CHAPTER 2

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND RELATED STUDIES

The previous chapter discussed about catcalling. Female students as

victims of it, and the harms it often causes. In this chapter, it discusses
about the definition of catcalling, the factors contributing to it and the
consequences to the mood and personality of the victims after catcalling.

Local Literature

An article was published on March 8, 2016 written by Fritzie

Rodriguez entitled “The Streets that haunt Filipino women”. This article
focuses on the harassment those women in the Philippines experiences in
the streets.

The streets bear witness to many of the country’s daily horrors: heavy
traffic, street families begging for food, vehicular accidents, theft among
other crimes, and violence.

An example of such violence is sexual harassment, as experienced

by Filipino women.

Sexual harassment in public spaces: "Unwanted comments,

gestures, and actions forced on a stranger in a public place without their
consent and is directed at them because of their actual or perceived sex,
gender, gender expression, or sexual orientation." – Stop Street
Harassment Organization
 In Quezon City alone, 3 in 5 women were sexually harassed at least
once in their lifetime, the Social Weather Stations (SWS) reported on
Monday, March 7.

The Philippines, of course, is not alone. Street harassment remains a

problem among several cities worldwide.

To solve the issue, the United Nations Women launched the “Safe
Cities Global Initiative,” a flagship program aiming to eliminate sexual
violence and harassment against women and girls in urban public spaces.

The initiative covers 25 cities globally. In the Philippines, the program

is piloted in Quezon City. With a population of over 3 million, Quezon City is
Metro Manila’s most populous city. It also has one of the biggest urban
poor populations and informal settler families, according to UN Women.

As a start, Quezon City Mayor Herbert Bautista is pushing for

additional streetlights and more well-lighted streets across the city. He is
also calling for more “women cubicles” in public schools.

An article of rappler was published on June 2, 2016 written by Paterno

Esmaquel II where President – Elect Rodrigo Duterte catcalled Mrs. Mariz
Umali, a news anchor of GMA – 7.

While vowing to implement the law with an iron fist, President-elect

Rodrigo Duterte broke an ordinance in his own city when he catcalled
broadcast journalist Mariz Umali during a press conference on Tuesday,
May 31.
 The Women Development Code of Davao City, or Davao City
Ordinance No. 5004, says whistling at a woman can be considered sexual
harassment.

Davao City Ordinance No. 5004 classifies the following as sexual

harassment: "Cursing, whistling, or calling a woman in public with words
having dirty connotations or implications which tend to ridicule, humiliate, or
embarrass the woman such as 'puta (prostitute),' 'boring,' 'peste (pest),'
etc."

The ordinance defines sexual harassment as "a form of misconduct

involving an act or a series of unwelcome sexual advances, requests for
sexual favors, or other verbal or physical behavior of a sexual nature, made
directly, indirectly, or impliedly."

Sexual harassment can be punished under Republic Act 7877, or the

Anti-Sexual Harassment Act of 1995, and the provisions of the Revised
Penal Code on Acts of Lasciviousness.

RA 7877 penalizes sexual harassment with imprisonment of one to 6

months, a fine of P10,000 to P20,000, or both.

Under the Revised Penal Code, acts of lasciviousness would mean

imprisonment.

An article in rappler was published on May 21, 2015 written by Frankie

Concepcion discussed the standpoint of women when men catcalled them
and say malicious words that affect their gender as a woman.
 Why are we against catcalling? Because we want to feel safe,
comfortable, and secure everyday. No matter where we are and what we
are wearing.

“Hello, Miss Beautiful. Smile naman diyan (Give me a smile), miss!”

How would you like it if unfamiliar men said this to your mom, sister,
daughter, or girlfriend? asked Mica Cruz, whose infographic [3] about street
harassment has gone viral over the past couple of weeks. Since it was
posted, the infographic has received thousands of Facebook shares and
likes, two TV segments, and the attention of men and women all over the
Philippines.

Most women said they could relate very much to Cruz’s experience
and frustration. Meanwhile, other netizens believed that “modesty” was the
key to avoiding this kind of attention.

Others could hardly believe that catcalling was an issue at all. But it is.

To address why this infographic has received so much attention,

perhaps it is important to first explore why street harassment is so
threatening from a women’s perspective. When a man catcalls, he is
asserting his dominance and sexual interest over the female target.

Society has taught women that when they draw attention to

themselves, whatever happens – whether unwanted or not – as a result of
that attention is their responsibility.

That means when you catcall, you are alluding not just to the dangers
that come with unwanted male attention, but also to the societal constructs
that pardon this violence and marginalize sexual harassment victims.
Catcalls, class

A woman can wear short shorts or labor under jeans and sweatshirts
in the hot sun, and in both instances they will still draw attention from some
men. They may even be blamed for it.

Instead of thinking of women as oversensitive, we might ask

ourselves why women feel like they need to be defensive. Is it so hard to
believe that women indeed have something to fear?

Other reactions to Cruz’s infographic have uncovered another

prevalent issue in Philippine society: classism.

If the man has a nice car or is good-looking, then a catcall is seen as

compliment. But if he’s a kanto boy (bum) then it becomes an insult. This
sentiment was shared by netizens.

A few have also implied that if a man is well-educated, then he has

been brought up with proper morals and would not catcall in the first place.
The truth, however, is perhaps a bit more nuanced than that. Using
classism to associate negative behaviors to the less fortunate is simply an
insulting and invalid justification for this behavior.

Foreign Literature

An article was published in 2016 written by Emma Rooney entitled

“The Effects of Sexual Objectification on Women’s Mental Health”. This
article focuses on the different effects of sexual objectification on the
overall mental health of women.
 Objectification theory posits that constant exposure to sexually
objectifying experiences and images socializes women to internalize
society’s perspective of the female body as their own primary view of their
physical selves (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997; Szymanski & Henning,
2007). This internalization is often referred to as self-objectification, and it
characterized by varying levels of thoughts and behaviors such as self-
conscious body monitoring, surveillance, and comparison of one’s body or
body parts to the cultural standard or ideal (Augustus-Horvath & Tylka,
2009; Fairchild & Rudman, 2008; Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). Self-
objectification is even found in women who view sexual objectification as
harmless or even complimentary (Fairchild & Rudman, 2008). Research
has linked self-objectification to mental health outcomes such as
depression, disordered eating, and reduced productivity. So, the sexual
objectification of women indirectly contributes to their mental health
problems because it leads to self-objectification (Augustus-Horvath &
Tylka, 2009; Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997; Harned, 2000; Szymanski &
Henning, 2007).

Shame, anxiety, and depression

According to objectification theory, the internalization of sexual

objectification leads to constant self-monitoring, creating a state of self-
consciousness that breeds feelings of shame and anxiety (Fredrickson &
Roberts, 1997). Newer studies support this assertion, finding that self-
objectification is in fact correlated with higher rates of body shame and
appearance anxiety (Augustus-Horvath & Tylka, 2009; Miles-McLean et al.,
2015; Szymanski & Henning, 2007). Furthermore, recent research also
shows that sexual objectification in the form of stranger harassment can be
a source of anxiety if it inflames underlying fears of victimization and rape
(Culbertson, Vik, & Kooiman, 2001; Fairchild & Rudman, 2008; MacMillan
et al., 2000). The feelings of shame and anxiety resulting from self-
objectification have been found to subsequently lead to depression
(Szymanski & Henning, 2007). Prolonged exposure to sexual objectification
may also contribute to insidious trauma which is marked by psychological
trauma symptoms that occur due to lifelong exposure to microaggressions
(Miles-McLean et al., 2015; Nadal & Haynes, 2012), as opposed to one
large trauma. Some of the psychological symptoms found to be associated
with the trauma of sexual objectification include anxiety and depression
(Harned, 2000; Miles-McLean et al., 2015). Unfortunately, depression may
not be the end of the correlational chain in the context of sexual
objectification, as it has also been found to be related to disordered eating
among women (Harned, 2000; Szymanski & Henning, 2007).

Disordered eating

Multiple studies have found a relationship between sexual

objectification and disordered eating. Harned (2000) found that sexual
harassment, which is often comprised of sexually objectifying behaviors,
was a significant predictor of most disordered eating symptoms, even after
controlling for previous physically violent sexual experiences. Supporting
the findings of Harned (2000), a study done by Augustus-Horvath and
Tylka (2009) found that self-objectification is positively correlated with body
shame, and body shame is correlated with greater tendencies toward
maladaptive eating habits (Augustus-Horvath & Tylka, 2009). Even self-
objectifying women who report to enjoy being sexualized have still been
found to engage in negative eating attitudes (Liss, Erchull, & Ramsey,
2011). Self-objectification and its possible outcomes of depression and
disordered eating may in turn hinder women’s overall productivity.

Reduced states of productivity and flow

Objectification theory posits that constant objectification creates a

continuous stream of anxiety-provoking experiences, requiring women to
maintain at least part of their concentration on their physical appearance
and safety at all times in order to better anticipate the perceptions and
actions of others (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). The self-objectification
and self-consciousness that results from experiencing sexual objectification
may diminish women’s peak motivational states (Fredrickson & Roberts,
1997), or what Csikszentmihalyi (1990) refers to as “flow.” Flow occurs
when a situation requiring mental attention is perceived as challenging, but
the skills required to meet the challenge are perceived as high, resulting in
a highly productive and enjoyable experience. These states are marked by
a loss of self-consciousness because all mental energy is focused purely
on the task and not on the existence of self (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).
Women who self-objectify are less likely to experience the undivided
attention characteristic of flow because part of their attention is always
dedicated to physical self-monitoring (Fairchild & Rudman, 2008;
Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997; Szymanski & Henning, 2007), and therefore
they may experience reduced rates of productivity and general life
enjoyment (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997).

An article was published in June 19,2016 written by Lily Herman

entitled “A New Study Attempts to Explain Why Some Men Harass
Women”. This article focuses on the studies conducted by the United
Nations Women and Promundo.

A new study on street harassment is shedding light on the

motivations behind some male perpetrators' harassment of women.

The study produced by research group Promundo and UN Women,

focused on attitudes toward gender in Egypt, Lebanon, Morocco, and
Palestine. Of the 4,830 men and 4,937 women surveyed, researchers
found that between 31 and 64 percent of men said they had ever engaged
in street harassment — including "sexual comments, stalking/following, or
staring/ogling" — while 40 to 60 percent of women said they had ever
experienced it. In addition, they discovered that men who were younger
and had more education were likelier to harass women than older men with
less education.

Gary Barker, president and CEO of research Promundo, told NPR he

was surprised by this finding, since it goes against the common notion that
goes against the notion that more educated men have more gender-
equitable views. He can understand why educated men facing high
unemployment rates might turn to harassment, however: Barker told
NPR that many of the perpetrators his organization talked to "have high
aspirations for themselves and aren't able to meet them... So they [harass
women] to put them in their place. They feel like the world owes them." The
idea is that harassment is about men exerting their power over others when
they feel powerless.

Of course, the reasons men harass women in no way excuse their

actions. And while Promundo's study focused on countries in the Middle
East and North Africa, street harassment is a problem worldwide. In 2016,
international anti-poverty organization ActionAid conducted a poll showing
that some 75 percent of women in the U.K., 79 percent of women in India,
86 percent of women in Brazil, and 86 percent of women in Thailand
reported experiencing public violence or harassment.

A report from advocacy organization Stop Street Harassment,

meanwhile, showed 65 percent of U.S. women reported experiencing street
harassment in their lifetimes. This report also highlighted the fact that
members of certain groups are disproportionately affected by street
harassment and violence, including people of color, LGBTQ people, and
lower-income people.

Related Studies

A dissertation was made in October 2016 written by Manalo,

Mercado, Perez, Rivera & Salangsang entitled “Street Harassment As A
Determinant Of Self-Esteem And Self-Objectification Among Selected
Female Students”. This thesis focuses on the experiences of selected
female students on street harassment and its effects on the self-esteem.

Street harassment consists of unwanted comments, whirling-whistles,

catcalling, and other actions by strangers in public areas that can be
unnerving and discomforting. Simply put, street harassment promotes fear,
and gives women yet another reason to be on edge when out and about.

The researchers headed to this study because the researchers had

gathered and read different studies about street harassment that motivated
them to conduct their own research about catcalling. One of these, the
study of Hollaback! and Cornell University in 2014 which they found out
that 50% of women over 22 countries had reported being groped or fondled
because of street harassment.(2015)

The researchers wanted to pursue this study because the

researchers observed that campaign to stop this kind of street harassment
in the Philippines were not widely spread in the public. The researchers
also wanted to inform the people that catcalling is not just uttered words of
compliment but can be considered as degrading and objectifying comments
that have a negative impact on women’s psychological well-being like self-
objectification in which a woman’s internalization of repeated objectification
by others. The women viewed themselves as represented of their body,
body parts and sexual function.

The women felt more conscious and ashamed about their body and
body parts that led to self-objectification on woman because as they
experienced this they felt anxious about how their body was evaluated by
the strangers. As a result, objectification affected the women’s cognitive or
mental state.

On the other hand, this kind of public or street harassment was

associated with body image, avoidance; behavior and more importantly
self-esteem which have emotional effects on woman who experienced
catcalling. Self-esteem is a woman’s overall evaluation her self-worth.

Furthermore, the researchers were motivated to do this study

because the researchers themselves received unsolicited complimentary
comments by strangers mostly truck drivers and sidewalk vendors and to
learn more about women’s street harassment experiences specifically here
in the Philippines and how Filipinas deal with it.
 The researchers believed that men were doing these street
harassments or catcalling to make themselves feel superior and at the
same time just to get the attention of women who pass by. Indeed, the
researchers wanted to raise awareness that women should do something
about this for others and for themselves.

Conceptual Framework

Catcalling is a widespread and frustrating problem among women as

described by one researcher (Rodriguez, 2016); yet our government still do
their best to solve this problem by enforcing the Republic Act 7877, or the
Anti-Sexual Harassment Act of 1995, and the provisions of the Revised
Penal Code on Acts of Lasciviousness. Men do not often experience street
harassment, resulting in their inability to recognize the harmful nature of
street harassment. This then reinforces the invisible nature of men’s
dominance over women and their ability to act upon women without
restrictions. Because men are not normally victims of such harassment,
they are likely to interpret women’s experiences of street harassment as
isolated events.

Cat calling consist of unwanted comments, whirling-whistles, and

other actions by strangers in public areas that can be unnerving and
discomforting. Simply put, cat calling promotes fear, and gives women yet
another reason to be on edge when out and about.

Based on the above information, a theory is forwarded that is

important to verify the effects or the situation that experiencing by CHE
students in TIP-Manila Campus. It will try to determine women’s emotions
and the communicative behaviours enacted when they experience
catcalling using a questionnaire as main’s instruments in this descriptive
study

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

A study on the A knowledge to people

Experiences of CHE
on the personality of
students of TIP –
Manila campus
towards catcalling,
their responses and
changes occur in their
well-being.
Effects of Catcalls specifically the
administration about
female CHE the negative impact of
students; with the catcalls in the students’
use of a survey psychological well-
questionnaire and being; concrete basis
statistical tool by for improving the
percentage school policies or
computation. implementations.

Figure 1 Research Paradigm

Definition of Terms

Catcall - a loud, sexually suggestive call or comment directed

at someone publicly as on the street.

Chemical Engineering - type of engineering that deals with the

use of chemicals in industry

Personality - set of emotional qualities, ways of behaving, etc.,

that makes a person different from other people

Mood - concious state of mind or predominant emotion

Gender - characteristics that a society or culture delineates as

masculine or feminine.
 Gender expression - how a person publicly presents their
gender.

Harassment - form of discrimination which can include sexually

explicit or other inappropriate comments, questions, jokes, name-
calling, images, email and social media, transphobic, homophobic or
other bullying, sexual advances, touching and other unwelcome and
ongoing behavior that insults, demeans, harms or threatens a person
in some way.

Sexual orientation - a person's sexual identity in relation to the

gender to which they are attracted; the fact of being heterosexual,
homosexual or bisexual.

Curse - the expression of a wish that misfortune, evil, doom,

etc., befall a person, group, etc.

Ridicule - speech or action intended to cause contemptuous

laughter at a person or thing

Humiliate - to cause (a person) a painful loss of pride, self-

respect, or dignity

Prostitute - a woman who engages in sexual intercourse for

money

Lasciviousness - sexual interest or expressive of lust or

lewdness

Oversensitive - excessively or unduly sensitive

 Classism - a biased or discriminatory attitude based on
distinctions made between social or economic classes

Bum - a person who avoids work and sponges on others

Sentiment - attitude toward something

Nuance - subtle difference or distinction in expression,

meaning, response, etc.

Justification - reason, fact, circumstance, or explanation that

defends

Sexual objectification - process of presenting or trating a

person like a sex object, one that serves another's sexual pleasure

Objectification - process of presenting or treating a person like

an object

Surveillance - continuous observation of a place, person,

group, or ongoing activity in order to gather information

Malicious – someone or something that intends to be rude or

lustful towards someone

Frustration – act of being frustrated; feelings of anger or

annoyance

Netizen – virtual people in the World Wide Web

Dominance – prevailing over all others; powerful

Society – enduring and cooperating social group; a web of

communities
 Anxiety – uneasiness or nervousness; mentally distressing
concern

Insidious Trauma – cumulative tiny traumas that happen over

a period of time

Psychological Trauma – damage to one’s psyche caused by

exposure to any event that leaves someone feeling alone and
overwhelmed

Self-consciousness – awareness of oneself

Nescient lads – lacking knowledge; ignorant men

Self-objectification – obsession with the female form without

regard to personhood

Enflame – to excite to excessive or uncontrollable action or

feeling; to be angry

Victimization – the action of singling someone out for cruel or

unjust treatment

Rape - unlawful sexual activity and usually sexual intercourse

carried out forcibly or under threat of injury against a person's will

Microaggressions – everyday verbal, nonverbal, and

environmental slights, snubs, or insults which communicate hostile,
derogatory, or negative messages to target persons

Body shame – the practice of making critical, potentially

humiliating comments about a person's body size or weight
References:

[1] Rappler Article, PH (March 08, 2016). The streets that haunt Filipino
women. Available at: https://www.rappler.com/move-ph/124993-sexual-
harassment-women-streets. Accessed: February 28, 2018

[2] Rappler Article, PH (June 2, 2016). Catcalling: Duterte broke the law in
own city. Available at: https://www.rappler.com/nation/135111-duterte-
catcalling-mariz-umali-ordinance-davao. Accesed: February 28, 2018

[3] Infographics.
https://assets.rappler.com/612F469A6EA84F6BAE882D2B94A4B421/img/
057F8503E6A9408FBDF9340D283F38DE/11catcall-
2015521_057F8503E6A9408FBDF9340D283F38DE.jpg

[4] NYU Steinhardt Article, USA (2016). The Effects of Sexual

Objectification on Women's Mental Health. Available at:
https://steinhardt.nyu.edu/appsych/opus/issues/2016/spring/rooney .
Accessed February 25, 2018.

[5] Allure Article, USA (July 20, 2017). A New Study Attempts to Explain
Why Some Men Harass Women. Available at:
https://www.allure.com/story/mens-catcalling-street-harassment-reasons-
study. Accessed March 1, 2018

[6] Manalo et al., PH (October 2016). Street Harassment As A Determinant

Of Self-Esteem And Self-Objectification Among Selected Female Students.
Available at: http://www.stopstreetharassment.org/wp-
content/uploads/2011/04/Manila-Thesis-Street-Harassment.pdf. Accessed
March 2, 2018.