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CHAPTER 2

STABILITY THEORY

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The principal subject matter of this guide is the stability1 of metal structures. This
chapter introduces the various types of instability encountered in the other chapters
by presenting the solutions to several simple illustrative problems.
Instability is a condition wherein a compression member or structural sys-
tem loses the ability to resist increasing loads and exhibits instead a decrease
in load-carrying capacity. In other words, instability occurs at the maximum point
on the load–deflection curve.
Problems in instability of compression members can be subdivided into two
categories: those associated with the phenomenon bifurcation of equilibrium and
those in which instability occurs when the system reaches a maximum, or limit, load
without previous bifurcation. In the first case, a perfect member when subjected to
increasing load initially deforms in one mode (e.g., axial deformation) and then,
at a load referred to as the critical load , the deformation suddenly changes into
a different mode (e.g., bending deformation). Axially compressed columns, plates,
and cylindrical shells experience this type of instability. By comparison, members
belonging to the latter category deform in a single mode from the beginning of load-
ing until the maximum load is reached. Shallow arches and spherical caps subjected
to uniform external pressure are examples of the second type of instability.
1
The scope—and complexity— of the subject of stability may be illustrated by two extreme ways in
which the elementary verb “buckle” has been used in classical literature:

Melville’s Moby Dick on cruising in a schooner: “Sideways leaning, we sideways darted: every
ropeyarn tingling like a wire: the two tall masts buckling like Indian canes in land tornados.”
This translation of buckling implies elastic stability under large displacements.
Shakespeare’s King Henry the Fourth on Northumberland’s receipt of devastating news: “And as
the wretch, whose fever-weaken’d joints, like strengthless hinges buckle under life.” In this case,
buckling may be translated as an unstable inelastic mechanism.

12 Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures, Sixth Edition Edited by Ronald D. Ziemian
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
BIFURCATION BUCKLING 13

2.2 BIFURCATION BUCKLING

2.2.1 Initially Perfect Systems


The critical load of a compression member, obtained from the linear analysis of an
idealized perfect member, does not necessarily coincide with the load at which col-
lapse of a real imperfect member occurs. To determine the failure load of an actual
member it is necessary to take initial imperfections into account and to consider the
entire nonlinear load–deflection curve of the member. Unfortunately, the process
of obtaining such a curve is often too difficult and time consuming to be used in
routine engineering design. Instead, the maximum load of a compression member is
generally calculated by semiempirical means, that is, using curves fitted to numeri-
cally obtained maximum-strength curves or combining test results with a qualitative
understanding of the nonlinear load–deflection behavior of the imperfect member.
A general understanding of the basic characteristics of the elastic buckling and
postbuckling behavior of members that become unstable as a result of bifurcation
can be obtained by considering the simple model in Fig. 2.1. The model consists
of two rigid bars hinged to one another and to the supports and restrained laterally
by a nonlinear elastic spring. A similar model has been used by many, including
Budiansky and Hutchinson (1964) and Hoff (1966).

(a) (b)

FIGURE 2.1 Bifurcation-buckling model of initially perfect system: (a) prior to buckling;
(b) postbuckling.
14 STABILITY THEORY

The restraining force F exerted by the spring at the juncture of the bars is
assumed to be related to the lateral displacement x by an arbitrary nonlinear
function

F = k1  − k2  2 + k3  3 (2.1)

where  = x/L. If the model is initially straight, equilibrium in a deformed config-


uration requires that

P = 12 F (1 −  2 )1/2 = 12 (k1  − k2  2 + k3  3 )(1 −  2 )1/2 (2.2)

By letting  become infinitesimally small in Eq. 2.2, the critical load obtained is

k1
Pc = (2.3)
2
Based on the work of Koiter (1970), it has been demonstrated that the essential
characteristics of the postbuckling behavior of a member can be determined by
considering the initial stages of the postbuckling curve in the vicinity of the critical
load. Thus  is assumed to be small but finite,  2  1, which reduces Eq. 2.2 to

P = 12 (k1  − k2  2 + k3  3 ) (2.4)

In view of Eq. 2.3, the foregoing expression can be rewritten in the form

P = Pc (1 − a + b 2 ) (2.5)

where a = k2 /k1 and b = k3 /k1 .


Certain structures behave in a symmetrical manner; that is, the buckling charac-
teristics are the same regardless of whether the deformation is positive or negative.
To simulate the behavior of such structures, we let a = 0. Equation 2.5 then
reduces to

P = Pc (1 + b 2 ) (2.6)

The load–deflection curves corresponding to Eq. 2.6 are shown in Fig. 2.2. The
type of behavior depicted by these curves is referred to as bifurcation buckling.
The member initially deforms in one mode, the prebuckling deformation, and then
at the critical load, due to a branch in the load–deflection curve, the deformation
suddenly changes into a different pattern, the buckling mode. For example and as
stated earlier, axially loaded columns initially shorten due to axial compression.
Then at the critical load the member suddenly begins to bend.
The curve in Fig. 2.2a results if b > 0, and the curve in Fig. 2.2b if b < 0. These
two cases correspond to models with “springs” that become either stiffer or more
flexible with increasing lateral deflection. In a similar manner, the stiffness of an
actual structure may either increase or decrease subsequent to the onset of buckling.
BIFURCATION BUCKLING 15

FIGURE 2.2 Symmetric buckling of a bifurcation model: (a) stable postbuckling curve;
(b) unstable postbuckling curve.

In other words, the load required to keep the structure in a deformed configuration
may either increase or decrease as the deformation increases in magnitude. If the
load that the structure can support subsequent to the onset of buckling increases
with increasing deformation, as shown in Fig. 2.2a, the structure is said to have
a stable postbuckling curve. By comparison, if the load decreases, as indicated in
Fig. 2.2b, the member has an unstable postbuckling curve.
An axially compressed plate with restrained edges is an example of a structure
with a stable postbuckling curve. As the plate buckles, the buckling deformations
give rise to tensile membrane stresses normal to the direction of loading which
increase the stiffness of the plate and give it the capacity to resist additional load.
By comparison, the guyed tower in Fig. 2.3 has an unstable postbuckling curve.
As the top of the tower deflects laterally, some of the cables are stretched, causing
them to push down on the post. As a consequence, the external load required to
maintain equilibrium decreases with the magnitude of the lateral deflection. The

FIGURE 2.3 Guyed tower.


16 STABILITY THEORY

most notorious example of a structure with an unstable postbuckling curve is the


axially compressed cylindrical shell. This system, however, does not buckle in a
symmetric manner and its behavior is therefore not fully described by Fig. 2.2b.
To simulate the behavior of structures that behave in an asymmetric manner,
return to Eq. 2.5 and let b = 0. Thus

P = Pc (1 − a) (2.7)

The load–deflection curve corresponding to Eq. 2.7 is shown in Fig. 2.4. Unlike
the symmetric system, the unsymmetric one becomes stiffer if it deflects in one
direction and more flexible if it deflects in the opposite way.
The simple frame in Fig. 2.5a is an example of a structure that has an asymmet-
ric postbuckling curve. After the frame buckles as shown in Fig. 2.5b, a secondary
tension force V is induced in the vertical member. As a consequence the exter-
nal load P that the structure can support increases with increasing deformations
(θ < 0). By comparison, after the frame buckles as indicated in Fig. 2.5c, a sec-
ondary compression force is induced in the vertical member and the resistance of
the system to applied loads decreases with increasing deformations (θ > 0). The
foregoing analytically predicted behavior of the frame in Fig. 2.5 has been verified
experimentally by Roorda (1965).

2.2.2 Initially Imperfect Systems


The postbuckling curve of an initially perfect system does not by itself give suf-
ficient information to allow one to determine when failure takes place. To obtain
that information, one must also consider the initial geometrical imperfections and
eccentricities of loading that are present in all real structures.

FIGURE 2.4 Asymmetric buckling of a bifurcation model.


BIFURCATION BUCKLING 17

FIGURE 2.5 Buckling of an L-shaped frame.


18 STABILITY THEORY

Initial
(P = 0) After loading
(P > 0)

FIGURE 2.6 Model of an initially imperfect system.

Assuming that our model now has an initial deformation x0 , as indicated in


Fig. 2.6, Eq. 2.4 takes the form

P( + 0 ) = 12 (k1  − k2  2 + k3  3 ) (2.8)

where 0 = x0 /L. In view of Eq. 2.3, the relation above can be rewritten as

Pc ( − a 2 + b 3 )
P= (2.9)
 + 0

For symmetric behavior a = 0 and

Pc ( + b 3 )
P= (2.10)
 + 0

and for asymmetric behavior b = 0 and

Pc ( − a 2 )
P= (2.11)
 + 0

The load–deflection curves corresponding to Eqs. 2.10 and 2.11 are shown as
dashed lines in Fig. 2.7. It is evident from these curves that small initial imperfec-
tions do not significantly affect the behavior of systems with stable postbuckling
BIFURCATION BUCKLING 19

±∈o ±∈o ±∈o


(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 2.7 Postbuckling curves of initially imperfect systems (dashed lines): (a) sym-
metric stable; (b) symmetric unstable; (c) unsymmetric.

curves. These members can continue to resist increasing loads above the critical
load, and failure takes place only after yielding of the material has occurred.
The amount of postbuckling strength that a system with a stable postbuckling
curve possesses depends on two factors: the steepness of the postbuckling curve and
the relative magnitude of the critical load and the load at which yielding begins. For
example, axially compressed plates possess a relatively steep postbuckling curve
and as a consequence often exhibit sizable postbuckling strength. Failure loads
three or four times as large as the critical load have been obtained (Gerard, 1957).
By comparison, the slope of the postbuckling curve of an axially loaded column
is extremely small and the failure load of such a member therefore coincides, very
nearly, with the critical load.
In addition to possessing a relatively steep postbuckling curve, a system must
have a yield load that is considerably in excess of its critical load if the system is to
exhibit significant postbuckling strength. A very rough estimate of the postbuckling
strength of an axially compressed plate is given by the expression
 1/2
Pc Pc
= (2.12)
Pf Py

where Pc is the critical load, Pf the failure load, and Py the load when yield-
ing commences. According to Eq. 2.12, a plate possesses significant postbuckling
strength when Pc /Py is considerably less than unity. Hence, only thin plates can
be expected to display sizable postbuckling strength.
Whereas small initial imperfections have only a negligible effect on the behavior
of systems with stable postbuckling curves, they have a very marked effect on
systems with unstable postbuckling curves. As indicated by the curves in Fig. 2.7,
the presence of small initial imperfections will cause systems that have unstable
postbuckling curves to fail at loads below the critical load. These structures are
accordingly referred to as being imperfection sensitive.
20 STABILITY THEORY

By setting dP/d = 0 for Eqs. 2.10 and 2.11, the following approximations of
the maximum load Pm can be obtained. For the symmetric system with b < 0,
 
Pm b 1/3 2/3
=1−3 − 0 (2.13)
Pc 4

and for the asymmetric system,

Pm
= 1 − 2 (a0 )1/2 (2.14)
Pc
Equations 2.13 and 2.14 indicate that the larger the initial imperfection x0 and
the steeper the postbuckling curve (i.e., the larger a or b), the smaller will be the
ratio of Pm to Pc . Axially compressed cylindrical shells that have a very steep post-
buckling curve have been found to fail at loads significantly below the critical load
(Brush and Almroth, 1975). Using both theory and tests it has been demonstrated
that initial imperfections whose magnitude is only 10% of the shell thickness can
result in maximum loads whose magnitude is 60% of the critical load (Hutchinson
and Koiter, 1970). Conversely, by manufacturing and testing nearly perfect shell
specimens, failure loads only slightly below the critical load have been obtained
(Tennyson, 1964).
In conclusion, it is evident that the behavior of real imperfect members can be
predicted from the shape of the postbuckling curve for perfect systems. Members
with stable postbuckling curves will fail at loads equal to or above the critical load,
whereas members with unstable postbuckling curves will fail at loads below the
critical load.

2.3 LIMIT-LOAD BUCKLING

Buckling that is associated with a bifurcation of equilibrium is not the only form
of instability that can occur. A second type of instability that can take place is
illustrated by the model in Fig. 2.8. The model consists of a simple arch formed by

FIGURE 2.8 Limit-load buckling model.


LIMIT-LOAD BUCKLING 21

two elastic bars hinged to each other and to the supports. As the load P acting on
the model increases, legs AB and BC shorten (due to compressive axial strain) by
an amount , and point B moves down a distance d . The axial force F developed
in the bars by the applied load P is equal to

P PS
F = = (2.15)
2 sin φ 2(h − d )

and the axial shortening  of each bar is given by

F PS
= = (2.16)
K 2K (h − d )

in which S = L2 + d 2 − 2dh is the length of the compressed bars and K = AE/L
is the stiffness of the bars. Substitution of  = L − S in Eq. 2.16 leads to

PS
L−S =
2K (h − d )
or

 L2 + d 2 − 2dh
L− L2 + d2 − 2dh = P (2.17)
2K (h − d )

If the rise h of the arch is assumed to be small compared to L, Eq. 2.17 reduces
to

Kh3
P= (2δ − 3δ 2 + δ 3 ) (2.18)
L2
in which δ = d/h.
The load-deflection relation corresponding to Eq. 2.18 is depicted by the solid
curve in Fig. 2.9. It is evident that no bifurcation of equilibrium exists. Instead,

FIGURE 2.9 Load–deflection curve of a limit-load model.


22 STABILITY THEORY

the load and deformation increase simultaneously until a maximum or limit load
is reached (point 1) beyond which the system becomes unstable.
If the rise h of the model is large enough compared to L, the axial forces in the
legs may reach their critical loads, causing the legs to buckle as hinged–hinged
columns before the entire system reaches its limit load at point 1. In that case
buckling occurs as a result of a bifurcation of equilibrium at point 5 on the curve.
The behavior of arches and spherical shells subject to uniform external pressure
is similar to that described by the curves in Fig. 2.9. Arches and spherical caps
with a large rise-to-span ratio fail in an asymmetric mode as a result of bifurcation
buckling, whereas shallow arches and spherical caps fail in a symmetric mode due
to limit-load buckling.
An extensive treatment of similar and more complex elastic stability phenomena
is presented by Thompson and Hunt (1984).

REFERENCES

Brush, D. O., and Almroth, B. O. (1975), Buckling of Bars, Plates and Shells, McGraw-Hill,
New York.
Budiansky, B., and Hutchinson, J. W. (1964), “Dynamic Buckling of Imperfection-Sensitive
Structures,” Proc. 11th Int. Congr. Appl. Mech., Munich, Germany.
Gerard, G. (1957), “Handbook of Structural Stability: Part IV. Failure of Plates and Com-
posite Elements,” NACA Tech. Note No. 3784, Aug.
Hoff, N. J. (1966), “The Perplexing Behavior of Thin Circular Cylindrical Shells in Axial
Compression,” Isr. J. Technol., Vol. 4, No. 1, pp 1–28.
Hutchinson, J. W., and Koiter, W. T. (1970), “Postbuckling Theory,” Appl. Mech. Rev.,
Vol. 23, No. 12, pp. 1353–1363.
Koiter, W. T. (1970), “On the Stability of Elastic Equilibrium,” Tech. Rep. No.
AFFDLTR-70-25, Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory, Wright Patterson Air Force
Base, OH, Feb.
Roorda, J. (1965), “Stability of Structures with Small Imperfections,” ASCE J. Eng. Mech.
Div., Vol. 91, No. EM1, pp. 87–106.
Tennyson, R. C. (1964), “An Experimental Investigation of the Buckling of Circular Cylin-
drical Shells in Axial Compression Using the Photoelastic Technique,” Rep. No. 102,
Institute of Aerospace Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, Nov.
Thompson, J. M. T., and Hunt, G. W. (1984), Elastic Instability Phenomena, Wiley,
New York.

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