. The so called bayonet design (1) has its balance ring shrunk onto the outboard
end of the retaining ring barrel, making good electrical contact, hence preventing arcing
between the two components in contrast to the parallel cylindrical design (2).
Conversely, nylon insulation blocks are fitted at the end of the slot wedges to prevent
arcing from occurring between the retaining rings and rotor slot wedges, as
demonstrated in Figure 80. With features such as these, electrical arcing damage on
retaining rings is rarely seen in the modern generator rotors.
Rotor slot wedges
Nylon blocks designed to prevent

rotor wedges from making electrical
contacts with retaining ring rings
Figure 80. Rotor slot wedges of a 200 MW hydrogen cooled generator rotor - showing
nylon insulation blocks designed to prevent electrical contacts with rotor
retaining rings.
187
4.2.3 Dealing with Copper Dusting Problem in Rotor

Windings
Copper dusting can have devastating effects on the reliability of synchronous generators
as explained in Section 2.3.3. The problem is more common in high speed turbo
generators and can be further exacerbated by operating regimes involving wide range of
load fluctuation or a large number of starts as in the case of gas turbine driven
generators and two sh(fting operations.
Optimum solutions for copper dusting in rotor windings vary depending on the severity
of the problem, design and construction, economic life and operational requirements of
the generator. They can range from minor modifications to complete replacement of the
windings and redesign of the rotor.
In some severe cases of rotor copper dusting, more radical solutions may need to be
adopted. Modification to the existing copper windings or a complete replacement of the
rotor windings incorporating newer technology can eliminate rotor copper dusting
problem. Examples of some practical solutions to remedy copper dusting are presented
next.
188
4.2.3.1 Modification of Rotor Coil Top Insulation Pads
Modification of the top of slot insulation pads is deemed to be the most cost effective
solution. In the case of a generator rotor, where copper dusting is not severe and the
bulk of copper dust being produced between the top rotor coil and its associated
insulation system, the following modifications are recommended:
• The inner surface of the original top insulation pads is machined to accommodate a
new insulation layer of low friction coefficient material and to provide a clean
surface for appropriate adhesive to work effectively.
• A layer of low friction but high mechanical strength insulation material such as
Nomex is then adhered to the machined surface with appropriate epoxy. In contact
with the copper coil instead of the abrasive glass fibres, materials such as Nomex
will allow the copper coils to slide more freely without generating copper dusting.
Figure 81 exemplifies the modification.
Figure 81. Modification of coil top insulation pads to improve coils' freedom of
movement and to reduce copper abrasion of a 120 MW generator rotor.
189
This solution is designed to address only the interface between the rotor winding top
turn and the top insulation packing. It is a very cost effective solution and in many cases
eliminates the majority of copper dusting generation. It is, however, critical that the
laminating process is carried out correctly with high level on confidence to prevent
delamination of the Nomex insulation sheet in service risking blockages to rotor coil
cooling ducts. Difficulties have been experienced when the laminating process is carried
out without special machinery. For this practical reason, it is recommended that only
short insulation pads of a maximum length of 600 mm be modified for this kind of
retrofit operation.
This solution has been adopted on at least four selected 120 MW generators. Follow up
inspections have revealed a significantly reduced copper dusting activity after the
modification.
4.2.3.2 Replacement of Rotor Coil Top Insulation Pads
In single wedge rotor designs, the coil top insulation pads are made of single strips of
fibreglass insulation, usually between 2 m to 5 m long, depending on rotor rating,
covering the whole length of rotor slots. It is impractical to modify the existing strips
using the same procedure for the shorter pads shown in Figure 81, unless special milling
machinery is available. It is better that the original strips be replaced with new strips
machined from fibreglass sheets which are already laminated with Nomex insulation,
190
fabricated in a controlled manufacturing environment. This ensures a far superior
quality, eliminating the risk of delamination in service. In addition, taking the
opportunity of the replacement, further refinements can be incorporated by utilising
back-to-back laminated strips to prevent abrasion between the insulation pad, copper top
coil and the rotor slot wedges. Two thinner strips of laminated fibreglass strips are
sandwiched together so that the fibreglass sides faced each other: with one Nomex side
in contact with the top rotor coil and the other Nomex side in contact with the slot
wedge. To maintain the alignment of the two half strips they are glued together only at
the middle.
An added benefit from this retro-fit is that the new two-part insulation strips can be
machined, on the fibreglass sides, to custom fit individual slots to compensate for the
excessive gaps created by the compression and abrasion wear of the rotor coil stack.
This further reduces coil movement and copper dusting, generated during the so called
barring - idle rolling of stock. This is particularly beneficial for aging rotors where the
compressions and wear in rotor coil stacks are not uniform.
This modification is slightly more expensive and requires forward planning; however, it
offers better quality of lamination and further reduces metal to fibreglass abrasion as
well as other added benefit. Figure 82 shows the two-part replacement insulation strips
prior to installation. This retrofit solution was successfully implemented in a 200 MW
generator rotor. A follow up inspection after 6 years of load following operation

___
191
observed significant reduction in abrasion wear on both copper top coils and the
aluminium slot wedges with negligible amount of copper dusting as shown in Figure 83.
Figure 82. New two-part replacement rotor coil top insulation strips.
Black paste was analysed and

found contained about 10%
copper/aluminum dust and 90%
of other non metallic
contaminants.
—
-
L
- —
-
Thicker half Nomexlfiberglass
Thinner half Nomex/fibergiass
laminated strips in direct
• laminated strips that glued to
contact with aluminum
the underside of the main strips
Figure 83. Minimum copper dusting was observed on the same two-part replacement
rotor coil top insulation strips as shown in Figure 82 after 6 years in service.
192
4.2.3.3 Modification of Rotor Windings
The main objectives of rotor winding modification are:
• to remove the rubbing action between the interfaces of the uninsulated half turns in
each individual coil as previously described in Section 2.3.3: This modification
requires the rotor windings to be dismantled and completely removed from the
rotor. Following a thorough inspection and overhaul of the half coils, a thin,
(usually 25 microns to 40 microns), insulation strip of very low friction coefficient
high electrical insulation property material such as Nomex is installed between the
half-turns, usually with a strong adhesive. Each strip is glued to one half-turn only
to prevent delamination due to differential thermal expansions. The insulation
strips contain perforated slots matching the cooling holes in the rotor coils
allowing the rotor ventilation system to function correctly.
• to eliminate abrasion wearing of the rotor top coils and the aluminium slot wedges
against the fibreglass top pads: This area is addressed in Section 4.2.3.2.
• to eliminate the copper abrasion wearing on the sides of rotor coils against their
slot liners: The previous slot liners are replaced with new fibreglass slot liners,
with laminated Nomex lining on the inner side.
This modification has been incorporated in the rewind of many radially cooled rotors
where the copper coils are in serviceable conditions. Since the copper coils are reused,
the modification offers a significant saving compared with complete winding

193
replacement. However, there is a number of disadvantages to the modification and some
rotors have experienced problems after the rewind. The most common problem has been
the migration of the thin insulation strips installed between the half turns causing
blockages to the rotor winding cooling ducts. The risk of this kind of blockage is
relatively small, yet, even with only one insulation strip failing to remain in position, the
rotor would have to be completely stripped and rewound.
In contrast, another modification commonly used in the industry involves spot welding
of the half turns together at their centres instead of using the insulation strips. While this
modification does not have the risk of cooling duct blockages, it can result in restriction
of coil movement under influence of rotor coil thermal expansion and contraction. Some
coils can have a tendency to migrate to one end of the rotor resulting in severe coil
distortion, short circuits in the end winding regions and imbalance problems.
For the above reasons, radical modifications such as those discussed are unpopular.
Instead, generator owners more often elect to replace the entire rotor windings. The
benefits of long term reliability can easily justify the additional costs.
194
4.2.3.4 Replacement of Rotor Windings
This is technically the best solution. Complete replacement of rotor windings and its
insulation system offers a great opportunity to upgrade the rotor to incorporate modern
design features including conversion to a combined radial/axial cooling coil system and
eliminating the half turn coil design. As illustrated in Figure 26, the axial cooling rotor
winding does not include the half turn coils; instead the cooling gas is pressurised into
the insulated hollow rotor coils and exhausted along their perforations [43].
Naturally, the replacement would include new design Nomex laminated slot liners and
better top of slot insulation system. In most modern rotors with axial or hybrid
axial/radial cooling systems copper dusting is found to be negligible.
4.2.3.5 Strategy for Rotors with Copper Dusting Problem
Future strategy for large synchronous cylindrical rotors largely depends on specific
design features, precondition, operating regimes and service life requirement. It is
crucially important that a correct asset management decision is made to maximise the
required service life of the rotor at minimum cost. The following flow chart suggests a
decision making process in asset management of a rotor that has suffered copper dusting
fault.
195
Figure 84. Asset Management Strategy for dealing with copper dusting problem in large
196
4.2.4 Remedy for Rotor Coil Overheating
The case described in Section 2.3.4 addressed the importance of routine visual
inspection practice in the case of large synchronous generators. In this particular case,
the fault was in its infancy; hence relatively simple to remedy. However, it had the
potential to escalate to a major failure of the rotor windings and could have led to a
partial rewind.
For repair, the damaged coil was first partially lifted above the rotor slot to enable
access and thorough examination. The coil was found to be badly distorted and had
expanded against the slot liner making removal relatively difficult. The affected area
showed heavy blue discolouration indicating that it was very hot for a long period of
time.
The coil was reshaped to its original dimensions by filing and sanding as shown in
Figure 85. Although a small amount of copper was lost in the repair, the remaining coil
cross sectional area was checked and confirmed to be sufficient for the required rotor
current. The fibre glass insulation pads above the coil were found partially destroyed
and replaced.
The insulation system at the end of rotor slots is critically important. It ensures adequate
insulation grading for the rotor coils and prevents the top insulation pads from migrating
axially, causing blockages to the rotor winding cooling ducts. Figure 86 depicts the new
197
assembly arrangement of the insulation system at the end of each slot. To prevent fault
from recurring, a modification was incorporated into the end of slot insulation system,
which included:
• a replacement of the original rubberised asbestos coil caps with stronger reinforced
fibreglass Nomex lining troughs.
• new design laminated Nomex flexible end flags, bridging from the end wedges to
the end winding insulation wrapping. After the retaining rings are installed, the
flexible end flags function as an anchor point for the end wedges as well as the top
of slot insulation pads, as illustrated in Figure 86.
• new end wedges, redesigned to suit new coil caps and Nomex flexible end flags.
Damaged areas on a rotor coil from

overheating being lifted and repaired
-- .a
Figure 85. A damaged rotor coil due to overheating being partially lifted from its
winding and repaired. Note the distortion on the copper coil and the
reshaped cooling slot.
198
In addition, the underside of each top of coil fibreglass insulation pad (in contact with
copper top coil) was laminated with a layer of 0.75 mm Nomex insulation, a material
with a low friction coefficient, to improve the coil's freedom of movement due to
thermal expansion and to reduce copper dusting as in Figure 81, Section 4.2.3.1.
l22rrrrvr
105.8 nevt (onry to —lire1
ROtOr Cod (Top Turn)
ii
Rotor Body. 4521n,r, length
5th leOn.. .. ..... ..,,.

5th layer O.75n-nl Nonleo (On top & 40000 fron, end Of FlegOl
4th layen Nonleo (On top & 2orroe 500, end Of
3rd toynt: 0.250,,, Noreen (nente Noel & bolt egeo,ot - End
2nd layer 0.37n-.o P.T.F.E (nenre level & 301.0 front T-Eed Flagol
lot layen 0.75rrnn Noreen (inner ornot. under 1-End Ft &
105.8 rrn,, (very to suit) butts against the
Generator Rotor I
QAto.rnAGR23-1
Arrangement of Slot Insulation Packing and a. a. File EPADASS.SKD
End Winding Insulation Wrap Assembly
Figure 86. Assembly drawing of the rotor end of slot insulation system. Note the
locking arrangement of components to prevent migration of the top
insulation pads.
An inspection was carried out on the same rotor 5 years after the modification. Despite
significant increase in the number of Unit starts, it was observed that the end of slot
insulation system had functioned well. No defects were found in the rotor coil
ventilation system and all end of slot components were found to be in very good
serviceable conditions.
199
4.2.5 Dealing with Rotor Inter-Turn Short Circuit
Detection of rotor shorted turn fault is relatively simple since it is accompanied by a step
change in shaft vibration at synchronous speed and a small increase in excitation current
from the Automatic Voltage Regulator [37].
A more sophisticated online monitoring method is available to detect this type of fault
using a rotor shorted turn detector. This system involves installation of a quadrature
axis detection coils in the generator air gap, usually on a stator slot wedge. Waveform
generated from the detection coils is analysed and compared with that of a healthy rotor.
Abnormalities of a waveform would indicate a short circuit between coils within the
rotor windings. Despite the high cost of installation and associated analysing equipment,
this online monitoring technique offers a high degree of accuracy and a high level of
confidence in detecting rotor shorted turns in large cylindrical synchronous generator
rotors.
It is recommended that an online rotor shorted turn detection system is installed to
rotors of more than 30 years in service operated in peak load mode, especially if they
have a high risk of shorted turns.

200
Figure 87 End windings and locations of inter-turn short circuits at the coil cross-overs
of a 28 years old 200 MW synchronous generator rotor.
201
4.2.6 Remedy for Rotor Radial Connector Faults
4.2.6.1 Overheating
Following discovery of the fault as described in Section 2.3.6. A close examination on
all Items shown in Figure 88, found that the electrical contact surface between the main
connection tube (Item 2) and the connection palm (Item 1) was less than 5%
(approximately 250 mm2) of the total designed surface area. This forced a large portion
of rotor current to flow in the alternative but higher resistance path through the
compression nut (Item 5 - made of tOO! steel), the stainless steel tie bolt (Item 3) and the
conical locking nut (Item 10 - made of tool steel) resulting in severe heat damage as
shown in Figure 89.
The finding was most alarming as the stainless steel tie bolt (Item 3) was designed to
hold the components of the radial assembly together; not to carry electrical currents!
During installation, the stainless steel tie bolt is tensioned to lOONm and remained
under tension in service to secure the radial connector assembly in position. Once
overheated, its strength is lowered, risking dislodgement of the whole radial assemble
while the rotor is rotating at high speed. This type of fault also has a dangerous side
effect of hydrogen leaks if also the rubber gas seals suffer heat damage.
In this particular case, it was concluded that improper installation and inadequate quality
assurance were responsible for the failure. To restore the radial assembly and prevent
future failure, the following actions including improvements were taken:

202
• All electrical components such as the connection palm (Item 1) and the main
connection tube (Item 2) were machined and aligned to ensure maximum

electrical contact surface area.
• All electrical contact surfaces were further improved by electroplating with to
1 of silver as shown in Figure 91.
• The heat affected stainless steel bolt was replaced to ensure safety.
• All gas seals were replaced and upgraded to higher temperature synthetic
compounds. The square cross section seal (Item 13) was redesigned to new
dimensions and geometry for better sealing and easier installation.
• All components within the radial connection assembly were checked and upgraded
where possible ensuring correct installation.
• Quality assurance and installation procedures were developed in parallel with the
repair.
A follow-up inspection 4 years later revealed no deterioration or defect on the radial
assembly.
Filename
Generator Rotor Radial Connection Assembly

200 MW Synchronous Generator
DATE:20/1Q/95 PAGE:lofl
204
Inadequate electrical contact surface on main palm connector
Figure 89. Discolouration of all components in rotor radial connection indicating

severe overheating damage.
Electrical contact surfaces of main

connection palm was machined
Figure 90. The connection palms have been machined and checked for surface
alignment with main connection tubes.
205
Figure 91. Electrical contact surfaces such as those of the main connection tubes are
further improved by electroplating with 8 to 12 of silver.
4.2.6.2 Fracture of Main Connection Tube
As depicted in the assembly drawing of Figure 88, the main connection tube (Item 2) is
first assembled with its associated components including gas seals (Items 6, 8, 10, 13)
then screwed into the up-shaft lead D-section, making electrical and mechanical
connections. Electrical connection is completed by installing the connection palm (Item
1) to the main connection tube and tightened together with the compression nut (Item 5).
Finally, the stainless steel tie bolt (Item 3) is screwed into the internal conical nut that
has already been placed in the cavity at the bottom of the main connection tube and
206
tightened. This locks the complete radial connector assembly together and secures all
components. As the stainless steel tie bold is tightened to correct tension, the internal
conical locking nut (Item 10) exerts a radial force on the segmented section of the main
connection tube causing it to expand outward and its threads lock onto the up-shaft lead
threads.
The initial observation on the design of the radial connection assembly, particularly
where threads on the main connection tube meet to the up-shaft leads suggests that this
section of threads endures high bending stresses once the internal conical locking nut is
fully engaged and tightened. The fracture line was found on the bottom of the first
thread immediately above the interface to the up-shaft lead D-section; the high bending
stress region.
A metallurgical examination on the fractured radial connection tube was carried out to
determine the failure mechanism and the root cause of failure as explained below.
First, the fracture surface was visually examined using a stereomicroscope at x30
magnification revealed the following:
• The polygonal formation as shown Figure 92 indicates a typical intergranular
fracture [39].
• The fracture had occurred for a long time and has patches of discolouration
resulting from possible contamination in a corrosive environment; not heat stress!

207
• There was a total absence of electrical arcing and overheating damage that could
have resulted from excessive current density.
Next, a more in-depth microscopic examination was carried out. A small section of one
broken segment selected randomly was cut across the fracture surface and prepared
metallographically to show the fracture profile and the microstructure of the metal. It
was confirmed that the fracture had an intergranular path and intergranular subsidiary
cracks. The metallurgical report stated: "The structure of the metal was typical of an
annealed high conductivity copper with, however, evidence of a grain boundary
precipitate of an impurity, and a large grain size. The precipitate would have grown in
the grain boundaries during annealing process of the material" [39].
As stress corrosion cracking will occur in a susceptible material if a threshold stress is
exceeded in the presence of a specific environment. As explained above, the region of
the connection tube where the cracks occurred had been found to have high levels of
mechanical stress, especially bending. The hydrogen environment, however, under
normal circumstances, should be very dry and clean. The contamination as found on the
fractured surface could not have been from the hydrogen, but either from the insulation
breakdown of the up-shaft lead outer insulation tube or from handling contamination
after the radial connectors were removed from the rotor.
It was concluded that the two most probable major contributing factors causing cracking
in the radial connection tubes are:

208
• Stress corrosion cracking: The ever present bending stress, combined with the
contamination of the connection tubes with moisture and chemical residue during
routine overhaul together with the inherently large grain boundaries of material
could have initiated the cracks. In addition, it is not uncommon that copper stock
contains impurities such as arsenic or cadmium, or intentional additives required
for de-oxidisation and improved machining properties (such as phosphorous).
• Excessive bending stresses on the connection tube at the interface with up-shaft
leads is further aggravated under the influence of thermal expansion on the
connection tube during start-ups and shut-downs. This contributing factor is more
apparent in the recent years since the operational regime of the affected generators
has changed from base load to peak load.
From the above analysis, the following improvements were incorporated in all
generators with similar types of radial connection assemblies and in the future
maintenance strategy of the power station:
• All subsequence replacements of the radial connection tubes are made of better
grade of copper, compatible with AS 1657 grade 110 that containing much less
impurities with finer material grain boundaries.
• The threads section on the main connection tube is electroplated with to
l2jim of pure silver to reduce the possibility of external chemical contamination
and to reduce friction, therefore the residue stresses, on the threads during
installation and removal of the main connection tube.

209
• The inspection period on the radial connection assembly was reduced to a
maximum of 10 years. addition, all components of radial assemblies are non-
destructively tested using a dye penetrant examination technique each time of the
rotor's major overhaul.
• Extreme care is taken to ensure that all components of the radial connection
assembly are stored and handled correctly, especially against contact with
chemicals and moisture.
A:-
210
4.2.7 Remedy for Up-Shaft Leads Fault
The traditional solution for this type of fault is to replace the insulation tube during each
major overhaul of the generator to restore the electrical insulation grading and to
minimise the risk of internal bore short circuit as described in Section 2.3.7.
However, this solution is not permanent and a root cause of failure analysis suggested
that that the insulating tube could have developed cracks during installation of the radial
connection assemblies or soon after the rotor was run up to full speed.
To permanently eliminate the risk electrical faults in the up-shaft lead assembly, the
following solutions were considered:
• Replace the insulation tube at more frequent intervals: This option is very
expensive and impractical. To safely replace the insulation tube, the up-shaft leads
must be extracted from the rotor bore. For most rotor designs, this involves the
removal of the rotor and its associated components such as retaining rings, balance
ring, outboard radial connectors, inboard radial connectors, cooling fans and so
on.
• Replace the entire up-shaft lead assembly with a moulded design such that the
complete assembly comes in one piece and the outer shell is machined to exact
dimension to suit individual rotor shaft bore in order to avoid crack formation.
This design has been utilised in some older generators. However, experience has
211
shown that while relatively solid in construction, this style of up-shaft lead
assembly has been known to be difficult in installation and removal for
maintenance. Often they are found to be stuck in the rotor shaft bore after some
years in service and suffer damage on removal due to excessive forces. A new up-
shaft lead assembly of this construction would cost approximately AUD $50,000
(1998 price).
• Replace the existing up-shaft lead assembly with new design leads where each D-
section is individually moulded with its own fibreglass / epoxy insulation system
and installed separately. This design eliminated the needs for the insulating tube
shell and the middle separator insulation strip as depicted in Figure 30. Most
modem generators utilise this design as it is simple to manufacture and easy to
install and remove for maintenance. A new up-shaft lead assembly of this design
costed approximately AUD $50,000 (1998 price).
• Modify the existing up-shaft leads in such a way that their electrical insulation
grading is always adequate regardless the condition of the insulating tube shell.
This modification involves:
o wrapping and gluing one layer of 0.63 mm Nomex insulation sheets
directly onto each individual D-section.
o machining a new insulating tube with diameters to suit the new overall
diameter of the modified D-sections and the rotor bore.

212
Once fully assembled, the electrical insulation of the leads is provided more than
adequately by the Nomex insulation layer. In addition, being completely wrapped with
the Nomex sheet, the D-section is well protected against any possible contaminant and
moisture in the shaft bore. The outer insulating tube merely provides a mechanical shell
for the assembly. This modification would provide the same result as the total
replacement options with the added benefits that the modification can be done in-house,
the existing D-sections can be reused and the total cost is around AUID $2,000 (1998
price).
This solution has been successfully implemented in four 200 MW generator rotors. A
follow up examination 6 years after the first generator was modified found that while
the insulating tube had developed two 300 mm long cracks, the Nomex insulation
wrapping on both D-sections was in perfect order with no deterioration in the overall
insulation resistance of the up-shaft lead assembly. The insulation resistance was
measured to be greater than 50 The modification was then verified as successful
and implemented in three more identical rotors. Figure 93 and Figure 94 provide the
technical details of this modification.

213
00 of insulating tube to fit rotor bore
Original ID of insulating tube before modification

Dimensions: Approx. 1021mm ID, 114.3mm 01) (=Bore dia.)
New ID of insulating tube
Dimensions: Approx. 104.1mm ID, 114.3mm OD (=Bore dia.)
Added 0.06mm Nomex sheet. Complete wrapped around

and glued onto each copper "(2' Sections with 'Anchor WeId'-lOl
Laminate Contact Adhesive with 12mm scarfing as shown.
-Scaff Joint at Insulation Ends
Rotor Up-Shaft Lead Assembly Modification SIGNATURE
200 MW Synchronous Generator SLEAO2V2.SKF
Figure 93. Pictorial description of modification to the up-shaft lead assembly for a 200
MW synchronous generator rotor.
Outer insulation shell
Up-shaft lead D-Seciions

assembly after being wrapped
with Nomex insulation
End view of up-shaft

leads after modification
Figure 94. A 200 MW rotor up-shaft lead assembly: modified and ready to be inserted
into its outer insulation shell.
214
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
215
5 CONCLUSION
The main objective of this thesis has been to outline the experience on some of the
significant operational faults in large synchronous generators. It has offered a range of
appropriate inspection and diagnostic techniques that have been employed to detect,
diagnose and formulate appropriate action for a variety of faults. Finally, it has
suggested practical solutions that have been successfully implemented. The thesis
completed the picture with suggestions on future directions in terms of fault prevention
and long term asset maintenance strategies of large synchronous generators.
The electricity market plays a major role in driving the operational regime of large
synchronous generators. Inevitably, it demands from the participating generators
capacity, flexibility and availability. The arduous operating conditions coupled with
machine ageing and, in some cases, unsuitable designs have been responsible for a range
of operational faults in large synchronous generators.
A number of inspection and diagnostic techniques has been presented, ranging from the
obvious to the sophisticated. Visual inspection is still one of the most effective detection
and diagnosis technique. An experienced 'inspector' is irreplaceable in discovering
developing faults. However, a well balanced combination of visual inspection, online

216
condition monitoring and offline routine examination is by far the best health check for
large synchronous generators.
Faults such as stator core lamination burning and core end plate hot spots can rapidly
escalate to extensive damage to stator conductors resulting in costly repairs and
significant down-time. Unfortunately, core faults such as core end plate hot spots are
difficult to be repaired without a complete core replacement. However, in the case of
many generators, it is more practical and economical to stop further propagation of the
hot spots by simply limiting the generator output to lagging reactive power generation.
Stator windings, on the other hand, have problems of their own. An insufficiently
restrained stator end winding can cause the conductors to vibrate excessively under the
influence of mechanical vibration and electromagnetic forces. This ultimately leads to
faults such as cracks in subconductors and insulation fretting, eventuating in hydrogen
leakage into stator coolant water. Generators of waterbox design are particularly prone
to subconductor cracking due to the weight of the waterboxes.
Other faults with devastating consequences are the so-called magnetic termites in the
case of stator windings and copper dusting, local overheating and inter-turn short
circuits in the case of the rotor. These and more have been discussed in considerable
detail with illustrative examples.

217
The thesis also offers a range of solutions in providing remedial action for diverse faults
in large synchronous generators. Although not a focal point in the thesis, a long term
asset management strategy is seen to hold the promise of providing the best insurance to
ward off catastrophic failures of large synchronous generators. Such strategy needs to be
based on an intimate knowledge of the individual machines. Such knowledge is
collected from individuals' experiences and many other sources including condition
monitoring databases, machines' fault history, operational history, Maintenance
Requirement Analysis (MRA) and the OEM expertise [44].
Appendix J exemplifies the setting up of an MRA for large synchronous turbo-
generators, which de-mystifies cause-effect relationships in the evolution of faults.
Evidently, the decision as to whether to replace or refurbish a generator in the case of a
major fault is influenced by a host of other factors such as economic benefits, the
predicted longevity of the balance of plant and the electricity market pressures. A major
point out of all this is that a comprehensive programme of condition monitoring, routine
inspection and diagnostic is critically important to the early detection of faults and
averting operational disasters. Such a programme can constitute the bedrock toward
formulating effective operational and maintenance strategies to optimise reliability and
availability, maximising returns from the most important asset in a power plant — the
large synchronous generator!

218
REFERENCES
[1] O. Göl and T. V. Tran, 'Stator End Winding Problems in Large Synchronous
Generators and Some Remedies', ICEM - International Conference on Electrical
Machines, Bruges - Belgium, August 2002.
[2] G. C. Stone, Edward A. Boulter, Ian Culbert and Hussein Dhirani, 'Electrical
Insulation for Rotating Machines — Design, Evaluation, Aging, Testing, and
Repair'. IEEE Press series on Power Engineering, Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers, 2004.
[3] ESIPC - Electricity Supply Industry Planning Council, 'The South Australian
Annual Planning Report - 2005', Executive Summary, June 2005.
[4] EWBANK PREECE AUSTRALIA, 'Preliminary Study into Two-shifting

Operation at Torrens Island Power Station', Consultancy report for SA
Generation Corporation, March 1997.
[5] 5. Denison — ETSA Torrens Island Power Station, 'Ageing of Machines with
Respect to Load or Field Current Cycling', CIGRE Working Group 11-01
Questionair 90-3, reply letter to the CIGRE Paimel 11 convernor, December
1992.
[6] J. E. Timperley and J. R. Michalec, 'Estimating The Remaining Service Life of

Asphalt-Mica Stator Insulation', IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion,
Vol. 9, No. 4, pp 686-694, December 1994.
[7] D. J. Petty, 'Recent Experiences in The Refurbishment of Large Generators',

Cigre APi 1 Conference 1996 - Sydney, No. 15, September 1996.
[8] M. Liese, J. Böer, R. Gem and W. Schier, 'Life Extension Methods and
Experiences with Turbine Generator Rehabilitation and Uprating', Cigré APi 1
1990 Paris Session, No. 11-104, August 1990.
[9] T. R. Blackburn, R. C. Sheehy and B. T. Phung, 'Deterioration of Stator Bar

Insulation: use of Phase-Resolved Partial Discharge Monitoring During
Accelerated Ageing Tests', Cigre APi 1 Conference 1996 - Sydney, No. 8,
September 1996.
219
[10] T. Tran — Optima Energy Torrens Island Power Station, 'TIPS 'B4' Generator
Stator Complete Rewind Option Torrens Island Power Station', Departmential
Letter, ETSA, December 1997.
[11] A. Nuttall - The Electricity Trust of South Australia, 'Metallurgical examination

of Torrens Island Power Station Unit B2 Generator Stator Subconductors',
Metallurgical Investigtion Report, report number MET\94\041, December 1994.
[12] 5. Brown - Richard Heggie Associates, 'Modal Analysis of Generator Stator End
Windings Unit B] Torrens Island Power Station', End winding vibration test
report, May 2002.
[13] S. Brown - Richard Heggie Associates, 'ModalAnalysis of Generator Stator End

Windings Unit B2 Torrens Island Power Station', End winding vibration test
report, November 1999.
[14] S. Brown - Richard Heggie Associates, 'ModalAnalysis of Generator Stator End

Windings Unit B3 Torrens Island Power Station', End winding vibration test
report, July 1999.
[15] 5. Brown - Richard Heggie Associates, 'Modal Analysis of Generator Stator End
Windings Torrens Island Power Station Unit B4', test report, November 1998.
[16] J. L. Goldberg, 'A Mechanical Non-Destructive Evaluation Technique for

Determining the Structural Integrity of the Stator End Windings in Large Turbo-
Generators', Journal of IEEE, IE Australia & IREE Australia, Vol. 7, No. 1,
March 1987.
[17] J. F. Lyles, T. E. Goodeve and H. Sedding, 'Parameters Required to Maximise a

Thermoset Hydro-Generator Stator Winding Part 1 — Design,
Manufacturing, Installation', IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 9,
No. 3, September 1994.
[18] J. F. Lyles, T. E. Goodeve and H. Sedding, 'Parameters Required to Maximise a

Thermoset Hydro-Generator Stator Winding Part 2 — Monitoring,
Maintenance', IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 9, No. 3,
September 1994.
220
[19] B. D. Vakser and B. S. Nindra, 'Insulation Problems in High Voltage Machines',

IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 9, No. 1, pages 143-15 1, March
1994.
[20] K. Woolhouse - FCA Australia, 'Cracked Sub-Conductors from Generator

Stator — Torrens Island Power Station Unit B4', Failure & Condition
Assessments Metallurgical Report, report number J174, June 1997.
[21] D. P. Peagno - ROTEK Engineering Pty Ltd, 'Coil Retaining Rings - ROTEK
Engineering's Experience', Electrical Engineering Congress, Sydney, Australia,
November 1996
[22] Cigré AP 11, 'Generator Coil Retaining Rings A Literature Survey and Care
Guideline', 2001.
[23] D. J. Petty, 'Cigré statement published in Electra on Turbine Generator

Retaining Rings - Supplementary information on the Inspection of Rings
Manufacutured in l8Mn-l8Cr Steel', Cigre APi 1, October 1998.
[24] B. Nindra - Utility Maintenance, 'Avoiding Stress Corrosion Cracking in

Retaining Rings', Application Notes of Maintenance Technology, April 1995.
[25] A. Nuttall - Electricity Trust of South Australia — Generation Technology and

Services, Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, 'Torrens Island Power Station
— Unit B2 survey 1992 Generator End Cap', metallurgy report number
MET/92/078, November 1992.
[26] ADWEL Industries Ltd, 'Electromagnetic Core Imperfection Detection -

ELCID', Technical Product Brochure, September 1993.
[27] G. Klempner — Ontario Hydro Toronto Canada, 'Experience and benefit of using
ELCID for Turbine—Generators', EPRI GeneratorCare - Large Steam Turbine
Driven Generator Course — Operation, Maintenance and Troubleshooting, April
2001.
[28] G. Liptak, R. H. Schuler, 'Experience with Diagnostic and Monitoring Methods

on Generator Windings in Relation to Remaining Service CIGRE Study
Committee 11-304, 1992 session, 30 August — 5 September, 1992.
221
[29] P. R. Day - Electricity Corporation of New Zealand, 'The Development of The

Ultrasonic Time-of-Flight-Diffraction Technique for The Inspection of
Austenitic Generator Retaining Rings', 1993.
[30] P. R. Day — Sonomatic, 'Report on The Ultrasonic Inspection on Unit B2

Generator and Exciter Retaining Rings at Torrens Island Power Station -
Adelaide - South Australia', metallurgical inspection report, September 1992.
[311 G. Klempner and I. Kerszenbaum, 'Operation and Maintenance of Large Turbo-

Generators', IEEE Press series on Power Engineering, Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers, 2004.
[32] B. Guigues, J. M. Hodge, M. Liese and J. Petty, 'Turbine Generator Rotor End
Rings. Guidance for Repplacement with 18.18 Material', Cigré study committee
SC 11, Electra journal number 139, December 1991.
[33] C. B. Jolly, M. C. Murphy, A. N. Paterson, D. J. Petty of C. A. Parsons & Co.

Ltd, - Heaton Works, 'The Failure of an End Ring of a Generator Rotor
Operating in a Hydrogen Atmosphere', 1974.
[34] W. Ahn and G. D. Robinson, 'Life Assessment and Future Inspection

Programme for 18-5 MnCr Generator Retaining Rings', The Institution of
Professional Engineers New Zealand — IPENZ Transactions, Vol. 27, No. 1,
2000.
[35] G. Klempner — Ontario Hydro Toronto Canada, 'Ontario Hydro Experience with
Failures in Large Generators due to Loose Stator Core Iron', EPRI
GeneratorCare - Large Steam Turbine Driven Generator Course — Operation,
Maintenance and Troubleshooting, April 2001.
[36] G. Klempner and R. Nold, 'Ontario Hydro Experience with Copper Dusting in
Large Steam Turbine Driven Generator Rotors', EPRI GeneratorCare - Large
Steam Turbine Driven Generator Course — Operation, Maintenance and
Troubleshooting, April 2001.
[37] R. T. Hindmarch and J. W. Wood — NE! Parsons Ltd, 'Development in Detecting

Interturn Shorts in Rotors Using the RSO Technique', UK, 1987.
[38] P. Brandl, 'Forces on the End Windings of A.C. Machines', BBC Brown Boveri
Review No. 2, Vol. 67, pp 128-134, February 1980.
222
[39] K. Woolhouse - FCA Australia, 'Fractures in Rotor Exciter Connector Tube —

Generator, TIPS B4', Failure & Condition Assessments Metallurgical
examination Report, report number J338, September 1998.
[40] P. J. Tavner and J. Penman, 'Condition Monitoring of Electrical Machines',

Research Study Press, Electronic & Electrical Engineering Research Studies,
Electrical Machines Series, ppl89-l90, 1987.
[41] G. Klempner — Ontario Hydro Toronto Canada, 'Expert system Techniques for
Monitoring and Diagnostics of Large Steam Turbine Driven Generators', EPR]I
GeneratorCare - Large Steam Turbine Driven Generator Course — Operation,
Maintenance and Troubleshooting, April 2001.
[42] S. R. Campbell, G. C. Stone; H. G. Sedding, G. S. Klempner; W. McDermid and

R. G. Bussey, 'Practical On-line Partial Discharge Tests for Turbine
Generators and Motors', iEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 9, No.
2, June 1994.
[43] A. S. Kinson, D. J. Petty, D. Rennie, 'Refurbishment of Generator Rotors - A

Review of the Current Situation', CIGRE Study Committee 11-306, 1992
session, 30 August — 5 September, 1992.
[44] L. Watt — Hydro Generation Asset Planning Group Hydro Tasmania Authorities,
'Asset Management Strategy for Hydro Alternators Presentation at CIGRE
APi 1 Annual Meeting, October 1999.
223
Appendix A
Case study: Hydrogen leakage record of a 200 MW generator stator
Reading Date Time Time of Alarm Hours MW Mvar Stator Hydrogen frame
between Amps pressure
release (x 100)
53 3/01/2000 2:31 03/01 - 02:31 12:21 0 0 0.00
54 3/01/2000 8:00 03/01 - 08:00 05:29 0 0 0.00 Manual release of
H2.
55 3/01/2000 20:34 03/01 - 20:34 12:34 0 0 0.00
56 4/01/2000 2:41 04/01 - 02:41 06:03 0 0 0.00
57 4/01/2000 8:58 04/01 - 08:58 06:17 0 0 0.00
58 4/01/2000 16:00 04/01 - 16:00 07:02 0 0 0.00
59 5/01/2000 8:57 05/01 - 08:57 12:57 0 0 0.00
60 5/01/2000 14:43 05/01 - 14:43 05:46 0 0 0.00
61 6/01/2000 12:35 06/01 - 12:35 21:52 0 0 0.00
62 6/01/2000 17:38 06/01 - 17:38 05:03 0 0 0.00
63 6/01/2000 22:45 06/01 - 22:45 05:07 0 0 0.00
64 7/01/2000 2:55 07/01 - 02:55 04:10 0 0 0.00
65 7/01/2000 8:46 07/01 - 08:46 05:51 0 0 0.00
66 7/01/2000 18:13 07/01 - 18:13 09:27 0 0 0.00
67 7/01/2000 23:11 07/01 -23:11 04:58 0 0 0.00
68 8/01/2000 3:59 08/01 - 03:59 04:48 0 0 0.00
69 8/01/2000 8:49 08/01 - 08:49 04:50 0 0 0.00
70 8/01/2000 13:26 08/01 - 13:26 04:37 0 0 0.00
71 8/01/2000 18:06 08/01 - 18:06 04:40 0 0 0.00
72 8/01/2000 22:52 08/01 - 22:52 04:46 0 0 0.00
73 9/01/2000 3:32 09/01 - 03:32 04:40 0 0 0.00
74 9/01/2000 8:13 09/01 - 08:13 04:41 0 0 0.00
75 9/01/2000 12:45 09/01 - 12:45 04:32 0 0 0.00
76 9/01/2000 17:19 09/01 - 17:19 04:34 0 0 0.00
77 9/01/2000 21:59 09/01 -21:59 04:40 0 0 0.00
78 10/01/2000 2:32 10/01 - 02:32 04:33 0 0 0.00
79 10/01/2000 11:40 10/01 - 11:40 09:08 85 75 40.90 Start plot from
here
80 10/01/2000 15:30 10/01 - 15:30 03:50 167 98 69.87
81 10/01/2000 20:05 10/01 - 20:05 04:35 98 55 40.55
82 11/01/2000 1:11 11/01 -01:11 05:06 0 0 0.00
83 11/01/2000 5:43 11/01 -05:43 04:32 0 0 0.00
84 11/01/2000 10:12 11/01-10:12 04:29 172 55 65.16
85 11/01/2000 14:24 11/01 -14:24 04:12 161 94 67.27
86 11/01/2000 18:41 11/01-18:41 04:17 145 75 58.91
87 11/01/2000 23:11 11/01-23:11 04:30 147 16 53.36
88 12/01/2000 3:53 12/01 - 03:53 04:42 40 12 15.07
89 12/01/2000 8:18 12/01 -08:18 04:25 128 65 51.80
90 12/01/2000 12:25 12/01 - 12:25 04:07 140 95 61.05
91 12/01/2000 16:22 12/01 - 16:22 03:57 167 97 69.69
92 12/01/2000 20:40 12/01 - 20:40 04:18 149 64 58.52
93 13/01/2000 1:17 13/01 -01:17 04:37 102 49 40.83
224
release (x 100)
94 13/01/2000 5:51 13/01 -05:51 04:34 113 2 40.78
95 13/01/2000 10:08 13/01 - 10:08 04:17 138 69 55.67
96 13/01/2000 14:06 13/01 - 14:06 03:58 180 85 71.83
97 13/01/2000 18:14 13/01 - 18:14 04:08 180 80 71.08
98 13/01/2000 22:48 13/01 - 22:48 04:34 126 30 46.74
99 14/01/2000 3:29 14/01 -03:29 04:41 58 10 21.24
100 14/01/2000 7:35 14/01 - 07:35 04:06 144 53 55.37
101 14/01/2000 11:30 14/01 - 11:30 03:55 181 85 72.16
102 14/01/2000 15:28 14/01 - 15:28 03:58 195 84 76.62
103 14/01/2000 19:47 14/01 - 19:47 04:19 170 34 62.56
104 15/01/2000 0:45 15/01 - 00:45 04:58 60 12 22.08
105 15/01/2000 4:52 15/01 - 04:52 04:07 60 12 22.08 Enforced
restricted
operational
strategy
106 15/01/2000 8:52 15/01 -08:52 04:00 182 25 66.29
107 15/01/2000 12:33 15/01 - 12:33 03:41 172 23 62.62
108 15/01/2000 16:08 15/01 - 16:08 03:35 193 53 72.22
109 15/01/2000 20:06 15/01 -20:06 03:58 193 53 72.22
110 16/01/2000 0:08 16/01 -00:08 04:02 190 56 71.48
111 16/01/2000 4:00 16/01 -04:00 03:52 60 14 22.23
112 16/01/2000 7:54 16/01-07:54 03:54 60 12 22.08
113 16/01/2000 11:27 16/01 - 11:27 03:33 110 60 45.21
114 16/01/2000 14:57 16/01-14:57 03:30 127 65 51.48
115 16/01/2000 18:25 16/01 - 18:25 03:28 150 80 61.34
116 16/01/2000 21:56 16/01 -21:56 03:31 151 32 55.70
117 17/01/2000 1:52 17/01 -01:52 03:56 57 28 22.92
118 17/01/2000 5:33 17/01 -05:33 03:41 57 30 23.24
119 17/01/2000 8:51 17/01 -08:51 03:18 176 74 68.89
120 17/01/2000 12:10 17/01-12:10 03:19 150 84 62.04
121 17/01/2000 15:42 17/01-15:42 03:32 180 85 71.83
122 17/01/2000 17:00 17/01 - 17:00 01:18 176 80 69.76
123 17/01/2000 22:24 17/01 -22:24 05:24 177 67 68.29
124 18/01/2000 1:56 18/01 -01:56 03:32 110 44 42.75 New graph
18/01/00 to
25/01/00
125 18/01/2000 5:42 18/01 - 05:42 03:46 60 45 27.06
126 18/01/2000 8:51 18/01 -08:51 03:09 177 88 71.33
127 18/01/2000 12:04 18/01 - 12:04 03:13 176 82 70.06
128 18/01/2000 15:20 18/01 - 15:20 03:26 192 84 75.62
129 18/01/2000 18:54 18/01 - 18:54 03:34 131 4 47.29
130 18/01/2000 22:29 18/01 - 22:29 03:35 135 -4 48.74
131 — 19/01/2000 2:14 19/01 -02:14 03:45 60 7 21.80
132 19/01/2000 5:49 19/01 -05:49 03:35 115 8 41.60
133 19/01/2000 9:12 19/01 - 09:12 03:23 120 2 43.31
134 19/01/2000 12:28 19/01 - 12:28 03:16 176 4 63.52
135 19/01/2000 15:29 19/01 - 15:29 03:01 167 5 60.29
136 19/01/2000 19:16 19/01 - 19:16 03:47 165 5 59.57
137 19/01/2000 22:57 19/01 -22:57 03:41 58 -14 21.53
225
release (x 100)
138 20/01/2000 2:23 20/01 -02:23 03:26 58 -8 21.13
139 20/01/2000 5:53 20/01 -05:53 03:30 58 -7 21.08
140 20/01/2000 9:16 20/01 -09:16 03:23 190 22 69.02
141 20/01/2000 12:27 20/01-12:27 03:11 168 54 63.68
142 20/01/2000 15:35 20/01 - 15:35 03:08 180 58 68.24
143 20/01/2000 18:49 20/01 - 18:49 03:14 176 8 63.57
144 20/01/2000 22:14 20/01 - 22:14 03:25 122 -4.5 44.05
145 21/01/2000 1:43 21/01 -01:43 03:29 77 4.2 27.83
146 21/01/2000 5:01 21/01 -05:01 03:18 78 5.7 28.22
147 21/01/2000 8:23 21/01 -08:23 03:22 77 5.3 27.85
148 21/01/2000 11:39 21/01-11:39 03:16 80 4 28.90
149 21/01/2000 16:02 21/01 - 16:02 04:23 64 -1.05 23.10
150 21/01/2000 19:22 21/01 - 19:22 03:20 58 -4 20.98
151 21/01/2000 22:40 21/01 -22:40 03:18 67 -4.5 24.23
152 22/01/2000 1:59 22/01 -01:59 03:21 67 3.7 24.21
153 22/01/2000 5:15 22/01 - 05:15 03:16 59 -0.01 21.29
154 22/01/2000 8:34 22/01 - 08:34 03:19 59 23 22.85
155 22/01/2000 11:50 22/01 - 11:50 03:16 59 20 22.48
156 22/01/2000 15:00 22/01 - 15:00 03:10 58 19 22.02
157 22/01/2000 18:15 22/01 - 18:15 03:15 59 21 22.60
158 22/01/2000 21:49 22/01 -21:49 03:34 58 20 22.14
159 23/01/2000 1:20 23/01 -01:20 03:31 57 5 20.65
160 23/01/2000 4:48 23/01 -04:48 03:28 57 - 21.29
15.28
161 23/01/2000 8:21 23/01 -08:21 03:33 58 -5.75 21.03
162 23/01/2000 11:46 23/01 - 11:46 03:25 58 -3 20.96
163 23/01/2000 15:06 23/01 - 15:06 03:20 59 -2 21.30
164 23/01/2000 18:34 23/01 - 18:34 03:28 59 -8 21.48
165 23/01/2000 21:57 23/01 - 21:57 03:23 59 -0.13 21.29
166 24/01/2000 1:21 24/01-01:21 03:24 59 2 21.30
167 24/01/2000 4:44 24/01 - 04:44 03:23 58 -1.9 20.94
168 24/01/2000 8:09 24/01 -08:09 03:25 60 0 21.65
169 24/01/2000 11:29 24/01 - 11:29 03:20 75 -5 27.12
170 24/01/2000 14:52 24/01 - 14:52 03:23 77 9 27.97
171 24/01/2000 18:11 24/01-18:11 03:19 78 10 28.38
172 24/01/2000 21:20 24/01-21:20 03:09 59 -3 21.32
173 25/01/2000 0:56 25/01 - 00:56 03:36 58 2 20.94
174 25/01/2000 4:20 25/01 - 04:20 03:24 58 -4 20.98
175 25/01/2000 7:44 25/01-07:44 03:24 59 -1 21.29
176 25/01/2000 11:00 25/01-11:00 03:16 78 0 28.15
177 25/01/2000 14:20 25/01 - 14:20 03:20 78 -1 28.15
178 — 25/01/2000 17:22 25/01 - 17:22 03:02 77 -9 27.97
179 25/01/2000 20:34 25/01 - 20:34 03:12 79 -5 28.56
180 25/01/2000 23:50 25/01-23:50 03:16 58 47 26.94
181 26/01/2000 2:54 26/01 - 02:54 03:04 59 47 27.22
182 — 26/01/2000 5:58 26/01 - 05:58 03:04 59 48 27.45
183 26/01/2000 9:06 26/01 - 09:06 03:08 57 3 20.60
184 26/01/2000 12:08 26/01 - 12:08 03:02 59 -1 21.29
226
release (x 100)
185 26/01/2000 15:12 26/01-15:12 03:04 59 -2 21.30
186 26/01/2000 18:12 26/01-18:12 03:00 59 -6 21.40
187 26/01/2000 21:19 26/01 -21:19 03:07 60 -3 21.68
188 27/01/2000 0:20 27/01 -00:20 03:01 59 -5 21.37
189 27/01/2000 3:20 27/01 -03:20 03:00 59 -5 21.37 Calculated
reading.
190 27/01/2000 6:25 27/01 - 06:25 03:05 75 -2 27.07
191 27/01/2000 9:23 27/01 - 09:23 02:58 180 7.75 65.01 Load increased
due to trip of
another Unit
192 27/01/2000 12:25 27/01 - 12:25 03:02 78 -2 28.16
193 27/01/2000 15:24 27/01 - 15:24 02:59 79 -5.75 28.58
194 27/01/2000 18:27 27/01 - 18:27 03:03 80 - 29.10
10.25
195 27/01/2000 21:31 27/01 -21:31 03:04 79 -5 28.56
196 28/01/2000 0:32 28/01 - 00:32 03:01 79 -8 28.65
197 28/01/2000 3:32 28/01 -03:32 03:00 58 -6 21.04
198 28/01/2000 6:32 28/01 - 06:32 03:00 80 -9 29.05
199 28/01/2000 9:32 28/01 - 06:32 03:00 80 -4 28.90
200 28/01/2000 12:30 28/01 - 12:30 02:58 77 -2.5 27.80
201 28/01/2000 15:33 28/01 - 15:33 03:03 78 -6.2 28.23
202 28/01/2000 18:34 28/01 - 18:34 03:01 76 -2.5 27.44
203 28/01/2000 21:36 28/01 -21:36 03:02 77 -7 27.90
204 29/01/2000 0:35 29/01 - 00:35 02:59 77 -6 27.87
205 29/01/2000 3:35 29/01 - 03:35 03:00 59 -6 21.40
206 29/01/2000 6:31 29/01 - 06:31 02:56 58 57 29.34
207 29/01/2000 9:30 29/01 - 09:30 02:59 61 50 28.46
208 29/01/2000 12:17 29/01 - 12:17 02:47 57 42 25.55
209 29/01/2000 15:04 29/01 - 15:04 02:47 59 43 26.34
210 29/01/2000 17:51 29/01 - 17:51 02:47 57 42 25.55
211 29/01/2000 20:40 29/01 -20:40 02:49 58 47 26.94
212 29/01/2000 23:31 29/01 -23:31 02:51 60 45 27.06
213 30/01/2000 2:18 30/01 -02:18 02:47 60 -2.5 21.67
214 30/01/2000 5:05 30/01 - 05:05 02:47 60 -4.9 21.72
215 30/01/2000 8:00 30/01 -08:0 02:55 60 -5 21.73
216 30/01/2000 10:24 30/01 - 10:24 02:24 60 -3 21.68
217 30/01/2000 13:10 30/01-13:10 02:46 60 10 21.95
218 30/01/2000 15:50 30/01 - 15:50 02:40 60 10 21.95 Calculated
reading, not
logged.
219 30/01/2000 18:37 30/01 - 18:37 02:47 59 10 21.59
220 30/01/2000 21:25 30/01 -21:25 02:48 59 27 23.41
221 31/01/2000 0:08 30/01 - 0:08 02:43 85 32 32.77
222 31/01/2000 2:52 31/01 -2:52 02:44 61 29 24.37
223 31/01/2000 5:39 31/01 - 5:39 02:47 60 33 24.71
224 31/01/2000 8:28 31/01 - 8:28 02:49 62 -1 22.38
225 31/01/2000 11:12 31/01-11:12 02:44 85 -4.2 30.71
226 31/01/2000 13:43 31/01 - 13:43 02:31 120 -8 43.40
227 31/01/2000 16:07 31/01 - 16:07 02:24 180 2 6496
228 31/01/2000 18:39 31/01 - 18:39 02:32 170 4 61.36
227
release (x 100)
229 31/01/2000 21:24 31/01-21:24 02:45 99 1.5 35.73
230 1/02/2000 0:12 1/02-0:12 02:48 60 -3 21.68 Slighttyrelaxed
restriction strategy for
more flexible
operation.
231 1/02/2000 2:52 1/02 - 2:52 02:40 60 -2 21.66
232 1/02/2000 5:35 1/02 - 5:35 02:43 61 -2 22.02
233 1/02/2000 8:16 1/02-8:16 02:41 60 -3 21.68
234 1/02/2000 10:50 1/02 - 10:50 02:34 88 0.5 31.75
235 1/02/2000 13:23 1/02 - 13:23 02:33 89 -4 32.15
236 1/02/2000 15:51 1/02 - 15:51 02:28 88 -2.7 31.77
237 1/02/2000 18:36 1/02 - 18:36 02:45 89 -9.5 32.30
238 1/02/2000 21:17 1/02-21:17 02:43 89 -2 32.12
239 1/02/2000 23:57 1/02 - 23:57 02:40 60 -3 21.68
240 2/02/2000 2:39 2/02 - 2:39 02:42 60 -1 21.65
241 2/02/2000 5:20 2/02 - 5:20 02:41 60 -3 21.68
242 2/02/2000 8:05 2/02 - 8:05 02:45 60 14 22.23
243 2/02/2000 10:35 2/02 - 10:35 02:30 138 0 49.80
244 2/02/2000 12:55 2/02 - 12:55 02:20 181 5.5 65.34
245 2/02/2000 15:16 2/02-15:16 02:21 196 3.5 70.74
246 2/02/2000 17:40 2/02 - 17:40 02:24 200 1.5 72.17
247 2/02/2000 20:23 2/02 - 20:23 02:43 120 -5 43.34
248 2/02/2000 23:05 2/02 - 23:05 02:42 80 -5 28.92
249 3/02/2000 1:40 03/02 - 01:40 02:35 67 -14 24.70
250 3/02/2000 4:22 03/02 - 04:22 02:42 60 -6 21.76
251 3/02/2000 7:02 03/02 - 07:02 02:40 98 1 35.36
252 3/02/2000 9:28 03/02 - 09:28 02:26 185 7 66.80
253 3/02/2000 11:48 03/02 - 11:48 02:20 194 8 70.06
254 3/02/2000 14:12 03/02-14:12 02:24 191 7 68.97
255 3/02/2000 16:35 03/02 - 16:35 02:23 193 5 69.67
256 3/02/2000 19:07 03/02 - 19:07 02:32 188 2 67.84
257 3/02/2000 21:52 03/02-21:52 02:45 100 -4.5 36.12
258 4/02/2000 0:32 04/02 - 00:32 02:40 60 -7 21.80
259 4/02/2000 3:04 04/02 - 03:04 02:32 60 -6 21.76
260 4/02/2000 5:44 04/02 - 05:44 02:40 61 -6 22.12
261 4/02/2000 8:14 04/02 - 08:14 02:30 149 -4 53.79
262 4/02/2000 10:29 04/02-10:29 02:15 196 9 70.80
263 4/02/2000 12:52 04/02 - 12:52 02:23 180 5.25 64.98
264 4/02/2000 15:16 04/02 - 15:16 02:24 180 5.5 64.98
265 4/02/2000 17:49 04/02 - 17:49 02:33 139 -0.3 50.16
266 4/02/2000 20:19 04/02 - 20:19 02:30 158 -5 57.04
267 4/02/2000 22:50 04/02 - 22:50 02:31 144 -1 51.96
268 5/02/2000 1:26 05/02 - 01:26 02:36 98 -10 35.55
269 5/02/2000 4:04 05/02 - 04:04 02:38 60 -4 21.70
270 5/02/2000 6:45 05/02 - 06:45 02:41 60 7 21.80
271 5/02/2000 9:23 05/02 - 09:23 02:38 93 18 34.18
272 5/02/2000 11:56 05/02-11:56 02:33 93 12.3 33.85
273 5/02/2000 14:27 05/02 - 14:27 02:31 93 26.5 34.89
274 5/02/2000 17:04 05/02 - 17:04 02:37 93 5.5 33.62
228
release (x 100)
275 5/02/2000 19:45 05/02 - 19:45 02:41 78 7 28.26
276 5/02/2000 22:32 05/02 - 22:32 02:47 60 4 21.70
277 6/02/2000 1:14 06/02 - 01:14 02:42 59 5 21.37
278 6/02/2000 3:57 06/02 - 03:57 02:43 60 7 21.80
279 6/02/2000 6:43 06/02 - 06:43 02:46 60 7 21.80
280 6/02/2000 9:23 06/02 - 09:23 02:40 60 12 22.08
281 6/02/2000 11:49 06/02 - 11:49 02:26 60 13 22.15
282 6/02/2000 14:11 06/02-14:11 02:22 60 15 22.32
283 6/02/2000 16:33 06/02 - 16:33 02:22 60 12 22.08
284 6/02/2000 19:00 06/02-19:00 02:27 60 10 21.95
285 6/02/2000 21:29 06/02-21:29 02:29 59 10.2 21.61
286 6/02/2000 23:57 06/02 - 23:57 02:28 59 9 21.54
287 7/02/2000 2:21 07/02-02:21 02:24 59 8.1 21.49
288 7/02/2000 4:44 07/02 - 04:44 02:23 59 7.4 21.46
289 7/02/2000 7:14 07/02 - 07:14 02:30 68 13.5 25.02
290 7/02/2000 9:37 07/02 - 09:37 02:23 80 13 29.25
291 7/02/2000 12:00 07/02 - 12:00 02:23 82 13 29.96
292 7/02/2000 14:20 07/02 - 14:20 02:20 60 12 22.08
293 7/02/2000 16:43 07/02 - 16:43 02:23 60 8 21.84
294 7/02/2000 19:08 07/02 - 19:08 02:25 60 9 21.89
295 7/02/2000 21:32 07/02-21:32 02:24 60 6 21.76
296 7/02/2000 23:55 07/02 - 23:55 02:23 60 4 21.70
297 8/02/2000 2:14 08/02-02:14 02:19 60 6.5 21.78
298 8/02/2000 4:37 08/02-04:37 02:23 60 10 21.95
299 8/02/2000 6:58 08/02 - 06:58 02:21 78 15 28.66
300 8/02/2000 9:22 08/02 - 09:22 02:24 78 8 28.29
301 8/02/2000 11:43 08/02 - 11:43 02:21 80 10 29.09
302 8/02/2000 13:53 08/02 - 13:53 02:10 138 13 50.02
303 8/02/2000 16:02 08/02 - 16:02 02:09 153 13.5 55.42
304 8/02/2000 18:32 08/02 - 18:32 02:30 79 7 28.62
305 8/02/2000 20:55 08/02 - 20:55 02:23 78 10 28.38
306 8/02/2000 23:17 08/02 - 23:17 02:22 78 5 28.20
307 9/02/2000 1:35 09/02 - 01:35 02:18 78 2 28.16
308 9/02/2000 3:55 09/02 - 03:55 02:20 60 2 21.66
309 9/02/2000 6:18 09/02-06:18 02:23 60 9 21.89
310 9/02/2000 8:38 09/02 - 08:38 02:20 78 11 28.42
311 9/02/2000 10:54 09/02-10:54 02:16 118 11 42.76
312 9/02/2000 13:03 09/02 - 13:03 02:09 150 12 54.30
313 9/02/2000 15:07 09/02 - 15:07 02:04 180 22 65.44
314 9/02/2000 17:14 09/02-17:14 02:07 178 18 6456
315 9/02/2000 19:25 09/02-19:25 02:11 180 16 65.21
316 9/02/2000 21:38 09/02-21:38 02:13 180 16 65.21
317 10/02/2000 0:00 10/02 - 00:00 02:22 180 16 65.21
318 10/02/2000 2:14 10/02-02:14 02:14 78 17 28.81
319 10/02/2000 4:24 10/02 - 04:24 02:10 78 0 28.15 No megavar
reading recorded
320 10/02/2000 6:40 10/02 - 05:40 02:16 79 10 28.73
321 10/02/2000 8:54 10/02 - 08:54 02:14 101 13 36.75
229
release (x 100)
322 10/02/2000 10:55 10/02 - 10:55 02:01 178 23 6476
323 10/02/2000 13:00 10/02 - 13:00 02:05 183 16 66.29
324 10/02/2000 15:08 10/02-15:08 02:08 177 16 64.13
325 10/02/2000 17:18 10/02-17:18 02:10 177 18 64.20
326 10/02/2000 19:29 10/02-19:29 02:11 177 19 64.24
327 10/02/2000 21:43 10/02 - 21:43 02:14 166 1 59.90
328 11/02/2000 0:03 11/02 - 00:03 02:20 116 0.7 41.86
329 11/02/2000 2:20 11/02 - 02:20 02:17 78 -1.5 28.15
330 11/02/2000 4:32 11/02 - 04:32 02:12 77 -1.7 27.79
331 11/02/2000 6:47 11/02 - 06:47 02:15 77 -1.5 27.79
332 11/02/2000 9:05 11/02-09:05 02:18 116 1.5 41.86
333 11/02/2000 11:15 11/02-11:15 02:10 135 2 48.72 Estimated reading,
not-recorded
334 11/02/2000 13:15 11/02-13:15 02:00 177 3 63.88
335 11/02/2000 15:25 11/02-15:25 02:10 177 2 63.87
336 11/02/2000 17:39 11/02-17:39 02:14 157 -5 56.68
337 11/02/2000 19:57 11/02 - 19:57 02:18 80 -10 29.09
338 11/02/2000 22:20 11/02-22:20 02:23 80 12 29.19
339 12/02/2000 0:38 12/02 - 00:38 02:18 80 5 28.92
340 12/02/2000 2:55 12/02 - 02:55 02:17 80 -4 28.90
341 12/02/2000 5:14 12/02 - 05:14 02:19 60 -5 21.73
342 12/02/2000 7:35 12/02 - 07:35 02:21 60 -2 21.66
343 12/02/2000 9:54 12/02 - 09:54 02:19 60 -1 21.65
344 12/02/2000 12:10 12/02-12:10 02:16 60 -2 21.66
345 12/02/2000 14:24 12/02 - 14:24 02:14 59 -7 21.44
346 12/02/2000 16:38 12/02-16:38 02:14 60 -9 21.89
347 12/02/2000 18:53 12/02-18:53 02:15 60 -10 21.95
348 12/02/2000 21:11 12/02-21:11 02:18 60 -7 21.80
349 12/02/2000 23:28 12/02 - 23:28 02:17 60 14 22.23
350 13/02/2000 1:42 13/02 - 01:42 02:14 60 -4 21.70
351 13/02/2000 3:57 13/02-03:57 02:15 60 4 21.70
352 13/02/2000 6:11 13/02-06:11 02:14 60 7 21.80
353 13/02/2000 8:23 13/02 - 08:23 02:12 60 24.25 23.35
354 13/02/2000 10:39 13/02 - 10:39 02:16 60 33 24.71
355 13/02/2000 12:51 13/02 - 12:51 02:12 60 30 24.21
356 13/02/2000 15:02 13/02-15:02 02:11 60 33 24.71
357 13/02/2000 17:11 13/02-17:11 02:09 60 31 24.37
358 13/02/2000 19:22 13/02 - 19:22 02:11 60 28 23.89
359 13/02/2000 21:35 13/02-21:35 02:13 60 10 21.95
360 13/02/2000 23:49 13/02 - 23:49 02:14 60 10 21.95
361 14/02/2000 1:52 14/02-01:52 02:03 60 9 21.89
362 14/02/2000 3:51 14/02-03:51 01:59 60 9 21.89
363 14/02/2000 5:51 14/02 - 05:51 02:00 60 14.5 22.27
364 14/02/2000 7:48 14/02 - 07:48 01:57 60 14.25 22.25
365 14/02/2000 9:45 14/02 - 09:45 01:57 79 17 29.16
366 14/02/2000 11:45 14/02-11:45 02:00 79 13 28.89
367 14/02/2000 13:44 14/02 - 13:44 01:59 78 13 28.53
368 14/02/2000 15:38 14/02 - 15:38 01:54 78 13 28.53 Estimated reading,
230
release (x 100)
not recorded
369 14/02/2000 17:32 14/02-17:32 01:54 78 8 28.29
370 14/02/2000 19:28 14/02 - 19:28 01:56 79 10 28.73
371 14/02/2000 21:25 14/02-21:25 01:57 78 9 28.33
372 14/02/2000 23:22 14/02 - 23:22 01:57 80 8 29.01
373 15/02/2000 1:19 15/02-01:19 01:57 78 8 28.29
374 15/02/2000 3:18 15/02-03:18 01:59 59 10 21.59
375 15/02/2000 5:16 15/02 - 05:16 01:58 62 11 22.72
376 15/02/2000 7:10 15/02 - 07:10 01:54 78 18 28.89
377 15/02/2000 9:06 15/02 - 09:06 01:56 81 13 29.60
378 15/02/2000 10:58 15/02-10:58 01:52 135 17 49.10
379 15/02/2000 12:50 15/02-12:50 01:52 135 17 49.10 Make upfigure,no
reading taken
380 15/02/2000 14:45 15/02-14:45 01:55 135 17 49.10 Make upfigure,no
reading taken
381 15/02/2000 16:40 15/02-16:40 01:55 135 17 49.10 Make upfigure,no
reading taken
382 15/02/2000 18:35 15/02-18:35 01:55 135 17 49.10 Makeupfigure,no
reading taken
383 15/02/2000 20:30 15/02-20:30 01:55 118 10 42.73
384 15/02/2000 22:26 15/02-22:26 01:56 118 8 42.68
385 16/02/2000 0:26 16/02 - 00:26 02:00 79 12 28.83
386 16/02/2000 2:23 16/02-02:23 01:57 79 13 28.89
387 16/02/2000 4:21 16/02-04:21 01:58 60 7.75 21.83
388 16/02/2000 6:19 16/02-06:19 01:58 59 12.75 21.78
389 16/02/2000 8:14 16/02-08:14 01:55 80 11 29.14
390 16/02/2000 10:05 16/02-10:05 01:51 94 -1 33.92
391 16/02/2000 11:57 16/02 - 11:57 01:52 92 -7 33.29
392 16/02/2000 13:45 16/02 - 13:45 01:48 135 0 48.71
393 16/02/2000 15:34 16/02 - 15:34 01:49 138 1 49.80
394 16/02/2000 17:27 16/02-17:27 01:53 138 -2 49.80
395 16/02/2000 19:17 16/02-19:17 01:50 138 -11 49.95
396 16/02/2000 21:09 16/02-21:09 01:52 138 12 49.98
397 16/02/2000 23:05 16/02 - 23:05 01:56 78 9.75 28.36
398 17/02/2000 0:59 17/02 - 00:59 01:54 78 9.75 28.36 Estimated reading,
not recorded
399 17/02/2000 2:53 17/02-02:53 01:54 60 - 22.00
10.75
400 17/02/2000 4:46 17/02 - 04:46 01:53 59 -14 21.88
401 17/02/2000 6:39 17/02 - 06:39 01:53 60 -12.5 22.12
402 17/02/2000 8:30 17/02 - 08:30 01:51 60 -8 21.84
403 17/02/2000 10:14 17/02-10:14 01:44 100 0 36.08
404 17/02/2000 11:59 17/02 - 11:59 01:45 138 -2.5 49.80
405 17/02/2000 13:35 17/02 - 13:35 01:36 156 3.7 56.31
406 17/02/2000 15:16 17/02-15:16 01:41 160 -2 57.74
407 17/02/2000 16:56 17/02 - 16:56 01:40 157 -3.5 56.67
408 17/02/2000 18:38 17/02 - 18:38 01:42 138 1.75 49.80
409 17/02/2000 20:19 17/02 - 20:19 01:41 159 10.7 57.50
410 — 17/02/2000 22:01 17/02 - 22:01 01:42 155 -1 55.93
411 17/02/2000 23:43 17/02 - 23:43 01:42 131 -6 47.32
412 18/02/2000 1:30 18/02-01:30 01:47 77 -5.5 27.86
231
release (x 100)
413 18/02/2000 3:13 18/02-03:13 01:43 58 -8 21.13
414 18/02/2000 4:56 18/02 - 04:56 01:43 58 -8 21.13 Estimated reading,
not recorded
415 18/02/2000 6:45 18/02 - 06:45 01:49 60 -8 21.84
416 18/02/2000 8:29 18/02-08:29 01:44 120 -2.5 43.31
417 18/02/2000 10:06 18/02-10:06 01:37 160 4 57.75 287kPa
418 18/02/2000 11:43 18/02-11:43 01:37 160 19 58.14 290 kPa
419 18/02/2000 13:22 18/02-13:22 01:39 160 0 57.74 291 kPa
420 18/02/2000 15:02 18/02 - 15:02 01:40 157 4 56.67 291 kPa
421 18/02/2000 16:42 18/02 - 16:42 01:40 157 4 56.67 290 kPa
422 18/02/2000 18:22 18/02 - 18:22 01:40 158 1 57.01 289 kPa
423 18/02/2000 20:01 18/02 - 20:01 01:39 158 1.75 57.02 289 kPa
424 18/02/2000 21:42 18/02-21:42 01:41 138 -3 49.81
425 18/02/2000 23:25 18/02-23:25 01:43 118 -1.25 42.58 286kPa
426 19/02/2000 1:08 19/02 - 01:08 01:43 77 -4 27.82 284 kPa
427 19/02/2000 2:52 19/02 - 02:52 01:44 60 -4 21.70 284 kPa
428 19/02/2000 4:35 19/02 - 04:35 01:43 60 -4 21.70 284 kPa
429 19/02/2000 6:22 19/02 - 06:22 01:47 60 -2.5 21.67 281 kPa
430 19/02/2000 8:08 19/02 - 08:08 01:46 60 0 21.65 280 kPa
431 19/02/2000 9:53 19/02 - 09:53 01:45 100 -7 36.17 282 kPa
432 19/02/2000 11:34 19/02-11:34 01:41 117 -4 42.24 285kPa
433 19/02/2000 13:14 19/02-13:14 01:40 120 -5 43.34 286kPa
434 19/02/2000 14:55 19/02-14:55 01:41 120 -5 43.34 286kPa,
Estimated reading
435 19/02/2000 16:33 19/02 - 16:33 01:38 123 -5 44.42 286 kPa
436 19/02/2000 18:15 19/02-18:15 01:42 118 -1 42.58 285 kPa
437 19/02/2000 19:58 19/02-19:58 01:43 118 4.5 42.61 284 kPa
438 19/02/2000 21:42 19/02 - 21:42 01:44 80 0 28.87 283 kPa
439 19/02/2000 23:25 19/02 - 23:25 01:43 78 -1 28.15 282 kPa
440 20/02/2000 1:05 20/02-01:05 01:40 78 -1 28.15 282 kPa,
Estimated reading
441 20/02/2000 2:48 20/02 - 02:48 01:43 78 -2.7 28.16 283 kPa
442 20/02/2000 4:31 20/02 - 04:31 01:43 60 0 21.65 281 kPa
443 20/02/2000 6:20 20/02 - 06:20 01:49 60 0 21.65 278 kPa
444 20/02/2000 8:04 20/02 - 08:04 01:44 60 -7 21.80 278 kPa
445 20/02/2000 9:50 20/02 - 09:50 01:46 60 -7 21.80 278 kPa,
Estimated reading
446 20/02/2000 11:30 20/02 - 11:30 01:40 59 2.5 21.31 278 kPa
447 20/02/2000 13:11 20/02 - 13:11 01:41 59 -5 21.37 279 kPa
448 20/02/2000 14:53 20/02 - 14:53 01:42 59 -4 21.34 279 kPa
449 20/02/2000 16:33 20/02 - 16:33 01:40 59 -3 21.32 279 kPa
450 20/02/2000 18:26 20/02 - 18:26 01:53 60 -3 21.68 278 kPa
451 20/02/2000 19:58 20/02-19:58 01:32 60 -2 21.66 277 kPa
452 20/02/2000 21:39 20/02 - 21:39 01:41 60 -1 21.65 277 kPa
453 20/02/2000 23:22 20/02 - 23:22 01:43 60 -5 21.73 277 kPa
454 21/02/2000 1:03 21/02 - 01:03 01:41 60 2.7 21.67 277 kPa
455 21/02/2000 2:43 21/02 - 02:43 01:40 60 0 21.65 277 kPa
456 21/02/2000 4:23 21/02 -0423 01:40 60 -4 21.70 277 kPa
457 21/02/2000 6:02 21/02 - 06:02 01:39 60 -4 21.70 277 kPa
458 21/02/2000 7:40 21/02-07:40 01:38 78 -0.5 28.15 277kPa
232
Reading Date Time Time of Aiarm Hours MW Mvar Stator Hydrogen frame
release (x 100)
459 21/02/2000 9:19 21/02-09:19 01:39 114 2.5 41.15 276kPa
460 21/02/2000 10:54 21/02 - 10:54 01:35 138 3.25 49.81 278 kPa
461 21/02/2000 12:32 21/02-12:32 01:38 138 2.25 49.80 279kPa
462 21/02/2000 14:09 21/02 - 14:09 01:37 138 4.5 49.82 279 kPa
463 21/02/2000 15:46 21/02 - 15:46 01:37 138 0.75 49.80 279 kPa
464 21/02/2000 17:24 21/02-17:24 01:38 137 -2.25 49.44 279kPa
465 21/02/2000 19:05 21/02-19:05 01:41 78 -4 28.18 276kPa
466 21/02/2000 20:46 21/02 - 20:46 01:41 77.8 -1 28.08 283 kPa
467 21/02/2000 22:25 21/02-22:25 01:39 77.8 -1 28.08 283kPa,
Estimated reading.
468 21/02/2000 23:56 21/02-23:56 01:31 79 -5 28.56 284kPa
469 22/02/2000 1:28 22/02 - 01:28 01:32 77 -3 27.81 284 kPa
470 22/02/2000 3:03 22/02 - 03:03 01:35 61 -3 22.04 284 kPa
471 22/02/2000 4:37 22/02 - 04:37 01:34 60 -5 21.73 282 kPa
472 22/02/2000 6:13 22/02 - 06:13 01:36 60 -5 21.73 282 kPa
473 22/02/2000 7:48 22/02 - 07:48 01:35 77 -1.5 27.79 281 kPa
474 22/02/2000 9:23 22/02 - 09:23 01:35 89 -3.25 32.14 281 kPa
475 22/02/2000 10:55 22/02 - 10:55 01:32 128 -3 46.20 283 kPa
476 22/02/2000 12:26 22/02 - 12:26 01:31 137 -5 49.47 284 kPa
477 22/02/2000 13:57 22/02-13:57 01:31 139 -4 50.18 285 kPa
478 22/02/2000 15:30 22/02 - 15:30 01:33 138 -2.75 49.81 284 kPa
479 22/02/2000 17:02 22/02 - 17:02 01:32 138 -2.75 49.81 284 kPa
480 22/02/2000 18:34 22/02 - 18:34 01:32 135 -7.5 48.79 284 kPa
481 22/02/2000 20:10 22/02 - 20:10 01:36 77 -9 27.97 281 kPa
482 22/02/2000 21:46 22/02 - 21:46 01:36 77 -9 27.97 281 kPa,
Estimated reading.
483 22/02/2000 23:24 22/02 - 23:24 01:38 80 -6 28.95 280 kPa
484 23/02/2000 0:58 23/02 - 00:58 01:34 79 -7 28.62 280 kPa
485 23/02/2000 2:33 23/02 - 02:33 01:35 60 -5 21.73 280 kPa
486 23/02/2000 4:08 23/02 - 04:08 01:35 60 -8 21.84 280 kPa
487 23/02/2000 5:44 23/02 - 05:44 01:36 60 -8 21.84 279 kPa
488 23/02/2000 7:20 23/02 - 07:20 01:36 79 -5 28.56 278 kPa
489 23/02/2000 8:58 23/02 - 08:58 01:38 97 -2 35.01 278 kPa
490 23/02/2000 10:31 23/02 - 10:31 01:33 138 2.2 49.80 280 kPa
491 23/02/2000 12:05 23/02 - 12:05 01:34 138 -1 49.80 282 kPa
492 23/02/2000 13:20 23/02 - 13:20 01:15 137 2.5 49.44 282 kPa
493 23/02/2000 15:12 23/02-15:12 01:52 138 -1.7 49.80 282 kPa
494 23/02/2000 16:06 23/02 - 16:06 00:54 138 -1 49.80 282 kPa
495 23/02/2000 18:21 23/02-18:21 02:15 122 -6 44.08 281 kPa
496 23/02/2000 20:01 23/02 - 20:01 01:40 78 -7 28.26 278 kPa
497 23/02/2000 21:20 23/02 - 21:20 01:19 78 -1.5 28.15 276 kPa
498 23/02/2000 23:16 23/02 - 23:16 01:56 78 -2.75 28.16 277 kPa
499 24/02/2000 0:53 24/02 - 00:53 01:37 78 -2.75 28.16 277 kPa
500 24/02/2000 2:30 24/02 - 02:30 01:37 59 -4 21.34 277 kPa
501 24/02/2000 4:06 24/02 - 04:06 01:36 59 -3 21.32 276 kPa
502 24/02/2000 5:44 24/02 - 05:44 01:38 59 -3 21.32 276 kPa
503 24/02/2000 7:22 24/02 - 07:22 01:38 77 -3.7 27.82 276 kPa
504 24/02/2000 8:57 24/02 - 08:57 01:35 77 -3 27.81 295 kPa
233
release (x 100)
505 24/02/2000 10:19 24/02 - 10:19 01:22 124 -3 44.76 296 kPa
506 24/02/2000 11:40 24/02 - 11:40 01:21 136 0 49.07 299 kPa
507 24/02/2000 13:02 24/02 - 13:02 01:22 146 -1 52.68 300 kPa
508 24/02/2000 14:22 24/02 - 14:22 01:20 147 2.75 53.05 301 kPa
509 24/02/2000 15:42 24/02 - 15:42 01:20 168 2.2 60.63 303 kPa
510 24/02/2000 17:02 24/02 - 17:02 01:20 168 1.5 60.62 303 kPa
511 24/02/2000 18:27 24/02 - 18:27 01:25 138 -3.2 49.81 301 kPa
512 24/02/2000 19:54 24/02 - 19:54 01:27 98 -7 35.45 298 kPa
513 24/02/2000 21:23 24/02-21:23 01:29 98 -7 35.45 298 kPa,
Estimated reading
514 24/02/2000 22:59 24/02 - 22:59 01:36 60 -9 21.89 294 kPa
515 25/02/2000 0:23 25/02-00:23 01:24 59 -7 21.44 295 kPa
516 25/02/2000 1:45 25/02-01:45 01:22 60 -7.5 21.82 296 kPa
517 25/02/2000 3:06 25/02-03:06 01:21 59 -7 21.44 297 kPa
518 25/02/2000 4:29 25/02 - 04:29 01:23 60 -8 21.84 296 kPa
519 25/02/2000 5:53 25/02-05:53 01:24 59 -3 21.32 296kPa
520 25/02/2000 7:16 25/02 - 07:16 01:23 78 -6 28.23 295 kPa
521 25/02/2000 8:41 25/02 - 08:41 01:25 80 1.7 28.87 294 kPa
522 25/02/2000 10:02 25/02 - 10:02 01:21 118 -4.5 42.61 295 kPa
523 25/02/2000 11:22 25/02 - 11:22 01:20 136 -3 49.09 298 kPa
524 25/02/2000 12:41 25/02 - 12:41 01:19 159 0.5 57.37 300 kPa
525 25/02/2000 14:01 25/02 - 14:01 01:20 157 1 56.65 302 kPa
526 25/02/2000 15:22 25/02 - 15:22 01:21 157 2.5 56.66 303 kPa
527 25/02/2000 16:44 25/02 - 16:44 01:22 158 -3.75 57.03 302 kPa
528 25/02/2000 18:06 25/02 - 18:06 01:22 156 -3.25 56.30 301 kPa
529 25/02/2000 19:30 25/02 - 19:30 01:24 158 -3.25 57.03 300 kPa
530 25/02/2000 20:54 25/02 - 20:54 01:24 158.8 -1 57.30 299 kPa
531 25/02/2000 22:18 25/02-22:18 01:24 136 -4.2 49.10 297kPa
532 25/02/2000 23:40 25/02 - 23:40 01:22 137 4.5 49.46 297 kPa
533 26/02/2000 1:05 26/02 - 01:05 01:25 105 -2.75 37.90 297 kPa
534 26/02/2000 2:28 26/02 - 02:28 01:23 67 -9.75 24.43 295 kPa
535 26/02/2000 3:52 26/02 - 03:52 01:24 59 -6.25 21.41 295 kPa
536 26/02/2000 5:16 26/02 - 05:16 01:24 57 -10 20.88 294 kPa
537 26/02/2000 6:42 26/02 - 06:42 01:26 59 -3.75 21.33 294 kPa
538 26/02/2000 8:07 26/02 - 08:07 01:25 60 -2.5 21.67 293 kPa
539 26/02/2000 9:31 26/02-09:31 01:24 90 12 32.76 292kPa
540 26/02/2000 10:54 26/02 - 10:54 01:23 109 -2.5 39.34 294 kPa
541 26/02/2000 12:18 26/02-12:18 01:24 137 -1.5 49.44 295 kPa
542 26/02/2000 13:39 26/02 - 13:39 01:21 136 -0.25 49.07 297 kPa
543 26/02/2000 15:03 26/02 - 15:03 01:24 136 2.25 49.08 297 kPa
544 26/02/2000 16:26 26/02 - 16:26 01:23 136 2.25 49.08 297 kPa
545 26/02/2000 17:52 26/02 - 17:52 01:26 98 -8 35.48 295 kPa
546 26/02/2000 19:19 26/02-19:19 01:27 60 -9 21.89 292 kPa
547 26/02/2000 20:48 26/02 - 20:48 01:29 60 -8.5 21.87 291 kPa
548 26/02/2000 22:16 26/02-22:16 01:28 60 -9.5 21.92 289kPa
549 26/02/2000 23:43 26/02 - 23:43 01:27 59 -9 21.54 289 kPa
550 27/02/2000 1:10 27/02 - 01:10 01:27 60 -6.25 21.77 290 kPa
551 27/02 - 02:36 01:26 59 -6.75 21.43 289 kPa
234
release (x 100)
552 27/02/2000 4:02 27/02 - 04:02 01:26 60 -6 21.76 290 kPa
553 27/02/2000 5:29 27/02 - 05:29 01:27 59 -6.75 21.43 289 kPa
554 27/02/2000 6:56 27/02 - 06:56 01:27 59 -7 21.44 289 kPa
555 27/02/2000 8:24 27/02 - 08:24 01:28 66 -5 23.88 288 kPa
556 27/02/2000 9:52 27/02 - 09:52 01:28 75 -2 27.07 288 kPa
557 27/02/2000 11:18 27/02-11:15 01:26 98 1.1 35.36 290 kPa
558 27/02/2000 12:44 27/02 - 12:44 01:26 98 -5 35.41
559 27/02/2000 14:09 27/02 - 14:09 01:25 105 -2 37.90 291 kPa
560 27/02/2000 15:31 27/02 - 15:31 01:22 147 1.9 53.05 295 kPa
561 27/02/2000 16:53 27/02 - 16:53 01:22 146 -0.6 52.68 295 kPa
562 27/02/2000 18:21 27/02 - 18:21 01:28 87 -7 31.49 295 kPa
563 27/02/2000 19:49 27/02 - 19:49 01:28 77 -13 28.18 290 kPa
564 27/02/2000 21:51 27/02 - 21:51 02:02 60 -6 21.76 288 kPa
565 27/02/2000 22:43 27/02 - 22:43 00:52 60 -8.5 21.87 287 kPa
566 28/02/2000 0:11 28/02 - 00:11 01:28 60 -4.75 21.72 257 kPa
567 28/02/2000 1:37 28/02 - 01:37 01:26 60 -7.75 21.83 257 kPa
568 28/02/2000 3:04 28/02 - 03:04 01:27 60 -4.25 21.70 287 kPa
569 28/02/2000 4:32 28/02 - 04:32 01:28 60 -2.75 21.67 285 kPa
570 28/02/2000 5:59 28/02 - 05:59 01:27 60 -1.75 21.66 287 kPa
571 28/02/2000 7:25 28/02 - 07:25 01:26 79 -8 28.65 288 kPa
572 28/02/2000 8:53 28/02 - 08:53 01:28 78 -5 28.20 288 kPa
573 28/02/2000 10:18 28/02-10:18 01:25 114 4 41.16 289kPa
574 28/02/2000 11:39 28/02 - 11:39 01:21 165 4.75 59.56 293 kPa
575 28/02/2000 13:01 28/02 - 13:01 01:22 177 10.5 63.98 295 kPa
576 28/02/2000 14:26 28/02 - 14:26 01:25 177 10.5 63.98 295 kPa
577 28/02/2000 15:50 28/02 - 15:50 01:24 178 3 64.24 296 kPa
578 28/02/2000 17:14 28/02 - 17:14 01:24 177 -0.25 63.87 295 kPa
579 28/02/2000 18:37 28/02 - 18:37 01:23 178 2 64.23 295 kPa
580 28/02/2000 20:03 28/02 - 20:03 01:26 157 1.5 56.66 293 kPa
581 28/02/2000 21:30 28/02 - 21:30 01:27 138 -1 49.80 290 kPa
582 28/02/2000 23:00 28/02 - 23:00 01:30 89 -2 32.12 288 kPa
583 29/02/2000 0:28 29/02 - 00:28 01:28 75 -0.25 28.15 288 kPa
584 29/02/2000 1:55 29/02 - 01:55 01:27 78 -1.25 28.15 286 kPa
585 29/02/2000 3:22 29/02 - 03:22 01:27 78 2 28.16 286 kPa
586 29/02/2000 4:47 29/02 - 04:47 01:25 78 -1.25 28.15 256 kPa
587 29/02/2000 6:12 29/02-06:12 01:25 78 -4 28.18 287 kPa
588 29/02/2000 7:37 29/02 - 07:37 01:25 82 -4 29.62 287 kPa
589 29/02/2000 9:01 29/02 - 09:01 01:24 129 3.25 46.56 288 kPa
590 29/02/2000 10:23 29/02 - 10:23 01:22 130 3.25 46.92 288 kPa
591 29/02/2000 11:43 29/02-11:43 01:20 172 6 62.10 290 kPa
592 29/02/2000 13:03 29/02 - 13:03 01:20 177 8.7 63.95 292 kPa
593 29/02/2000 14:24 29/02-14:24 01:21 177 6 63.91 293 kPa
594 — 29/02/2000 15:44 29/02 - 15:44 01:20 177 8 63.93 293 kPa
595 29/02/2000 17:04 29/02 - 17:04 01:20 174 -0.5 62.79 294 kPa
596 29/02/2000 18:27 29/02 - 18:27 01:23 157 0.5 56.65 293 kPa
597 29/02/2000 19:50 29/02 - 19:50 01:23 138 -0.75 49.80 291 kPa
598 29/02/2000 21:15 29/02-21:15 01:25 137 1 49.44 289 kPa
235
release (x 100)
599 29/02/2000 22:39 29/02 - 22:39 01:24 118 -2.25 42.59 287 kPa
600 1/03/2000 0:05 01/03 - 00:05 01:26 91 -0.5 32.84 286 kPa
601 1/03/2000 1:32 01/03-01:32 01:27 80 -3 28.89 285kPa
602 1/03/2000 2:59 01/03-02:59 01:27 80 -2 28.88 285kPa
603 1/03/2000 4:26 01/03 - 04:26 01:27 80 -2 28.88 285 kPa
604 1/03/2000 5:54 01/03 - 05:54 01:28 78 2 28.16 284 kPa
605 1/03/2000 7:22 01/03 - 07:22 01:28 77 -4 27.82 284 kPa
606 1/03/2000 8:49 01/03 - 08:49 01:27 77 -1 27.79 284 kPa
607 1/03/2000 10:15 01/03-10:15 01:26 115 1.5 41.50 285kPa
608 1/03/2000 11:36 01/03-11:36 01:21 154 5.5 55.61 288kPa
609 1/03/2000 12:53 01/03 - 12:53 01:17 185 6 66.79 291 kPa
610 1/03/2000 14:12 01/03-14:12 01:19 191 10.5 69.03 292kPa
611 1/03/2000 15:32 01/03-15:32 01:20 190 3.7 68.57 293kPa
612 1/03/2000 16:53 01/03-16:53 01:21 191 3.7 68.93 293kPa
613 1/03/2000 18:18 01/03-18:18 01:25 178 -0.5 64.23 291 kPa
614 1/03/2000 19:40 01/03- 19:40 01:22 178 2.5 64.24 290 kPa
615 1/03/2000 21:03 01/03-21:03 01:23 193 2.75 69.65 291 kPa
616 1/03/2000 22:26 01/03 - 22:26 01:23 177 6.5 63.91 290 kPa
617 1/03/2000 23:55 01/03 - 23:55 01:29 90 -2 32.48 285 kPa
618 2/03/2000 1:22 02/03 - 01:22 01:27 80 -7 28.98 284 kPa
619 2/03/2000 2:48 02/03 - 02:48 01:26 79 -7 28.62 283 kPa
620 2/03/2000 4:15 02/03 - 04:15 01:27 79 -7 28.62 282 kPa
621 2/03/2000 5:40 02/03 - 05:40 01:25 78 -3 28.17 282 kPa
622 2/03/2000 7:04 02/03 - 07:04 01:24 97 -0.75 35.00 282 kPa
623 2/03/2000 8:26 02/03 - 08:26 01:22 137 1.75 49.44 283 kPa
624 2/03/2000 9:44 02/03 - 09:44 01:18 192 9.75 69.37 287 kPa,
increased loading
rate to 2 MW/mm.
625 2/03/2000 11:03 02/03- 11:03 01:19 192 10.75 69.39 289kPa, Loading
rate reset to 1
MW/mm.
626 2/03/2000 12:22 02/03- 12:22 01:19 191 7.5 68.97 291 kPa
627 2/03/2000 13:42 02/03 - 13:42 01:20 192 9.25 69.36 290 kPa
628 2/03/2000 15:03 02/03 - 15:03 01:21 194 7.75 70.06 290 kPa
629 2/03/2000 16:24 02/03 - 16:24 01:21 195 7.25 70.41 290 kPa
630 2/03/2000 17:43 02/03 - 17:43 01:19 196 8 70.78 289 kPa
631 2/03/2000 19:03 02/03 - 19:03 01:20 196 3 70.73 289 kPa
632 2/03/2000 20:23 02/03 - 20:23 01:20 196 10.5 70.83 289 kPa
633 2/03/2000 21:46 02/03-21:46 01:23 194 6 70.04 288 kPa
634 2/03/2000 23:11 02/03-23:11 01:25 147 0.75 53.04 285kPa
635 3/03/2000 0:38 03/03-00:38 01:27 110.5 1.75 39.88 283kPa
636 3/03/2000 2:05 03/03 - 02:05 01:27 76.25 -4.5 27.56 281 kPa
637 3/03/2000 3:32 03/03 - 03:32 01:27 76.75 -0.75 27.70 279 kPa
638 3/03/2000 4:59 03/03-04:59 01:27 59.95 -1.25 21.64 279kPa
639 3/03/2000 6:28 03/03-06:28 01:29 60 -1.25 21.66 279kPa
3/03/2000 7:55 03/03 - 07:55 01:27 91 -0.25 32.84 279 kPa
641 3/03/2000 9:20 03/03-09:20 01:25 117 3.25 42.24 280 kPa
642 3/03/2000 10:42 03/03 - 10:42 01:22 137 5.75 49.48 283 kPa
643 3/03/2000 12:03 03/03 - 12:03 01:21 153 7 55.27 284 kPa
236
release (x 100)
644 3/03/2000 13:26 03/03 - 13:26 01:23 158 8.25 57.09 285 kPa
645 3/03/2000 14:51 03/03 - 14:51 01:25 98 -0.25 35.36 283 kPa
646 3/03/2000 16:20 03/03- 16:20 01:29 112.75 -0.25 40.69 281 kPa
647 3/03/2000 17:44 03/03 - 17:44 01:24 98 -4.5 35.40 279 kPa
648 3/03/2000 19:11 03/03- 19:11 01:27 98 -2.25 35.37 278 kPa
649 3/03/2000 20:37 03/03 - 20:37 01:26 98.38 0.5 35.50 277 kPa
650 3/03/2000 22:06 03/03 - 22:06 01:29 77.38 -5 27.98 275 kPa
651 3/03/2000 23:34 03/03 - 23:34 01:28 78 -6.2 28.23 275 kPa
652 4/03/2000 0:58 04/03 - 00:58 01:24 59 -3.5 21.33 284 kPa
653 4/03/2000 2:20 04/03 - 02:20 01:22 60 -6 21.76 283 kPa
654 4/03/2000 3:42 04/03 - 03:42 01:22 59 -7 21.44 282 kPa
655 4/03/2000 5:04 04/03 - 05:04 01:22 59 -8 21.48 282 kPa
656 4/03/2000 6:28 04/03 - 06:28 01:24 60 -2.2 21.67 283 kPa
657 4/03/2000 7:51 04/03 - 07:51 01:23 60 -0.5 21.65 282 kPa
658 4/03/2000 9:13 04/03 - 09:13 01:22 60 -1.7 21.66 282 kPa
659 4/03/2000 10:36 04/03 - 10:36 01:23 60 1.5 21.66 283 kPa
660 4/03/2000 11:59 04/03 - 11:59 01:23 60 -7.7 21.83 283 kPa
661 4/03/2000 13:21 04/03-13:21 01:22 60 -5 21.73 283kPa
662 4/03/2000 14:43 04/03- 14:43 01:22 60 -6 21.76 283 kPa
663 4/03/2000 16:05 04/03- 16:05 01:22 60 -3 21.68 283 kPa
664 4/03/2000 17:28 04/03 - 17:28 01:23 60 -9 21.89 283 kPa
665 4/03/2000 18:50 04/03 - 18:50 01:22 61 -6 22.12 283 kPa
666 4/03/2000 20:14 04/03-20:14 01:24 60 -7.25 21.81 281 kPa
667 4/03/2000 21:37 04/03-21:37 01:23 60 -4.75 21.72 281 kPa
668 4/03/2000 23:00 04/03 - 23:00 01:23 60 -11.5 22.04 281 kPa
669 5/03/2000 0:22 05/03 - 00:22 01:22 59 -5 21.37 281 kPa
670 5/03/2000 1:46 05/03-01:46 01:24 61 -5.75 22.11 281 kPa
671 5/03/2000 3:11 05/03-03:11 01:25 60 -5.6 21.74 281 kPa
672 5/03/2000 4:35 05/03 - 04:35 01:24 60 -2.2 21.67 281 kPa
673 5/03/2000 5:58 05/03 - 05:58 01:23 60 -8 21.84 281 kPa
674 5/03/2000 7:22 05/03 - 07:22 01:24 60 8.2 21.85 281 kPa
675 5/03/2000 8:48 05/03 - 08:48 01:26 60 -3.5 21.69 280 kPa
676 5/03/2000 10:14 05/03 - 10:14 01:26 59 -3.75 21.33 280 kPa
677 5/03/2000 11:42 05/03- 11:42 01:28 60 -1.5 21.66 281 kPa
678 5/03/2000 13:07 05/03- 13:07 01:25 60 -6 21.76 281 kPa
679 5/03/2000 14:33 05/03 - 14:33 01:26 60 -1 21.65 280 kPa
680 5/03/2000 15:57 05/03 - 15:57 01:24 60 -2 21.66 280 kPa
681 5/03/2000 17:22 05/03 - 17:22 01:25 60 -10 21.95 280 kPa
682 5/03/2000 18:47 05/03 - 18:47 01:25 60 -5.5 21.74 280 kPa
683 5/03/2000 20:14 05/03 - 20:14 01:27 59 -2.75 21.31 279 kPa
684 5/03/2000 21:41 05/03-21:41 01:27 60 -5.5 21.74 279kPa
685 5/03/2000 23:07 05/03 - 23:07 01:26 61 -6 22.12 279 kPa
686 6/03/2000 0:33 06/03-00:33 01:26 60 0.25 21.65 279kPa
687 6/03/2000 2:01 06/03 - 02:01 01:28 60 -3 21.68 279 kPa
688 6/03/2000 3:27 06/03 - 03:27 01:26 60 -1.75 21.66 278 kPa
689 6/03/2000 4:56 06/03-04:56 01:29 60 0.75 21.65 278kPa
690 6/03/2000 6:23 06/03 - 06:23 01:27 59 -4.25 21.34 278 kPa
237
release (x 100)
691 6/03/2000 7:50 06/03 - 07:50 01:27 59 -6.25 21.41 278 kPa
692 6/03/2000 9:15 06/03 - 09:15 01:25 66 -0.38 23.82 278 kPa
693 6/03/2000 10:42 06/03 - 10:42 01:27 80 -2.5 28.88 277 kPa
694 6/03/2000 12:07 06/03 - 12:07 01:25 80 -2.5 28.88 277 kPa
695 6/03/2000 13:33 06/03 - 13:33 01:26 80 0.5 28.87 277 kPa
696 6/03/2000 14:55 06/03- 14:55 01:22 118 3.5 42.60 278 kPa
697 6/03/2000 16:17 06/03-16:17 01:22 118 3.5 42.60 278 kPa,
Estimated reading
698 6/03/2000 17:40 06/03 - 17:40 01:23 90 -2.7 32.49 277 kPa
699 6/03/2000 19:03 06/03 - 19:03 01:23 79 -6 28.59 277 kPa
700 6/03/2000 20:25 06/03 - 20:25 01:22 78 -7 28.26 277 kPa
701 6/03/2000 21:47 06/03 - 21:47 01:22 77 -11 28.07 277 kPa
702 6/03/2000 23:11 06/03 - 23:11 01:24 78 -2 28.16 276 kPa
703 7/03/2000 0:33 07/03 - 00:33 01:22 77 2.5 27.80 276 kPa
704 7/03/2000 1:55 07/03 - 01:55 01:22 60 -4.5 21.71 276 kPa
705 7/03/2000 3:18 07/03-03:18 01:23 60 -5 21.73 275 kPa
706 7/03/2000 4:40 07/03 - 04:40 01:22 60 -7 21.80 275 kPa
707 7/03/2000 6:04 07/03 - 06:04 01:24 59 0 21.29 275 kPa
708 7/03/2000 7:28 07/03 - 07:28 01:24 60 0 21.65 275 kPa
709 7/03/2000 8:50 07/03 - 08:50 01:22 77 0 27.78 275 kPa
710 7/03/2000 10:12 07/03-10:12 01:22 100 -6 36.15 276kPa
711 7/03/2000 11:32 07/03-11:32 01:20 117 -2 42.22 275kPa
712 7/03/2000 12:54 07/03-12:54 01:22 103 -1.5 37.17 275kPa
713 7/03/2000 14:12 07/03-14:12 01:18 79 -1 28.51 282 kPa
714 7/03/2000 15:28 07/03 - 15:28 01:16 78 -3 28.17 282 kPa
715 7/03/2000 16:44 07/03 - 16:44 01:16 79 -1 28.51 282 kPa
716 7/03/2000 18:00 07/03 - 18:00 01:16 77 -5 27.84 281 kPa
717 7/03/2000 19:18 07/03-19:18 01:18 79 -7 28.62 281 kPa
718 7/03/2000 20:34 07/03-20:34 01:16 79 -3 28.53 281 kPa
719 7/03/2000 21:52 07/03-21:52 01:18 60 -6 21.76 288 kPa
720 7/03/2000 23:06 07/03 - 23:06 01:14 60 -8 21.84 288 kPa
721 8/03/2000 0:18 08/03 - 00:18 01:12 60 -5.5 21.74 289 kPa
722 8/03/2000 1:31 08/03-01:31 01:13 60 -7.5 21.82 287 kPa
723 8/03/2000 2:43 08/03 - 02:43 01:12 60 -3.5 21.69 287 kPa
724 8/03/2000 3:58 08/03 - 03:58 01:15 60 -6.5 21.78 288 kPa
725 8/03/2000 5:12 08/03-05:12 01:14 60 -7.5 21.82 287kPa
726 8/03/2000 6:26 08/03 - 06:26 01:14 59 -5 21.37 287 kPa
727 8/03/2000 7:39 08/03 - 07:39 01:13 77 -3.2 27.81 288 kPa
728 8/03/2000 8:54 08/03 - 08:54 01:15 78 -2 28.16 288 kPa
729 8/03/2000 10:07 08/03 - 10:07 01:13 79 -1.5 28.51 287 kPa
730 8/03/2000 11:20 08/03- 11:20 01:13 79 -1.7 28.51 287 kPa
731 8/03/2000 12:34 08/03 - 12:34 01:14 79 0.5 28.51 287 kPa
732 8/03/2000 13:50 08/03 - 13:50 01:16 79 0 28.51 287 kPa
733 8/03/2000 15:04 08/03 - 15:04 01:14 98 -0.75 35.36 287 kPa
734 8/03/2000 16:17 08/03-16:17 01:13 103 1.5 37.17 287kPa
735 8/03/2000 17:28 08/03-17:28 01:11 119 -1.7 42.94 287kPa
736 8/03/2000 18:40 08/03- 18:40 01:12 110 0.75 39.69 287 kPa
737 8/03/2000 19:53 08/03 - 19:53 01:13 80 -2 28.88 287 kPa
238
release (x 100)
738 8/03/2000 21:06 08/03-21:06 01:13 80 -2 28.88 287 kPa
739 8/03/2000 22:18 08/03-22:18 01:12 79 -7 28.62 285kPa
740 8/03/2000 23:32 08/03 - 23:32 01:14 79 -8 28.65 285 kPa
741 9/03/2000 0:46 09/03 - 00:46 01:14 78 0 28.15 286 kPa
742 9/03/2000 1:59 09/03-01:59 01:13 60 -1.7 21.66 286 kPa
743 9/03/2000 3:09 09/03 - 03:09 01:10 60 -2 21.66 286 kPa
744 9/03/2000 4:23 09/03 - 04:23 01:14 60 -5 21.73 285 kPa
745 9/03/2000 5:37 09/03 - 05:37 01:14 60 -5 21.73 285 kPa,
Estimated reading
746 9/03/2000 6:52 09/03 - 06:52 01:15 60 -6 21.76 285 kPa
747 9/03/2000 8:06 09/03 - 08:06 01:14 60 -3 21.68 285 kPa
748 9/03/2000 9:20 09/03 - 09:20 01:14 87 -5 31.45 286 kPa
749 9/03/2000 10:32 09/03- 10:32 01:12 111 -3 40.07 286 kPa
750 9/03/2000 11:44 09/03 - 11:44 01:12 138 -0.2 49.80 286 kPa
751 9/03/2000 12:57 09/03 - 12:57 01:13 158 3.7 57.03 288 kPa
752 9/03/2000 14:11 09/03 - 14:11 01:14 138 -0.2 49.80 286 kPa
753 9/03/2000 15:26 09/03-15:26 01:15 118 -4 42.60 287 kPa
754 9/03/2000 16:39 09/03-16:39 01:13 118 2.25 42.59 287 kPa
755 9/03/2000 17:53 09/03- 17:53 01:14 133 -1.5 48.00 287 kPa
756 9/03/2000 19:08 09/03- 19:08 01:15 118 -6 42.63 285 kPa
757 9/03/2000 20:20 09/03-20:20 01:12 118 3 42.59 285kPa
758 9/03/2000 21:36 09/03-21:36 01:16 116 -2 41.86 285 kPa
759 9/03/2000 22:51 09/03-22:51 01:15 116 -2 41.86 285kPa
760 10/03/2000 0:06 10/03 - 00:06 01:15 60 -7 21.80 284 kPa
761 10/03/2000 1:21 10/03-01:21 01:15 60 -5 21.73 284kPa
762 10/03/2000 2:34 10/03-02:34 01:13 60 -4 21.70 283kPa
763 10/03/2000 3:48 10/03 - 03:48 01:14 60 -2 21.66 283 kPa
764 10/03/2000 5:03 10/03 - 05:03 01:15 60 -1.5 21.66 283 kPa
765 10/03/2000 6:19 10/03-06:19 01:16 60 -4 21.70 283 kPa
766 10/03/2000 7:34 10/03 - 07:34 01:15 80 -4 28.90 283 kPa
767 10/03/2000 8:49 10/03-08:49 01:15 120 2.75 43.31 284kPa
768 10/03/2000 10:02 10/03 - 10:02 01:13 120 2.75 43.31 284 kPa,
Estimated reading.
769 10/03/2000 11:16 10/03-11:16 01:14 160 4.75 57.76 285kPa
770 10/03/2000 12:35 10/03-12:35 01:19 157 7 56.71 285kPa
771 10/03/2000 13:44 10/03 - 13:44 01:09 158 7.78 57.08 287 kPa
772 10/03/2000 14:59 10/03-14:59 01:15 158 7.78 57.08 287kPa,
Estimated reading
773 10/03/2000 16:14 10/03-16:14 01:15 137 6.5 49.49 286 kPa
774 10/03/2000 17:28 10/03-17:28 01:14 137 0 49.44 286kPa
775 10/03/2000 18:43 10/03-18:43 01:15 117 -4 42.24 285kPa
776 10/03/2000 20:00 10/03 - 20:00 01:17 100 1.2 36.09 283 kPa
777 10/03/2000 21:17 10/03-21:17 01:17 98 -0.5 35.36 282kPa
778 — 10/03/2000 22:31 10/03-22:31 01:14 79 -1 28.51 282kPa
779 10/03/2000 23:46 10/03 - 23:46 01:15 79 -5 28.56 282 kPa
780 11/03/2000 1:01 11/03-01:01 01:15 78 -3 28.17 282kPa
781 11/03/2000 2:15 11/03-02:15 01:14 64 -1 23.10 282kPa
782 11/03/2000 3:30 11/03-03:30 01:15 60 -2 21.66 282 kPa
783 11/03/2000 4:44 11/03 - 04:44 01:14 60 -3 21.68 282 kPa
239
release (x 100)
784 11/03/2000 5:57 11/03-05:57 01:13 60 -1 21.65 281 kPa
785 11/03/2000 7:12 11/03-07:12 01:15 60 -4 21.70 281 kPa
786 11/03/2000 8:28 11/03-08:28 01:16 77 -4 27.82 281 kPa
787 11/03/2000 9:43 11/03 - 09:43 01:15 79 -5 28.56 280 kPa
788 11/03/2000 10:59 11/03-10:59 01:16 78 -4 28.18 281 kPa
789 11/03/2000 12:14 11/03-12:14 01:15 104 2 37.53 281 kPa
790 11/03/2000 13:26 11/03-13:26 01:12 137 6 49.48 283 kPa
791 11/03/2000 14:38 11/03-14:38 01:12 137 5 49.47 285kPa
792 11/03/2000 15:49 11/03-15:49 01:11 138 1.5 49.80 285kPa
793 11/03/2000 17:03 11/03-17:03 01:14 138 0 49.80 285kPa
794 11/03/2000 18:19 11/03-18:19 01:16 99 -1 35.73 283kPa
795 11/03/2000 19:37 11/03-19:37 01:18 78 -2 28.16 28lkPa
796 11/03/2000 20:56 11/03-20:56 01:19 77 -5 27.84 28OkPa
797 11/03/2000 22:12 11/03-22:12 01:16 78 -12 28.48 280 kPa
798 11/03/2000 23:29 11/03 - 23:29 01:17 79 -1 28.51 280 kPa
799 12/03/2000 0:44 12/03-00:44 01:15 80 -2 28.88 280 kPa
800 12/03/2000 2:00 12/03 - 02:00 01:16 78 -2 28.16 280 kPa
801 12/03/2000 3:15 12/03-03:15 01:15 60 -5 21.73 280 kPa
802 12/03/2000 4:26 12/03-04:26 01:11 60 -3 21.68 280 kPa
803 12/03/2000 5:38 12/03-05:38 01:12 65 -7 23.59 279 kPa
804 12/03/2000 6:50 12/03-06:50 01:12 80 -9 29.05 278 kPa
805 12/03/2000 8:03 12/03-08:03 01:13 78 0 28.15 279 kPa
806 12/03/2000 9:16 12/03-09:16 01:13 78 4.5 28.19 279 kPa
807 12/03/2000 10:30 12/03-10:30 01:14 79 3 28.53 278kPa
808 12/03/2000 11:43 12/03-11:43 01:13 79 4.5 28.55 279 kPa
809 12/03/2000 12:55 12/03-12:55 01:12 78 -4.25 28.19 279 kPa
810 12/03/2000 14:07 12/03 - 14:07 01:12 102.6 -1 37.02 280 kPa
811 12/03/2000 15:16 12/03-15:16 01:09 138 3.75 49.81 283 kPa
812 12/03/2000 16:27 12/03 - 16:27 01:11 138 7.5 49.87 283 kPa
813 12/03/2000 17:40 12/03-17:40 01:13 138 3.25 49.81 283 kPa
814 12/03/2000 18:54 12/03-18:54 01:14 138 -0.25 49.80 282 kPa
815 12/03/2000 20:06 12/03-20:06 01:12 138 3.25 49.81 281 kPa
816 12/03/2000 21:19 12/03-21:19 01:13 119 4.25 42.97 280 kPa
817 12/03/2000 22:36 12/03-22:36 01:17 92 0 33.20 278kPa
818 12/03/2000 23:51 12/03 - 23:51 01:15 78 -5 28.20 277 kPa
819 13/03/2000 1:03 13/03-01:03 01:12 79 0.75 28.51 279kPa
820 13/03/2000 2:16 13/03 - 02:16 01:13 67 -7 24.31 278 kPa
821 13/03/2000 3:30 13/03 - 03:30 01:14 60 -4 21.70 277 kPa
822 13/03/2000 4:43 13/03-04:43 01:13 60 -4 21.70 277kPa
823 13/03/2000 5:55 13/03-05:55 01:12 59 -1 21.29 277kPa
824 13/03/2000 7:08 13/03 - 07:08 01:13 77 -1.25 27.79 277 kPa
825 13/03/2000 8:19 13/03-08:19 01:11 107 3 38.63 277kPa
826 13/03/2000 9:25 13/03-09:25 01:06 138 3.75 49.81 288kPa
827 13/03/2000 10:34 13/03 - 10:34 01:09 138 6.75 49.86 287 kPa
828 13/03/2000 11:43 13/03- 11:43 01:09 138 2.75 49.81 287 kPa
829 13/03/2000 12:51 13/03- 12:51 01:08 158 -0.25 57.01 288kPa
830 13/03/2000 13:59 13/03 - 13:59 01:08 136 1.25 49.08 288 kPa,
Estimated reading
240
release (x 100)
831 13/03/2000 15:10 13/03-15:10 01:11 137 -1.75 49.44 288 kPa
832 13/03/2000 16:27 13/03 - 16:27 01:17 138 7.25 49.87 288 kPa
833 13/03/2000 17:24 13/03 - 17:24 00:57 138 -1.25 49.80 288 kPa
834 13/03/2000 18:27 13/03 - 18:27 01:03 118 0.5 42.58 286 kPa
835 13/03/2000 19:32 13/03-19:32 01:05 78 0 28.15 283kPa
836 13/03/2000 20:35 13/03 - 20:35 01:03 78 0 28.15 283 kPa
837 13/03/2000 21:40 13/03 - 21:40 01:05 78 0 28.15 283 kPa
838 13/03/2000 22:44 13/03 - 22:44 01:04 78 -7 28.26 283 kPa
839 13/03/2000 23:50 13/03 - 23:50 01:06 61 -1.5 22.02 283 kPa
840 14/03/2000 0:54 14/03 - 00:54 01:04 60 -1.4 21.66 282 kPa
841 14/03/2000 2:02 14/03 - 02:02 01:08 58 -6.7 21.07 282 kPa
842 14/03/2000 3:07 14/03 - 03:07 01:05 60 -3 21.68 282 kPa
843 14/03/2000 4:09 14/03 - 04:09 01:02 59 -6.5 21.42 282 kPa
844 14/03/2000 5:15 14/03-05:15 01:06 60 -1 21.65 282 kPa
845 14/03/2000 6:22 14/03 - 06:22 01:07 73 -2.75 26.36 281 kPa
846 14/03/2000 7:28 14/03 - 07:28 01:06 73 -2.75 26.36 281 kPa,
Estimated reading
847 14/03/2000 8:32 14/03 - 08:32 01:04 119 1.5 42.94 282 kPa
848 14/03/2000 9:40 14/03 - 09:40 01:08 .156 3.75 56.31 283 kPa
849 14/03/2000 10:46 14/03- 10:46 01:06 156 3.75 56.31 283 kPa,
Estimated reading
850 14/03/2000 11:54 14/03-11:54 01:08 157 3.75 56.67 284kPa
851 14/03/2000 13:06 14/03- 13:06 01:12 140 6.25 50.57 282 kPa
852 14/03/2000 14:13 14/03-14:13 01:07 138 6.5 49.85 282 kPa
853 14/03/2000 15:21 14/03-15:21 01:08 138 3.5 49.81 282 kPa
854 14/03/2000 16:31 14/03-16:31 01:10 119 0 42.94 281 kPa
855 14/03/2000 17:35 14/03-17:35 01:04 117 1.25 42.22 280 kPa
856 14/03/2000 18:45 14/03- 18:45 01:10 78 -2 28.16 279 kPa
857 14/03/2000 19:55 14/03-19:55 01:10 79 -4.5 28.55 280 kPa
858 14/03/2000 21:04 14/03 - 21:04 01:09 78 -2 28.16 280 kPa
859 14/03/2000 22:12 14/03 - 22:12 01:08 78 -5.75 28.22 279 kPa
860 14/03/2000 23:17 14/03-23:17 01:05 78 -4.75 28.20 279kPa
861 15/03/2000 0:23 15/03 - 00:23 01:06 79 -4 28.54 279 kPa
862 15/03/2000 1:27 15/03-01:27 01:04 79 -2.25 28.52 279 kPa
863 15/03/2000 2:34 15/03 - 02:34 01:07 75 -6.5 27.16 279 kPa
864 15/03/2000 3:41 15/03-03:41 01:07 59 1.25 21.29 279 kPa
865 15/03/2000 4:46 15/03-04:46 01:05 59 -2.5 21.31 279kPa
866 15/03/2000 5:49 15/03 - 05:49 01:03 58 -0.25 20.93 278 kPa
867 15/03/2000 6:52 15/03 - 06:52 01:03 60 -3.25 21.68 278 kPa
868 15/03/2000 7:56 15/03 - 07:56 01:04 60 -5 21.73 278 kPa
869 — 15/03/2000 9:00 15/03 - 09:00 01:04 59 -2.75 21.31 278 kPa
870 15/03/2000 10:03 15/03 - 10:03 01:03 94 -3.25 33.94 279 kPa
871 15/03/2000 11:07 15/03- 11:07 01:04 97 -5 35.05 279 kPa
872 — 15/03/2000 12:10 15/03 - 12:10 01:03 98 -2.75 35.38 278 kPa
873 15/03/2000 13:16 15/03-13:16 01:06 107 -1 36.61 278 kPa
874 15/03/2000 14:17 15/03-14:17 01:01 136 0.2 49.07 280 kPa
875 15/03/2000 15:20 15/03 - 15:20 01:03 139 -0.5 50.16 279 kPa
876 15/03/2000 16:25 15/03- 16:25 01:05 137 -5.5 49.48 278 kPa
241
release (x 100)
877 15/03/2000 17:31 15/03-17:31 01:06 117 -5.25 42.26 277 kPa
878 15/03/2000 18:37 15/03-18:37 01:06 118 -8 42.68 278 kPa
879 15/03/2000 19:42 15/03-19:42 01:05 117 0 42.22 278kPa
880 15/03/2000 20:45 15/03-20:45 01:03 118 -1 42.58 286 kPa
881 15/03/2000 21:47 15/03 - 21:47 01:02 98 -6.5 35.44 285 kPa
882 15/03/2000 22:53 15/03 - 22:53 01:06 77 -6.75 27.89 286 kPa
883 15/03/2000 23:54 15/03 - 23:54 01:01 78 -6.25 28.24 285 kPa
884 16/03/2000 0:57 16/03 - 00:57 01:03 78 -7.25 28.27 285 kPa
885 16/03/2000 1:59 16/03 - 01:59 01:02 78 -9.25 28.34 285 kPa
886 16/03/2000 3:01 16/03-03:01 01:02 59 -8.25 21.50 28 kPa
887 16/03/2000 4:03 16/03-04:03 01:02 60 -4.25 21.70 285 kPa
888 16/03/2000 5:06 16/03-05:06 01:03 60 -4 21.70 285 kPa
889 16/03/2000 6:06 16/03-06:06 01:00 60 -4.75 21.72 284 kPa
890 16/03/2000 7:07 16/03 - 07:07 01:01 78 -3 28.17 284 kPa
891 16/03/2000 8:08 16/03-08:08 01:01 78 0 28.15 284kPa
892 16/03/2000 9:13 16/03-09:13 01:05 78 0.5 28.15 284 kPa
893 16/03/2000 10:14 16/03-10:14 01:01 78 0.5 28.15 284kPa
894 16/03/2000 11:15 16/03-11:15 01:01 79 -3 28.53 284kPa
895 16/03/2000 12:16 16/03-12:16 01:01 78 -2 28.16 284 kPa
896 16/03/2000 13:17 16/03-13:17 01:01 78 -4 28.18 284kPa
897 16/03/2000 14:18 16/03-14:18 01:01 79 -8 28.65 284 kPa
898 16/03/2000 15:16 16/03-15:16 00:58 79 -10 28.73 285kPa
899 16/03/2000 16:15 16/03-16:15 00:59 78 -8 28.29 285kPa
900 16/03/2000 17:14 16/03-17:14 00:59 78 -8 28.29 285 kPa
901 16/03/2000 18:16 16/03-18:16 01:02 79 -8 28.65 284 kPa
902 16/03/2000 19:15 16/03-19:15 00:59 78 -6 28.23 284 kPa
903 16/03/2000 20:13 16/03 - 20:13 00:58 78 -2 28.16 284 kPa
904 16/03/2000 21:13 16/03-21:13 01:00 78 -6.5 28.24 284 kPa
905 16/03/2000 22:16 16/03-22:16 01:03 79 1.5 28.51 284 kPa
906 16/03/2000 23:20 16/03 - 23:20 01:04 79 -7.75 28.64 283 kPa
907 17/03/2000 0:30 17/03 - 00:30 01:10 79 -7.75 28.64 283 kPa,
Estimated reading
908 17/03/2000 1:42 17/03 - 01:42 01:12 80 -3 28.89 283 kPa
909 17/03/2000 2:46 17/03 - 02:46 01:04 60 -6.75 21.79 282 kPa
910 17/03/2000 3:48 17/03 - 03:48 01:02 59 -5.25 21.37 283 kPa
911 17/03/2000 4:54 17/03-04:54 01:06 60 -4.25 21.70 282kPa
912 17/03/2000 5:58 17/03 - 05:58 01:04 77 -8.25 27.94 283 kPa
913 17/03/2000 7:00 17/03-07:00 01:02 118 0 42.58 283kPa
914 17/03/2000 7:57 17/03 - 07:57 00:57 158 2.25 57.02 284 kPa
915 17/03/2000 9:05 17/03 - 09:05 01:08 175 6 63.18 284 kPa
916 17/03/2000 10:09 17/03 - 10:09 01:04 175 7.5 63.21 284 kPa
917 17/03/2000 11:10 17/03-11:10 01:01 180 8.5 65.02 285kPa
918 17/03/2000 12:11 17/03-12:11 01:01 199 7.25 71.86 287 kPa
919 17/03/2000 13:12 17/03-13:12 01:01 185 9.75 66.85 287kPa
920 17/03/2000 14:15 17/03-14:15 01:03 175 9.5 63.24 286 kPa
921 17/03/2000 15:17 17/03-15:17 01:02 174 9.5 62.88 286kPa
922 17/03/2000 16:18 17/03-16:18 01:01 173 8.2 62.50 286 kPa
923 17/03/2000 17:20 17/03 - 17:20 01:02 173 4.75 62.45 285 kPa
242
release (x 100)
924 17/03/2000 18:24 17/03 - 18:24 01:04 174 2.25 62.79 285 kPa
925 17/03/2000 19:28 17/03-19:28 01:04 158 4 57.03 283kPa
926 17/03/2000 20:28 17/03 -20:28 01:00 158 3.75 57.03 283 kPa
927 17/03/2000 21:30 17/03-21:30 01:02 158 4.5 57.04 282kPa
928 17/03/2000 22:33 17/03-22:33 01:03 136 6.5 49.13 281 kPa
929 17/03/2000 23:36 17/03-23:36 01:03 117 2.2 42.23 281 kPa
930 18/03/2000 0:38 18/03-00:35 01:02 117 -2.5 42.23 281 kPa
931 18/03/2000 1:39 18/03-01:39 01:01 110 1.5 39.70 281 kPa
932 18/03/2000 2:46 18/03-02:46 01:07 63 1.75 22.74 278 kPa
933 18/03/2000 3:48 18/03-03:48 01:02 60 -7 21.80 279 kPa
934 18/03/2000 4:51 18/03-04:51 01:03 60 -4 21.70 279kPa
935 18/03/2000 5:54 18/03-05:54 01:03 60 -1 21.65 278kPa
936 18/03/2000 6:59 18/03 - 06:59 01:05 75 -0.75 27.06 278 kPa
937 18/03/2000 8:02 18/03 - 08:02 01:03 77 3.5 27.00 278 kPa
938 18/03/2000 9:04 18/03 - 09:04 01:02 103 -0.25 37.17 278 kPa
939 18/03/2000 10:04 18/03-10:04 01:00 103 -0.25 37.17 278 kPa,
Estimated reading
940 18/03/2000 11:04 18/03-11:04 01:00 157 5.7 56.69 278 kPa
941 18/03/2000 12:05 18/03- 12:05 01:01 157 5.7 56.69 278 kPa,
Estimated reading
942 18/03/2000 13:06 18/03-13:06 01:01 167 7.5 60.32 279 kPa
943 18/03/2000 14:07 18/03-14:07 01:01 168 8.5 60.70 280 kPa
944 18/03/2000 15:08 18/03-15:08 01:01 168 8.5 60.70 280 kPa,
Estimated reading
945 18/03/2000 16:09 18/03-16:09 01:01 167 4 60.28 280 kPa
946 18/03/2000 17:10 18/03-17:10 01:01 158 -1 57.01 280 kPa
947 18/03/2000 18:12 18/03-18:12 01:02 126 3 45.48 277kPa
948 18/03/2000 19:15 18/03-19:15 01:03 98 -3 35.38 275 kPa
949 18/03/2000 20:15 18/03 - 20:15 01:00 98 -0.5 35.36 289 kPa
950 18/03/2000 21:10 18/03-21:10 00:55 98 -0.75 35.36 290 kPa
951 18/03/2000 22:06 18/03 - 22:06 00:56 98 -1.75 35.37 289 kPa
952 18/03/2000 23:03 18/03 - 23:03 00:57 97 -1.7 35.01 289 kPa
953 18/03/2000 23:59 18/03 - 23:59 00:56 97 3.25 35.02 288 kPa
954 19/03/2000 0:54 19/03 - 00:54 00:55 97 2 35.01 288 kPa
955 19/03/2000 1:49 19/03-01:49 00:55 97 -2.25 35.01 288kPa
956 19/03/2000 2:46 19/03 - 02:46 00:57 63 -4 22.78 287 kPa
957 19/03/2000 3:44 19/03 - 03:44 00:58 60 -6 21.76 287 kPa
958 19/03/2000 4:36 19/03-04:36 00:52 60 -6 21.76 287 kPa
959 19/03/2000 5:33 19/03-05:33 00:57 59 -6 21.40 287 kPa
960 19/03/2000 6:29 19/03-06:29 00:56 59 -6 21.40 287kPa
961 19/03/2000 7:25 19/03 - 07:25 00:56 60 -8 21.84 287 kPa
962 19/03/2000 8:20 19/03-08:20 00:55 60 -5 21.73 287kPa
963 19/03/2000 9:16 19/03-09:16 00:56 59 -3 21.32 287kPa
964 19/03/2000 10:11 19/03-10:11 00:55 59 -2 21.30 285 kPa
965 19/03/2000 11:07 19/03-11:07 00:56 59 0 21.29 285kPa
966 19/03/2000 12:02 19/03 - 12:02 00:55 60 -1 21.65 286 kPa
967 19/03/2000 13:01 19/03 - 13:01 00:59 60 -2 21.66 285 kPa
968 19/03/2000 13:57 19/03 - 13:57 00:56 60 -5 21.73 285 kPa
969 19/03/2000 14:54 19/03 - 14:54 00:57 60 -4 21.70 285 kPa
243
release (x 100)
970 19/03/2000 15:52 19/03 - 15:52 00:58 59 -5 21.37 285 kPa
971 19/03/2000 16:50 19/03-16:50 00:58 60 -4 21.70 285kPa
972 19/03/2000 17:47 19/03 - 17:47 00:57 60 -8 21.84 285 kPa
973 19/03/2000 18:45 19/03 - 18:45 00:58 60 -5 21.73 285 kPa
974 19/03/2000 19:42 19/03 - 19:42 00:57 60 -2.25 21.67 285 kPa
975 19/03/2000 20:41 19/03 - 20:41 00:59 60 2 21.66 285 kPa
976 19/03/2000 21:39 19/03 - 21:39 00:58 59 -6 21.40 284 kPa
977 19/03/2000 22:35 19/03 - 22:35 00:56 60 -9.74 21.93 284 kPa
978 19/03/2000 23:32 19/03-23:32 00:57 60 -10 21.95 283kPa
979 20/03/2000 0:27 20/03 - 00:27 00:55 78 -4.25 28.19 283 kPa
980 20/03/2000 1:24 20/03 - 01:24 00:57 79 -4 28.54 283 kPa
981 20/03/2000 2:20 20/03 - 02:20 00:56 78 -4 28.18 283 kPa
982 20/03/2000 3:18 20/03 - 03:18 00:58 60 3.25 21.68 283 kPa
983 20/03/2000 4:15 20/03 - 04:15 00:57 59 -1.5 21.30 283 kPa
984 20/03/2000 5:14 20/03 - 05:14 00:59 59 -2 21.30 282 kPa
985 20/03/2000 6:11 20/03 - 06:11 00:57 78 2.75 28.16 282 kPa
986 20/03/2000 7:09 20/03 - 07:09 00:58 105 6.25 37.96 283 kPa
987 20/03/2000 8:07 20/03 - 08:07 00:58 138 1 49.80 283 kPa
988 20/03/2000 9:05 20/03 - 09:05 00:58 134 -2.25 48.36 283 kPa
989 20/03/2000 10:03 20/03 - 10:03 00:58 128 0.5 46.19 282 kPa
990 20/03/2000 11:00 20/03 - 11:00 00:57 133 1.75 48.00 283 kPa
991 20/03/2000 11:58 20/03 - 11:58 00:58 119 -1.75 42.95 282 kPa
992 20/03/2000 12:55 20/03 - 12:55 00:57 119 -1.75 42.95 282 kPa,
Estimated reading
993 20/03/2000 13:53 20/03 - 13:53 00:58 118 3.25 42.60 281 kPa
994 20/03/2000 14:48 20/03-14:48 00:55 118 1.25 42.58 281 kPa
995 20/03/2000 15:44 20/03 - 15:44 00:56 118 -0.75 42.58 281 kPa
996 20/03/2000 16:40 20/03 - 16:40 00:56 134 -2 48.36 282 kPa
997 20/03/2000 17:36 20/03 - 17:36 00:56 117 1.25 42.22 281 kPa
998 20/03/2000 18:33 20/03 - 18:33 00:57 96 -3 34.66 281 kPa
999 20/03/2000 19:30 20/03- 19:30 00:57 79 -1.2 28.51 281 kPa
1000 20/03/2000 20:27 20/03-20:27 00:57 59 -1.5 21.30 280 kPa
1001 20/03/2000 21:25 20/03 - 21:25 00:58 0 0 0.00 280 kPa
1002 20/03/2000 22:22 20/03 - 22:22 00:57 0 0 0.00 280 kPa
1003 20/03/2000 23:19 20/03 - 23:19 00:57 0 0 0.00 280 kPa
1004 21/03/2000 0:19 21/03-00:19 01:00 0 0 0.00 279kPa
1005 21/03/2000 1:18 21/03-01:18 00:59 0 0 0.00 279kPa
1006 21/03/2000 2:17 21/03-02:17 00:59 0 0 0.00 279kPa
1007 21/03/2000 3:17 21/03-03:17 01:00 0 0 0.00 278kPa
1008 21/03/2000 4:17 21/03-04:17 01:00 0 0 0.00 278 kPa
1009 21/03/2000 5:18 21/03 - 05:18 01:01 0 0 0.00 277 kPa
1010 21/03/2000 6:18 21/03-06:18 01:00 0 0 0.00 276kPa
1011 21/03/2000 7:18 21/03-07:18 01:00 0 0 0.00 276kPa
1012 21/03/2000 8:18 21/03 - 08:18 01:00 0 0 0.00 276 kPa
1013 21/03/2000 9:18 21/03 - 09:18 01:00 0 0 0.00 275 kPa
1014 21/03/2000 10:19 21/03-10:19 01:01 0 0 0.00 275kPa
1015 21/03/2000 11:20 21/03-11:20 01:01 0 0 0.00 275kPa
1016 21/03/2000 12:21 21/03-12:21 01:01 0 0 0.00 275kPa
244
release (x 100)
1017 21/03/2000 13:22 21/03-13:22 01:01 0 0 0.00 275kPa
1018 21/03/2000 14:23 21/03-14:23 01:01 0 0 0.00 275kPa
1019 21/03/2000 15:24 21/03- 15:24 01:01 0 0 0.00 275 kPa
1020 21/03/2000 16:26 21/03-16:26 01:02 0 0 0.00 275kPa
1021 21/03/2000 17:29 21/03 - 17:29 01:03 0 0 0.00 275 kPa
1022 21/03/2000 16:31 21/03 - 18:31 01:02 0 0 0.00 275 kPa
1023 21/03/2000 19:33 21/03-19:33 01:02 0 0 0.00 275kPa
1024 21/03/2000 20:35 21/03-20:35 01:02 0 0 0.00 275kPa
1025 21/03/2000 21:38 21/03-21:38 01:03 0 0 0.00 275kPa
1026 21/03/2000 22:41 21/03 - 22:41 01:03 0 0 0.00 275 kPa
1027 21/03/2000 23:44 21/03 - 23:44 01:03 0 0 0.00 275 kPa
1028 22/03/2000 0:46 22/03 - 00:46 01:02 0 0 0.00 274 kPa
1029 22/03/2000 1:49 22/03 - 01:49 01:03 0 0 0.00 274 kPa
1030 22/03/2000 2:52 22/03 - 02:52 01:03 0 0 0.00 274 kPa
1031 22/03/2000 3:56 22/03-03:56 01:04 0 0 0.00 273kPa
1032 22/03/2000 5:00 22/03-05:00 01:04 0 0 0.00 273 kPa
1033 22/03/2000 6:04 22/03 - 06:04 01:04 0 0 0.00 273 kPa
1034 22/03/2000 7:06 22/03 - 07:06 01:02 0 0 0.00 273 kPa
1035 22/03/2000 8:08 22/03 - 08:08 01:02 0 0 0.00 273 kPa
1036 22/03/2000 9:08 22/03 - 09:08 01:00 0 0 0.00 272 kPa
1037 22/03/2000 10:06 22/03 - 10:06 00:58 7 0 2.53 273 kPa
1038 22/03/2000 11:02 22/03- 11:02 00:56 60 -1 21.65 277 kPa
1039 22/03/2000 12:00 22/03 - 12:00 00:58 60 -1 21.65 277 kPa,
Estimated reading
1040 22/03/2000 12:57 22/03 - 12:57 00:57 60 0 21.65 276 kPa
1041 22/03/2000 13:54 22/03 - 13:54 00:57 60 0 21.65 275 kPa
1042 22/03/2000 14:52 22/03 - 14:52 00:58 60 0 21.65 275 kPa,
Estimated reading
1043 22/03/2000 15:50 22/03 - 15:50 00:58 58 -3 20.96 275 kPa
1044 22/03/2000 16:49 22/03 - 16:49 00:59 59 0 21.29 275 kPa
1045 22/03/2000 17:49 22/03 - 17:49 01:00 59 -2 21.30 274 kPa
1046 22/03/2000 18:48 22/03 - 18:48 00:59 61 -3.75 22.05 274 kPa
1047 22/03/2000 19:47 22/03 - 19:47 00:59 60 -1 21.65 274 kPa
1048 22/03/2000 20:45 22/03 - 20:45 00:58 60 -1.75 21.66 285 kPa
1049 22/03/2000 21:44 22/03 - 21:44 00:59 60 3.7 21.69 283 kPa
1050 22/03/2000 22:35 22/03 - 22:35 00:51 59 1.7 21.30 284 kPa
1051 22/03/2000 23:35 22/03-23:35 01:00 60 0.5 21.65 283 kPa
1052 23/03/2000 0:30 23/03 - 00:30 00:55 59 0.25 21.29 283 kPa
1053 23/03/2000 1:25 23/03 - 01:25 00:55 60 4.5 21.71 283 kPa
1054 23/03/2000 2:20 23/03 - 02:20 00:55 60 1.25 21.66 283 kPa
1055 23/03/2000 3:16 23/03-03:16 00:56 59 1.5 21.30 283 kPa
1056 23/03/2000 4:11 23/03-04:11 00:55 59 2.5 21.31 283 kPa
1057 23/03/2000 5:05 23/03 - 05:05 00:54 60 0 21.65 282 kPa
1058 23/03/2000 5:58 23/03-05:58 00:53 60 7.25 21.81 282kPa
1059 23/03/2000 6:52 23/03 - 06:52 00:54 75 0 27.06 282 kPa
1060 23/03/2000 7:47 23/03 - 07:47 00:55 75 0 27.06 282 kPa,
Estimated reading
1061 23/03/2000 8:42 23/03 - 08:42 00:55 100 0 36.08 282 kPa
1062 23/03/2000 9:36 23/03 - 09:36 00:54 90 0 32.48 281 kPa
245
release (x 100)
1063 23/03/2000 10:33 23/03 - 10:33 00:57 90 0 32.48 281 kPa
1064 23/03/2000 11:27 23/03 - 11:27 00:54 67 0 24.18 281 kPa
1065 23/03/2000 12:23 23/03 - 12:23 00:56 60 0 21.65 280 kPa
1066 23/03/2000 13:20 23/03 - 13:20 00:57 90 0 32.48 280 kPa
1067 23/03/2000 14:18 23/03-14:18 00:58 67 0 24.18 280 kPa
1068 23/03/2000 15:16 23/03-15:16 00:58 0 0 0.00 280 kPa
1069 23/03/2000 16:17 23/03 - 16:17 01:01 0 0 0.00 280 kPa
1070 23/03/2000 17:15 23/03-17:15 00:58 0 0 0.00 281 kPa
1071 23/03/2000 18:14 23/03 - 18:14 00:59 0 0 0.00 281 kPa
1072 23/03/2000 19:13 23/03 - 19:13 00:59 0 0 0.00 281 kPa
1073 23/03/2000 20:14 23/03 - 20:14 01:01 0 0 0.00 279 kPa
1074 23/03/2000 21:14 23/03-21:14 01:00 0 0 0.00 277kPa
1075 23/03/2000 22:16 23/03 - 22:16 01:02 0 0 0.00 277 kPa
1076 23/03/2000 23:17 23/03 - 23:17 01:01 0 0 0.00 276 kPa
1077 24/03/2000 0:17 24/03-00:17 01:00 0 0 0.00 276kPa
1078 24/03/2000 1:16 24/03 - 01:16 00:59 0 0 0.00 275 kPa
1079 24/03/2000 2:16 24/03 - 02:16 01:00 0 0 0.00 275 kPa
1080 24/03/2000 3:16 24/03 - 03:16 01:00 0 . 0 0.00 275 kPa
1081 24/03/2000 4:15 24/03 - 04:15 00:59 0 0 0.00 274 kPa
1082 24/03/2000 5:16 24/03-05:16 01:01 0 0 0.00 274kPa
1083 24/03/2000 6:16 24/03 - 06:16 01:00 0 0 0.00 272 kPa
1084 24/03/2000 7:15 24/03 - 07:15 00:59 0 0 0.00 272 kPa
1085 24/03/2000 8:15 24/03-08:15 01:00 0 0 0.00 272 kPa,
generator
shutdowned for
repair
246
Appendix B
A sample of slot wedge tightness test result of a 200 MW generator
stator
)
— —V.
1-0056
WEDGE NUMBER me low'
ER 1 2. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 TE
1
r -i -c r 1 T T V 'c r r'1 —c —r - —r
—
-r M -r r -v -r- M (4 M -r T. —-
3
1 M —i- ,-. M -1- -c -r —r —r
0
r -r —r -r M -r M -r -c v -i- -1- —r —i-
T —r —r M —r —r —r —r fi T M —r -r -c
±
—r r -r r T —r r r r r r -c —r i-
8
T -r —r M T . —r —r —r -,- -'r -r
—r r —r —r
r -r —r —r
-r —r 1 -r -r
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12
11 13 14 15 16 17 TE
SAul D56S56-I
UNIT LIZ - Generator Slot Wedge. Inspection Record RTW.M5lliODr
I
—L
—
WEDGE NUMBER
ER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 TE
12
r —r —v- M tA —r -s- —r T r —r —r —r M r 12
13
-r -r -i T c r r T r
C,)
T —r —r -c —r —r —v- —v T 14
0
-v —r -r --v M —r ç. —r- —i- 15
16
—r M -c —r —r —r T M M r M -r r M -r 16
17
-r —r M --c —i- —r —v- —s- —r —r —r --c --c r r 17
18
T -T ç ... 18
19
ç -r -r fri —i- M TTM —r —-c c r 19
20
M T P4 T T -ç
-r —r -r -v - -r rl m 20
21-rni-_i- 14 r4 14 fri T T 21
T T 1 22
RE I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 TE
— SunNATURE DATE -
UNIT B2 - Generator Slot Wedge Inspection Record
2
______________________
247
Appendix C
A sample of voltage drop test result of a 200 MW rotor windings.
TORRENS TSLAND
TURN TO 5-YlIT '7 tm,.

TURN No. DA B C 13 No.
1—: 6,471 415.0 615,1. 8'l 6. iS'S 44"s 18'S 72(0 2'S IS'S 63'S 611. '15.5 61 il'S 'fl.4 1-241,1 14'!, '75,4 15384,4 1-2
2-3 .-1 881.66 56$-i S'3.''4 s'.e' 03 -c-sls.i '.s's 3.516,6 '7-cO 'fl's .0-88' 5.9 65-" 860 2-3
3- 4 48's 66' 66-1 (.4o3 14'S 63.0 s4 B'S '.0 ,.,.o .. ,s,s q.s s,.q sos 81' 0 z,+ 85.1 05.1 50,2
4-5 .3 6107 66'a 6.4-1 01-I 103 ,,,a 23.3 '79-2 1½., '71.1 ".6 1' 61.6 8*5 52.5 85i 4-5
5-6 6-1* 611 61. '0 (.6.5 lAb 1,0 65.4 '73-5 140 (.4-I 818 83.8 5-6
6-7 6" 61-8 65 '8 4*4.4. "7.3 104 414-2 8.0 140 a'S '74 .3 IS'S 14.14 84-1 i'll
18.3 816 TI-I 10.4 641 51 13 '3 5o,8 63.5 61.1 81',
5 .3 6-7
7-8 (.2 1.1'S 60' 1 4'4' 681 108 45,4 '7*4 15'' iS'S 342313 016416.1. '488 13'S 'I 141 115 3.1 13 810 51 15 '3 14'3 460 SoS 84.. 7-8
8-9 65.7 811. 85 'S 64'S 1.'4'4 '10.8 65.3 9-b'S 15,5 '74* 14.5 14 -. 12,5 165 5.2 14's 15 '5 13.o 16.6 '11.4 15'S 15 '4 8o'8 56* 87'a 8-9
9 -10 b5'8. 6,1.1 6,5 .4 (.4.7 483 lA'S 85.5 13.1 14,0 '2' 6 14.9 156 155 1203 '14-4' 138 'rIo 14,1 191 8 '4 5.0 84.1 9-10
10-11 65 'I (.51 47.4 65.4 '.q 1',.3 105 19. 3 '58 ½". 14,1'tI 15 .011.1 'V.'! 161 18.7 '76 's 5'8 Os'S So'S 84's 10-11
11 12 483 lIt 61' 14 146 '761 131 10,1 64.14 '4 iS'S 153, 90 'I So'I 15.7. 161 7.1 14 '6 86's 06 81 83's 14' 2 5,3 34'S 841. 85.0 11.12
1-12 12o 1800,16* 3810510 0,13*41.20201588. 820 '810' 08.460 '85, 101595244 P50. 04.,
Ito-vepip 3'5'6*84.l 65* 660.63* 768.66. 6314 1415* 610.2118. 440*3-35* 3231 365. 3.245* 54612541,566451.04 5125,
A
• Test current should be kept cotistant at 100 A dc
-
' - . - '
-
. A11 voltage drop measulEments should be In mV = - - -- - - .
—
. Coil is the smallestcoii .
I POLE 1 I
-
• Thrnnumberlisthe topturn - 00
• Record Test Current Test Voltage: At the end pf-the lest o
-
808jM1.aora
. QAFORMI B2GRSO.I
UNIT B2 - Rotor Winding interturn Volta ge Drop Test" SIGNED BY
REP. METhOD, MBGRIO
POLE 1 I
DATE, .gc/,o/qJ.. PAGE,
-
•
: -
TORRENS ISLAND
I1JRNTO 19.1 -'n' COTLS — 0.2 COIL 5 COILJ 1JRJ

TURI'iNo. Cl )A BC D A
1-2 6'4'5 61', 16,5 It 666 617 6522 68'S- 685 11'l, 14.1 iS'S I'S lI'S 603 15'S 153 14.1 83'S 3,6 53 11.3 35'S 14.4 'II', 81.1 es_I 1-2
2-3 65'S 61.8 65'S 73'?- 10.1 1214' 15.1 'I 122.0551 'Itt 81.1. tO'S 'fl'S 53,1 55.4 55-5 456 01.1 8071 88.6
10.8 i'll, 4% tI'S 80.20 2-3
3.4 6'7'l 61'b 43'S 88' 11,4 1535.1 rS'S,s". ,5' l,-116'I.lb*
os 8o.183. Sla.18150386. OS'S %"58€.S 56.1 35.1
'fl'S 80,5. 3,4
4.5 (CIt 6,5.6683 15-5 104 116 11.4 16.1 18'? 122,6 lIt,) 11'S 5.671'S 11.5 34,5, ..-7 SoS 13'S 34'.. At 50.1 OS'S 04.3 66.4 86'3 55.1 4.5,
56 616, (.01 6107 111 10'' 14-5 il'S 151 11.-b 117,1 'IS'S ill 14'-i 16-1 lb.(. 00". 00-I 60.4 116 34,3 56.5.8*1 56.5 36.1 84.1 86.3 343 54
6-7 60'S (*1,0 687 418 151, S'S '116 11.1 1374 '17.5 1.4,4 '73.1 il'S' I'I 16.6 6.6 tot I, 22.3 6-7
3'
-
7-8 65.1 66.' 65.1 61.6 'II'S 10"! 124 11.1, 32.815.6 SO'S SN'S 80.4 47.1 85.3 74
5.1 14-3 1'b'l 16'S 'Is'S 85.4 5,0.3 80 3'!
89
'II'
-
056 '48 60.4 '2.3 10.1-

'760.146, S'S iS'S s's 15815'l 151 ,',. 15510.5 84" 51.4814 SI.. eO'80S.6 85.5 °,4S 8-9
910 4. .,_ 'lt_ 215 14310.5 131. '76'I 144. II 134 15'S 15.0 151 13.7 OIl 81-43*-S OIl 822456., 4,3 9-10
1011 08'S bbS 67.1 66.5 11's 484 L3 '1k? S 6" 64'3 850 So'S 10-11
11-12 'l's 10". 164 1307 5". 151 16.3 s,.i 5*-b. i4 14.12 501 8014 656836 817 11-12
1-12 0.13, 0.15,8-181 08020231. 0,17 0.11,1.040 '3855.45 0.8 0-5,1. 51 1.50-1.5 5.83' '3 33" s3158'84' 1.83' '70,4 '53. S'S 15'S
lto÷ve,,pin b*-6 s.d- o..654. 4-567080 7.04. '65. 4089352 -65,
- 12 12 , '-I
'
'_ '—
CHECK
-
"
A
• Test current should be kept constant at 100 A dc -
• All vohege drop meàsuzensenls should be in' mY - ' - , '

.
• Coiltisthesmallesicoil -
'
• Turn number 1 is the top Inns

Record Test Current. Test Voltage Ax end of the test
QAR)RMI BSORsO.2
UNIT B2 -Rotor Winding Interturn Voltage Drop Test"
POLE 2 DATE /ro/€j2
1
.2 PACE
248
Appendix D
Electromagnetic Core Imperfection Detection (ELCID)
COMPENSATION COIL
cHArrOCK POTENTIOMETER
FAULT
CURRENT, 'F
'/7 ///, 7/
ELCID Chattock Potentiometer [courtesy of ADWEL International Ltd]
ELCID theoretical responses for difference core fault scenarios

[courtesy of ADWEL International Ltd]
249
Ripples when scanning head passed core cooling ducts
SLOT VS
Stator Slot numbers
'ale I
12/13 /
A sample of a typical ELCID core test scans of a 120 MW generator core. Note the
ripples on the plots generated when the Chattock potentiometer scanning head passed
core cooling ducts. No core faults detected in this test.
Chattock potentiometers
scan head
Simulated fault loop inside of scanning track
and on top of a RHS core packet
• Stator slot wedge
Simulated fault loop inside of scanning track

and on top of a LHS core packet H Simulated fault loop
Simulated fault ioop inside of scanning track

and on top of slot wedge Stator core surface
Simulated fault loon outside of scanning track
Showing calibration scan done before and after an ELCID test on a 120 MW generator
stator core. A 100 fault was simulated using a single turn coil temporarily installed
adjacent to a core packet.
250
Appendix E
Demonstration of setting up details in TOFD examination on rotor
retaining rings
Demonstration of 45° shear wave inspection incorporating a 27° single crystal wedge
mounted to match with the nose profile of retaining ring for circumferential ultrasonic
scanning [courtesy of Sonomatic Pty Ltd] [30].
Axial movement of scanning probe at predetermined intervals on retaining ring surface

[courtesy of Sonomatic Pty Ltd] [30].
251
Explanation of creep wave formations [courtesy of Sonomatic Pty Ltd][30].

252
Appendix F
B! 200 MW Generator in 2002
Waterbox Turbine or Conductor Subconductor Location of Minor
no. Exciter End Timer I outer number indication from indication
end_(mm)
2 Exciter End 9— Inner 12 165
Total indications per phase group: 2
3 Turbine End 11 — Inner 7 Unable to
inspect
3 Turbine End 42 — Outer 6 Partial blockage
1
4 Exciter End 21 - Inner 180
III
7
4 Exciter End 22 — Inner 3 125
4 Turbine End 31 — Inner 3 160
4 Exciter End 31 — Inner 3 160 I I
4 Exciter End 31 — Inner 4 160

4 Exciter End 52 — Outer 7 Partial blockage
4 Exciter End 53 — Outer 11 Partial blockage
4 Exciter End 54— Outer 8 Partial blockage
4 Turbine End 55 — Outer 12 Partial blockage
4 Turbine End 56— Outer 12 160 I I

5 Turbine End 34—Inner 6 160 I I
5 Turbine End 34— Inner 12 160
LI
I I

6 Exciter End J
47 — Inner 4 I
130
Summary:
Total work hardening indications: 15
Greatest No. of indications in a phase group: 9 (Waterbox group No. 4)
Greatest No. of indications in a conductor: 3 (Cond. #31 Inner, Waterbox #4 TE)
253
Appendix G
B2 200 MW Generator in 1999
Waterbox Turbine or Conductor Subconductor Location of Map of
no. exciter end Inner / outer number indication from indication
end_(mm)
1 Exciter End 22 - Outer 15 180 I I
1 Turbine End 17 — Outer 11 170 I I
1 Exciter End 17 — Outer 15 125 I I

2 Exciter End 9— hmer 13 168 Corrosion

2 Turbine End 25 — Outer 12 10

3 Exciter End 36 — Outer 14 145
3 Turbine End 46— Outer 6 160

4 Exciter End 49— Outer 14 164
4 Exciter End 48—Outer 12 150
4 Turbine End 47 — Outer 7 150 I I

254
5 Turbine End 33 — Inner 11

5 Turbine End 2—Outer 11 175 I I

5 Turbine End 2— Outer 13 190 1

5 Turbine End 66—Outer 7 150 I I


5 Exciter End 59 — Outer 3 150 I I
J L,IIU — LI ULCI
',I I ,.) U
5 Turbine end 58 — Outer 5 140


6 Turbine End Outer** 2 55 11
6 Turbine End 4— Outer** 3 160 11
6 Turbine End Outer** 4 160
II
* * Confirmed cracked, the conductor was replaced with new spare.
Summary:
Greatest No. of indications in a conductor: 5 (Cond. #66 Outer Waterbox #5 TE)
255
Appendix H
Waterbox Turbine or Conductor Subconductor Location of Map of
no. exciter end Inner / outer number indication from indication
end_(mm)
1 Exciter End 24 Outer All Not inspected

1 Turbine End 24 Outer 11,15 Not inspected
1 Exciter End 23 Outer 3,6,7 Not inspected
1 Turbine End 22 Outer 11 Not inspected
1 Turbine End 20 Outer 4,5,6,7,12,14 Not inspected
1 Exciter End 20 Outer 5,12 Not inspected
1 Turbine End 19 Outer 13 Not inspected
1 Exciter End 19 Outer 3 Not inspected
1 Exciter End 18 Outer 3 Not inspected
1 Turbine End 17 Outer 3,4,5,6,7,13 Not inspected
1 Turbine End 17 Outer 3,4,5,13 Not inspected
2
2
Turbine End
Exciter End
3 Inner
2 Inner
15
12
145
150
Total indications per phase group:
El 2
3
Turbine End
TurbineEnd
Exciter End
45 Outer
45 Outer
42 Outer
7
11
3
130
165
150
LI
I
I
III
I
3 Exciter End 42 Outer 15 150

3 Exciter End 20 Inner 4 150
3 Exciter End 20 Inner 7 150 I I
4 Turbine End 24 Inner 12 130

4 Exciter End 53 Outer 3,4,5,6,7,11, Corrosion defect 60 mm
12,13,14,15 from sub conductor face.
256
Total indications per phase group.: 4


5 Exciter End 1 Outer 7 160 I I
5 Exciter End 2 Outer 13 130 I I
Summary:
257
Appendix I
Waterbox Turbine or Conductor Subconductor Location of indication from
no. exciter end Inner/outer number end (mm)
1 Exciter End 54 —Inner 5,11 No access

1 Exciter End 14 — Outer 12 No access
Total indications per phase group: ?
2 Exciter End 35 — Outer 3 Small mark 40 from ferrule

2 Exciter end 35 — Outer 7 Small mark 40 from ferrule
2 Turbine End 9—Inner 2,15 No access
2 Turbine End 35 — Outer 12 Horizontal line 25 from
ferrule
ferrule
ferrule
2 Turbine End 8— Inner 6 No access
2 Turbine End 34 — Outer 2,3 No access
2 Turbine End 66 — Inner 4 Scratch 45 from ferrule
2 Turbine End 25 — Outer 12 Corrosion 70 from ferrule
2 Turbine End 26 — Outer 2 No access
2 Turbine End 65 — Inner 15 Blockage
2 Turbine End 65 — Inner 3 Crack line 70 from ferrule
3 Exciter End 10 — Inner 12 No access

3 — Exciter End 20 — Inner 3 Crack line 42 from ferrule
3 Exciter End 20 — Inner 5,7 No access
3 Exciter End 20 — Inner 14 Crack line 38 from ferrule
3 Exciter End 46 — Outer 3,4 Full of water
3 Exciter End 41 - Outer 7 No access
3 Exciter End 41 - Outer 15 Colour change 68 from
ferrule
3 Turbine End 45 — Outer 13 Corrosion 50 from ferrule
258
3 Turbine End 20 — Inner 6 No access

3 Turbine End 37—Outer 2,3,4,5,6 No access
Total indications per phase 4
5 Exciter End 58 — Outer 5,6,7 Damp

5 Exciter End 42 — Inner 3,13 No access
5 Turbine End 42 — Inner 2,5,13,15 No access
5 Turbine End 41 — Inner 2 No access
5 Turbine End 32—Inner 2,3,4,11,15 No access
6 Exciter End 43 — Inner 3,6,13 No access

6 Exciter End 13 — Outer 14,15 Blocked off
Summary:
(Cond. #20 Inner Waterbox #3 EE)
259
Appendix J
A typical example of Maintenance Requirement Analysis (MRA) of a hydrogen-water cooled synchronous turbo-
generator.
Level I Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6

System Sub- Failure Mode Possible Cause of Failure Remedial Solution(s) Condition Monitoring Component Description
system Strategy and Assumptions
Bsaring Normal wear and Subsurface fatigue, cracking of Replace white metal layer. Measure and record bearing The type of generator being
faIlure tear white metal due to lack of temperature continuously, analysed is large turbo-generator
bonding that ultilise large white metal
Routine condition monitoring bearing contains no rolling
of lubricating oil quality elements. White metal (or sleeve)
including at least particle bearings are lubricated with high
counts and viscosity, pressure lubricating oil that is
pumped into the bearing by a
mechanical or electric oil pump(s).
Distortion of bearing and burning Replace or re-machine bearing base As above Usually there is at least one level of
of white metal layer structure and replace white metal redundancy in this system to
layer ensure prevent major bearing
failure.
Lubrication Failure Oil pump failure Repair oil pump, inspect, repair or Test lubricating oil for fine
replace impeller. metal particles, water,
foreign objects. Compare
metal particle to that of
impeller.
Drive motor failure Repair or replace motor. Test motor condition. Check
vibration monitoring
results. Measure running
currents
Lubricating oil failure Replace oil or recondition oil Check oil quality test results
260

Find source of contamination Routine tests for
contamination such as
water and foreign particles.
Wrong lubricating oil used, Replace or recondition lubricating Routine tests for
Manufacturing error, supplier oil, review oil inventory information, contamination such as
error, maintainer error review maintainer's skill and water and foreign particles.
knowledge, review work
procedures.
Bearing failure by Bearing wrongly installation Improve trade-persons skills, Quality assurance to be
external sources improve quality assurance used during bearing
procedures, and improve working installation, review check
conditions. points.
wrong bearing/parts installed Improve store quality checks and QA procedure in place,
procedures. better progressive testing
procedure is carried out
during_the_installation.
Store conditions not satisfactory Improve / review storage condition check condition of bearing
and procedures. and parts before
installation
Bearing parts failed premature Review supplier QA, review supplier QA check system in place
specification, review origin of the
parts ensure it is genuine or been
manufactured with correct
specifications; ensure transport
conditions are correct
Part supplied below standard Review supplier QA, review supplier QA check system in place
specification, review origin of the
parts ensure it is genuine or been
manufactured with correct
specifications; ensure transport
conditions are correct
Stator Generator Insulation Insulation deterioration due normal Replace conductors as required. Check CM test records. Any The type of large generator
wlndings failure wear and tear gradual or sudden analysed here commonly
failure deterioration. Check hydrogen cooled with stator
winding vibration level, conductors directly cooled with de-
mineralised water.
261

Conductor and insulation support tighten clamps, replace padding Vibration level
clamps become loose insulation as required measurement.
Presence of foreign objects:
** metal objects left in the Repair the damage, thoroughly Review routine partial Clean condition should be set up
generator clean out generator, improve QA discharge measurements every time the generator is
check and clean condition and other electrical tests overhaul to ensure no objects are
procedures such as dielectric strength, left in side the generator.
insulation_resistance.
** Metal object generated from Identify origin of the objects by Review routine partial
within the generator material checks to matching discharge measurements
against other components within and other electrical tests
the generator. Inspect stator core such as dielectric strength,
front and back. Inspect welded insulation resistance.
brackets and other components for
looseness, crack, broken etc.
Repair as required, clean out
generator.
Relaxation of end winding support Tighten end winding and conductors Visual inspection of the end
system as much as accessible. May winding during routine
require carrying out mid-life refit in overhauls. Look out for
the case of older generators. insulation fretting dust and
Improve material as upgrade for accumulation of insulation
end winding support system "grease'. Ensure generator
is operated within its
capability limits. Review
shut down and
synchronising_procedures.
Looseness of stator slot wedges Tighten slot wedges Conduct slot wedge tapping
test. Ultrasonic test of slot
wedges for cracks and
delaminating leading to
loss of tension.
Partial discharge Investigate location of discharge,

retighten or replace conductors.
262

Overheating Insufficient coolant flow Check stator coolant flow, pump, Continuously measure
and pipe work. Review stator internal temperature of
coolant temperatures and its heat generator main
exchangers components
Blocked ventilation passages Check for shifting of insulation Continuously measure stator
components, check for foreign coolant and gas flow
objects blocking cooling paths. where possible.
Repair as appropriate to remove
the root cause of failures.
Operated outside of designed limit Review and update operating

procedures as required.
Improve training for operators.
Check control systems.
Turn to turn short Stator coils loosen in the slot. Repair conductors affected by the Test insulation dielectric
circuits Stator winding vibration and coil fault. strength, such as IR, DLA,
looseness. Repair insulation where appropriate. DP, etc.
Deterioration of wall insulation. Check external power system Improve CM.
Overheating, failure record. Improve testing procedures.
Partial discharge for a prolong Improve network electrical protection
periods, where possible.
Failure to carry out routine
maintenance.
Failure to condition monitor.
Deterioration of semi-conductive
tapes as stress control systems.
External electrical faults
Transpositions short Stator coils loosen in the slot. Repair conductors affected by the Test insulation dielectric
circuits Stator winding vibration and coil fault, strength, such as IR, DLA,
Deterioration of inter-turn Check external power system Improve CM.
insulation, failure record. Improve testing procedures.
Overheating. Improve network electrical protection
Partial discharge for prolong where possible.
periods.
263

Ground faults Stator coils loosen in the slot. Repair conductors affected by the Test insulation dielectric
Stator winding vibration and coil fault. strength, such as IR, DLA,
Deterioration of wall insulation. Check external power system Improve CM.
Overheating, failure record. Improve testing procedures.
Partial discharge for prolong Improve network electrical protection
Deterioration of semi-conductive Check and rectify hydrogen humidity
tapes as stress control systems. level.
External electrical faults. Repair stator coolant system as
Stator contaminated with water required.
from stator coolant system or
cooling_hydrogen_gas.
Phase to phase Stator coils loosen in the slot. Repair conductors affected by the Test insulation dielectric
short circuits Stator winding vibration and coil fault. strength, such as IR, DLA,
Deterioration of wall insulation Check external power system failure Improve CM.
Overheating, record. Improve testing procedures.
Partial discharge for prolong Improve network electrical protection
External electrical faults.
Excessive stator conductor
vibration.
Stator oore Relaxation of core Ageing. Tighten core clamps and structures. Consider to test core
failure clamping systems Original design not adequately Review protection system to structures by measuring
robust, minimise damage should external core natural resonance
External system faults caused faults re-occurring, frequencies
stator excursions.
Core lamination Front core lamination short circuits Repair lamination, reinstate inter- Carry out ELCID test to
short circuits due to due to physical impact damage lamination insulations, confirm that the core is
physical impact during rotor removal or during Consider core edging to remove all free from short circuits
damage from routine maintenance, interlamination short circuits, between laminations
carelessness Foreign objects left behind or Review / improve training and
objects dislodged from within working quality procedures.
generator found its way into the
air gap.
264

Secondary damage Core damage due to conductor Repair lamination, reinstate inter-
from stator failures, lamination insulations.
conductor failure Usually conductor failure in the Consider core edging to remove all
core region would lead to core interlamination short circuits.
damage, especially stator earth Review / improve training and
fault. working quality procedures.
Some core grinding may be
required.
Overheating due to Failure of hydrogen cooling Rectify the cooling system.

failure of cooling system or other auxiliary cooling Inspect core for looseness, hot
systems systems spots and repair as required
Local hot spots due Failure of excitation system such Rectify excitation system. In the worst case, a fault in
to over-flux as loss of voltage reference. Review / Correct operating excitation system such as loss of
operating conditions AVR failure caused over- procedures voltage reference, the AVR could
excitation. automatically over excite the
Wrong operating procedures. generator to maximum 'ceiling'
voltage and could cause extensive
damage to generator core in a
very short time.
Local hot spots due Wrong core end plate materials Replace core or prohibit operating Continuously monitor core
to unsuitable core the generator in leading power temperature.
material used in factor mode. Regular visual inspection
core end plates for and monitor the
leading power factor propagation of the hot
operation spots.
Stator Cracked insulation Overheating, ageing, over-tighten, Replace bushing insulation. HV test, DLA Test, IR test to
Bushing physical damage from external be carried out before and
Failure forces after repair.
Visual inspection at every
. outage.
Oil or gas leakage Seal system such as seals and o- Replace seals and 0-rings
rings failure.
Failed high voltage Insulation failure or deterioration Replace bushing

test due to ageing
265

Rotor faults Retaining ring faults Stress corrosion cracking Replace retaining rings with Routine ultrasonic Ensure generator internal hydrogen
materials less susceptible to stress examination or dye- cooling gas is adequately dry.
corrosion cracking such as penetrant examination Remove all cracks and perform
1 8Mnl 8Cr. stress calculations before re-use
retaining rings while new retaining
rings are obtained.
Due to arcing Repair retaining ring by removing Obtain OEM advice.

arcing damage by grinding and
polishing.
Rotor end winding faults Repair end winding and NDE

retaining rings. If extensive
damage to retaining ring, replace
ring.
Winding distortion Inadequate routine maintenance Review and improve maintenance Review rotor routine
regime strategies inspection
Shorted turns or blockage of Repair conductor or insulation
cooling system of rotor blocks to clear obstruction.
conductors. Overhaul end windings. Replace
conductors as required.
Inappropriate design of end turns Improve the design by modifying the

end turns to allow better cooling
distribution and thermal expansion.
Earth fault Repair the fault and install rotor Review rotor protection
earth fault protection system. system.
Monitor rotor shaft voltage
regularly
Coil stick-slip Overhaul the top insulation system Review routine winding
or make modifications to improve inspection strategy.
the freedom of rotor conductor
movement.
266

Vibration Turn to turn short circuits Repair fault by replace or add Install rotor shorted turn
insulation between the conductors detection system.
at the fault location.
Consider to rewind rotor If the it is
more than 40 years old and have
done excessive two shifting
operation.
Bearing wipe Overhaul or replace bearings Monitor bearing

temperature.
Routine test lubricating oil
Rotor radial Defect in electrical contact Realign and machine effected Routine monitor radial High current carrying components
connectors surfaces electrical contact surfaces connectors with thermo- such as rotor radial connectors
overheating graphic examination, and in bore shaft leads required to
Perform voltage drop test have very good electrical contact
across all accessible surfaces. Faults in these
electrical contact surfaces components can result in severe
. during routine overhaul over-heating and hydrogen
outages and re-assemble leakages.
of the_connector_assembly.
Insulation failure Replace electrical insulation Routine monitor Insulation
components within the radial resistance of radial
connection assembly connectors
Hydrogen leakage due to failure of Replace seals and 0-rings. Pressure / vacuum test
seals and internal 0-rings of check in the connectors.
connector assembly
Overheating due to fracture of Replace components and improve Routine monitor radial
main connecting tube or maintenance procedures and QA connectors with thermo-
incorrectly installed components systems. graphic examination.
Perform voltage drop test
across all accessible
electrical contact surfaces
during routine overhaul
outages and re-assemble
of the connector assembly.
267

Stator Contamination Stator coolant water chemistry. Test water chemistry and rectify Online continuous Water cooled large generators using
Coolant problems. conductivity measurement. de-ionized water (stator coolant).
System
Failure
Stator coolant pump Pumps failed or malfunction. Repair or replace pump, clean out Stator coolant flow and
fault, coolant system. differential pressure
measurements.
Bearing damage. Overhaul pump and motor, replace Regular motor/pump
all bearings, vibration measurement.
Motor damage. Repair or replace motor Motor protection installed.
Flow restriction fault. Blockage of stator coolant filter Clean or replace filter Stator coolant flow and
differential pressure
measurements.
Flow switch failed and blocked Clear blockage and replace flow
flow, switch
Lack of stator Leakage in system Find and repair leaks. Review / The alarm system should have
coolant check level alarm system, rectify double or triple redundancy to
as required. ensure the status of stator coolant
system is known at all time.
Failure of stator coolant system
could potentially lead to extensive
damage to the generator stator.
System failed to top up Check coolant topping up system.
Rectify faults as required.
Review / check level alarm systems,
rectify as required
Level alarms inoperative Review / check level alarm systems,

rectify as required
268

Hydrogen Blockages Foreign object blocked cooler Inspect and remove foreign objects. Check temperatures in and Hydrogen coolers should very clean
coolers tubes out of coolers on both on the hydrogen side since it is
Check water flow through coolers. hydrogen side and water enclosed within the generator.
side to confirm if the Most of problems such as
coolers are functional blockage and fouling occur in the
correctly. water side.
Leakages Crack of cooler tubes Repair tube or block tube to isolate Install liquid in stator' alarm.
leakage.
Fouling of cooler Lack of routine cleaning. Improve cooler cleaning procedures. Monitor differential pressure
tubes across all hydrogen
coolers.
Monitor temperature across
all coolers.
Water chemistry failure Check water purity and improve as
required.
Hydrogen Overheating of white Incorrect of oil flow Inspect and repair or replace seal as Monitor seal's white metal
Seals metal surfaces required. temperature
System
Excessive oil Wear and tear of white metal Inspect and repair or replace seal as Monitor quantity of oil
ingress into surfaces. required. ingress into generator.
generator Improve routine visual
inspection of spill oil flow in
seal oil sight glass.
White metal surface was Inspect seal for blockages. Review routine visual
incorrectly fabricated. Inspect and rectify seal white metal inspection of spill oil flow in
surfaces for correct oil reticulation seal oil sight glass.
Drain oil from generator.
Oil I hydrogen pressure regulator Repair or replace regulator Differential pressure across the
malfunctions regulator must be set correctly.
Hydrogen leakage to Damage to white metal surfaces. Immediately isolate the area and
atmosphere ensure adequate ventilation to
prevent hydrogen accumulates in
pockets risking hydrogen explosion
Replace or repair white metal
269

surfaces
Lack of oil flow through sealing Replace or repair seal white metal
faces causing overheating and surfaces.
damage to sealing faces
Oil / hydrogen pressure regulator Repair or replace regulator

malfunctions
Generator Stand off support Crack or broken insulators Thoroughly inspect IPB. Routine HV test, IR test, Assume air cooled free breathing
Isolated bushing failure Replace failed bushings DLA test. IPB system.
Phase Bus Routinely test protection
(IPB) systems.
Water contamination in the inner Replace seals and or repair Routine visual inspection.
space of IPB. breathing system.
Earthing system Broken earth connectors, high Repair I replace joints. Ductor test joints, measure
failure electrical resistance joint, joint resistances of stages
and whole.
Overheating at main High resistance contacts due to Repair joints and improve Routine thermo-graphic
connection joints incorrect installation procedures installation procedures, improve examination where
or joint contamination with training of tradespersons possible.
foreign objects. Routine visual inspection
and Ductor test all joints.
Lack of cooling Rectify cooling system as per Routine thermo-graphic

original design examination where
possible.
Routine visual inspection
270

Over-current generated Operate generator within original Routine thermo-graphic
designed limit or upgrade IPB to examination where
suit new generation capacity possible.
Routine visual inspection
Install fibre-optic
temperature sensors or
heat sensitive stickers.
Generator Failed to protect Lack of maintenance or failure of Replace components as required. Review protection system
Protection generator from protection system such as testing routine regime.
System external or internal protection relays, CT's, VT's. Routine protection tests.
faults.
Hydrogen High moisture Excessive moisture ingress Repair steam turbine gland steam Continuously monitor or Hydrogen drying system is very
Drying content through steam turbine gland seals. regular spot check important to the generator health.
System steam system through lubricating Install online hydrogen dew point hydrogen dew point Dry hydrogen significantly reduces
oil and hydrogen sealing oil monitoring system or as minimum risk of faults such as stress
system test hydrogen dew point on a corrosion cracking, core corrosion,
regular basis low IR, DLA, high voltage tracking,
partial discharging.
Failure of hydrogen Desiccant exhausted. Replace desiccant Continuously monitor or

drier regular spot check
hydrogen_dew_point
Internal heating system Overhaul internal heating system, Continuously record drier
malfunctioned repair as required temperatures.
Control system malfunction Test and rectify control system as
required.
High moisture High moisture content hydrogen Improve QA check of hydrogen Continuously monitor or
content in top up delivered, purchased or generated. regular spot check
hydrogen hydrogen dew point
Check hydrogen dew point prior to
re-filling

Reading

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Reading

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

UniSA

University of South Australia

A thesis submitted for the award of the degree of

reliable operation of large synchronous generators in power stations is therefore of

ranging from minor outages to catastrophic failures.

When faults occur, cause-effect relationships need to be identified systematically. This

returning a generator to service may impede a thorough investigation.

and prolong the mean time between failures (MTBF).

my knowledge, it does not contain any material previously published or written by

another person except where due reference is made in the text.

I hereby express my deepest gratitude to my research supervisor, Professor Ozdemir

LIST OF TABLES xvii

CHAPTER 2 FAULTS IN LARGE SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS 8

2 Faults in Large Synchronous Generators 9

2.3 Rotor Faults 45

CHAPTER 3 FAULT DETECTION AND DIAGNOSIS 77

3 Fault Detection and Diagnosis 78

CHAPTER 4 SOLUTIONS 125

4 Remedial Solutions 126

4.1.3 Dealing with Back-of-Core Burning Fault 139

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION 214

Figure 1. Typical arrangement in the back of stator core of a 200 MW

Figure 2. Typical arrangement of a 200 MW stator core, showing core

Figure 3. Core lamination looseness causing a thicker protective end plate

Figure 4. Typical magnetic field distribution in the end winding region of

Figure 6. Back-of-core burning in a 200 MW stator, showing evidence of

Figure 7. End winding view of a 200 MW waterbox generator with end

Figure 8. Arrangement of a conductor termination. 24

Figure 12. A typical end winding arrangement in a 200 MW generator,

Figure 13. A close up photograph showing a substantial crack on a

Figure 15. Copper work hardening (original cause of cracking) revealed by

Figure 16. Insulation fretting damage at a support bracket resulting from

Figure 17. End winding relaxation causing abrasion wear on conductor

Figure 20. Stator conductor insulation damaged by a magnetic termite

Figure 21. A typical arrangement of windings, retaining rings and critical

Figure 22. Common types of retaining ring designs. 49

Figure 23. External view of a typical radial connector fully assembled on a

Figure 25. Cracks confirmed in a retaining ring at the bayonet region,

Figure 27. Coil construction in a 120 MW radially cooled rotor, two

Figure 28. Evidence of copper dust deposit on a 200 MW rotor winding

Figure 29. Distortion damage in a 120 MW rotor coil resulting from

Figure 30. Overheated radial connection tube of a 200 MW rotor causing

Figure 31. A radial connector assembly removed from a 200 MW generator

Figure 32. Fractures found in copper main connection tubes of rotor

Figure 33. A typical crack in up-shaft lead insulation tube in a 200 MW

Figure 34. Illustration of magnetic field behaviour in a faulty generator

Figure 35. Typical ELCID test setup [courtesy of ADWEL International

Figure 38. A typical ripple spring stator slot wedge system. 98

Figure 39. Typical installation arrangement of a ripple spring stator slot

Figure 42. Fluorescent dye-penetrant examination of a 200 MW generator

Figure 43. Graphical illustration of Circumferential Ultrasonic Scanning

Figure 44. Typical arrangement of TOFD scanning unit on a 200 MW

Figure 45. Typical example of a TOFD scan image containing diffraction

Figure 47. A typical example of Recurrent Surge Oscillograph (RSO) of a

Figure 48. Voltage-Drop test performed on a 120 MW synchronous

Figure 49 A thermographic image of an Isolated Phase Bus (IPB) and its

Figure 50. A thermographic image of a rotor radial connector at 90% full

Figure 51. A thermographic image of stator windings in a 40 MW air

Figure 52. New collector ring assembly fully installed on brushless AC

Figure 53. A radiographic image of a three phase copper collector ring

Figure 55. Thin mica sheets inserted between laminations to restore

Figure 56. Fibreglass wedges inserted in the damaged area between a

Figure 57. Small custom made fibreglass wedges, impregnated with

Figure 58. A fibreglass wedge (stemming piece) being driven into a