Materi Prosman 2 - PDF

Metalurgi pengelasan
Welding Metallurgy 2
Learning Activities
1. View Slides;
Lesson Objectives 2. Read Notes,
When you finish this lesson you will 3. Listen to lecture
understand: 4. Do on-line
• The various region of the weld where liquid workbook
does not form 5. Do homework
• Mechanisms of structure and property
changes associated with these regions
Keywords:
Heat affected zone, Base metal, Solutionizing treatment, Aging,
welding procedure, heat input, Hydrogen cracking, Carbon
equivalent, Lamellar Tearing, Reheat Cracking, Knife-line attack,
Heat Affected Zone Welding
Concerns
Heat Affected Zone Welding
Concerns
• Changes in Structure Resulting

in Changes in Properties
• Cold Cracking Due to Hydrogen
Look At Two Types of Alloy Systems
Cold Worked Alloy Without Allotropic Transformation
Introductory Welding Metallurgy,

AWS, 1979
Welding
Precipitation
Hardened Alloys
Without Allotropic
Phase Changes
Welded In:
• Full Hard
Condition
• Solution
Annealed
Condition

AWS, 1979
Annealed upon
Cooling
Precipitation Hardened Alloy Welded in Full Hard Condition

AWS, 1979
Precipitation Hardened Alloys Welded in Solutioned Condition

AWS, 1979
Turn to the person sitting next to you and discuss (1 min.):
• Precipitation hardened austenitic stainless steel is used for
high strength applications like rocket components etc.
Reviewing the various procedures for welding precipitation
hardened steels, what procedure would you recommend?
Does it make any difference that this is austenitic stainless
steel and not just plain carbon steel?
Steel Alloys With Allotropic Transformation

AWS, 1979
AWS, 1979
Turn to the person sitting next to you and discuss (1 min.):
• As we saw, the cooling rate can depend upon the preheat
and the heat input. Many codes actually specify the range of
heat inputs that can be used to weld certain materials. We
had an equation to determine the heat input before. What is
it? What processes have the highest Heat Inputs? The
lowest?
Cracking in Welds
Hydrogen Cracking
• Hydrogen cracking, also called cold
cracking, requires all three of these
factors
– Hydrogen
– Stress
– Susceptible microstructure (high
hardness)
• Occurs below 300°C
• Prevention by
– Preheat slows down the cooling rate;
this can help avoid martensite
formation and supplies heat to diffuse
hydrogen out of the material
– Low-hydrogen welding procedure 0.1.1.5.2.T12.95.12
Dickinson
Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels
Why Preheat?
• Preheat reduces the temperature differential
between the weld region and the base metal
– Reduces the cooling rate, which reduces the
chance of forming martensite in steels
– Reduces distortion and shrinkage stress
– Reduces the danger of weld cracking
– Allows hydrogen to escape
0.1.1.5.1.T9.95.12
Steel
Using Preheat to Avoid Hydrogen
Cracking
• If the base material is preheated, heat flows more
slowly out of the weld region
– Slower cooling rates avoid martensite formation
• Preheat allows hydrogen to diffuse from the metal
T base Cooling rate T - Tbase)3
Cooling rate T - Tbase)2

T base
Steel
Interaction of Preheat and
Composition
CE = %C + %Mn/6 + %(Cr+Mo+V)/5 + %(Si+Ni+Cu)/15
• Carbon equivalent (CE) measures ability to form

martensite, which is necessary for hydrogen
cracking
– CE < 0.35 no preheat or postweld heat
treatment
– 0.35 < CE < 0.55 preheat
– 0.55 < CE preheat and postweld heat
treatment
• Preheat temp. as CE and plate thickness
Why Post-Weld Heat Treat?

• The fast cooling rates associated with welding
often produce martensite
• During postweld heat treatment, martensite is
tempered (transforms to ferrite and carbides)
– Reduces hardness
– Reduces strength
– Increases ductility
– Increases toughness
• Residual stress is also reduced by the postweld
heat treatment
0.1.1.5.1.T10.95.12
Steel
Postweld Heat Treatment and
Hydrogen Cracking
• Postweld heat treatment (~ 1200°F) tempers any
martensite that may have formed
– Increase in ductility and toughness
– Reduction in strength and hardness
• Residual stress is decreased by postweld heat
treatment
• Rule of thumb: hold at temperature for 1 hour per
inch of plate thickness; minimum hold of 30
minutes
Base Metal Welding Concerns
Cracking in Welds
Lamellar Tearing
• Occurs in thick plate subjected to high transverse
welding stress
• Related to elongated non-metallic inclusions,
sulfides and silicates, lying parallel to plate
surface and producing regions of reduced ductility
• Prevention by
– Low sulfur steel
– Specify minimum ductility levels in transverse direction
– Avoid designs with heavy through-thickness direction
stress
0.1.1.5.2.T14.95.12
Improve Cleanliness
Improve through thickness properties
Buttering
Multipass Welds
• Heat from subsequent passes affects the
structure and properties of previous passes
– Tempering
– Reheating to form austenite
– Transformation from austenite upon cooling
• Complex Microstructure
0.1.1.5.1.T11.95.12
Steel
Multipass Welds
• Exhibit a range of
microstructures
• Variation of
mechanical properties
across joint
• Postweld heat
treatment tempers the
structure
– Reduces property
variations across the
joint
Cracking in Welds
Reheat Cracking
• Mo-V and Mo-B steels susceptible
• Due to high temperature embrittlement of the
heat-affected zone and the presence of residual
stress
• Coarse-grained region near fusion line most
susceptible
• Prevention by
– Low heat input welding
– Intermediate stress relief of partially completed welds
– Design to avoid high restraint
– Restrict vanadium additions to 0.1% in steels 0.1.1.5.2.T15.95.12
Stainless Steel
Knife-Line Attack in the HAZ

HAZ • Cr23C6 precipitate in
HAZ
– Band where peak
Weld temperature is 800-
1600°F
• Can occur even in
stabilized grades
Knife-line attack – Peak temperature
dissolves titanium
carbides
– Cooling rate doesn’t
allow them to form
again
Chapter 6
Sheet-metal forming
Subjects of interest
• Introduction/objectives
• Deformation geometry
• Forming equipments
• Shearing and blanking
• Bending
• Stretch forming
• Deep drawing
• Forming limit criteria
• Defects in formed parts
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

Objectives
• Methods of sheet metal processes such as stretching,

shearing, blanking, bending, deep drawing, redrawing are
introduced.
• Variables in sheet forming process will be discussed together
with formability and test methods.
• Defects occurring during the forming process will be
emphasised. The solutions to such defect problems will also
be given.

• Sheet metal forming is a process that
Introduction materials undergo permanent
deformation by cold forming to produce
a variety of complex three dimensional
shapes.
• The process is carried out in the plane
of sheet by tensile forces with high ratio
of surface area to thickness.
•Friction conditions at the tool-metal
interface are very important and
controlled by press conditions,
lubrication, tool material and surface
condition, and strip surface condition.
• High rate of
production and
formability is
determined by its
mechanical properties.
Classification of sheet metal parts (based on contour)
1) Singly curved parts

2) Contoured flanged parts, i.e., parts
(a) Singly curve (b) Stretch flange with stretch flanges and shrink
flanges.
3) Curved sections.
4) Deep-recessed parts, i.e., cups
(c) Shrink flange (d) Curved section and boxes with either vertical or
sloping walls.
5) Shallow-recessed parts, i.e., dish-
shaped, beaded, embossed and
corrugated parts.
(e) Deep drawn cup (f) Beaded section

Classification of sheet metal forming (based on operations)
Blanking Stretching Deep drawing
Coining Stamping Ironing
Folding Bending Roll forming of sheet Wiping down a flange

Stress state in deformation processes
• The geometry of the workpiece can be essentially three
dimensional (i.e., rod or bar stock) or two dimensional (i.e.,
thin sheets).
• The state of stress is described by three principal stresses,
which act along axes perpendicular to principal planes.
• The principal stresses are by convention called σ1, σ2 and

σ3 where σ1> σ2 > σ3
σ3
σ2
σ1
Principal stresses on an element in

a three-dimensional stress state • Hydrostatic stress state is when
σ1 = σ2 = σ3
• Shear stresses provide driving
a) Uniaxial force for plastic deformation.
• Hydrostatic stresses cannot

contribute to shape change but
b) Biaxial involve in failure processes
c) Hydrostatic
• Tensile
crack growth or void formation
• Compressive
hinder crack, close void.
d) Triaxial

Stress system in (a) sheet processes and (b) bulk processes.
• In sheet deformation processes • In bulk deformation processes

(i.e., sheet metal forming, vacuum (i.e. forging, rolling and extrusion),
forming, blow moulding), the the workpiece is subjected to
workpiece is subjected to two triaxial stresses, which are
dimensional biaxial stresses. normally compressive.
(also depending on geometry)
Deformation geometry
Plane stress
• Principal stresses σ1 and σ2

are set up together with their
associated strain in the x-y plane.
• The sheet is free to contact (not

constrained) in the σ3 (z) direction.
There is strain in this direction but
no stress, thus σ3 = 0., resulting in
biaxial stress system.
• Since the stress are effectively

confined to one plane, this stress
system is known as plane stress.
Plane stress condition

Plane strain
• Deformation (strain) often

occurs in only two dimensions
(parallel to σ1 and σ2).
• σ3 is finite, preventing deformation

(strain) in the z direction
(constrained), which is known as
plane strain.
Example: the extrusion of a thin sheet

where material in the centre is
constrained in the z direction.
Plane strain condition

Forming equipments
Forming equipments include
1) Forming presses www.ptu.tu-darmstadt.de/.../ictmp/img00011.gif
2) Dies
3) Tools
Equipments in sheet metal forming process

Forming machines
• Using mechanical or hydraulic presses.
1) Mechanical presses
Shearing machine (mechanical)
- energy stored in a flywheel is
transferred to the movable slide on the
down stroke of the press.
- quick - acting , short stroke.
2) Hydraulic presses
- slower - acting, longer stroke.
Hydraulic deep drawing press

Actions of presses
(according to number of slides, which can be operated independently
of each other.)
1) Single - action press

- one slide
- vertical direction
2) Double - action press

- two slides
- the second action is used to operated the hold-down,
which prevents wrinkling in deep drawing.
3) Triple - action press

- two actions above the die, one action below the die.

Example:
Press brake – single action
• A single action press with a very long

narrow bed.
• Used to form long, straight bends in pieces
such as channels and corrugated sheets.

Tooling
Basic tools used with a metalworking press are the punch and the die.
• Punch A convex tool for making

holes by shearing , or making surface
or displacing metal with a hammer.
• Die A concave die, which is
the female part as opposed to punch
which is the male part.
Punches and dies
Die materials:
• High alloy steels heat treated
for the punches and dies.
Punch and die in stamping
www.lyons.com
Compound dies
• Several operations can be
performed on the same piece in one
stroke of the press.
• Combined processes and create a
complex product in one shot.
• Used in metal stamping processes of Compound die
thin sheets.
www.deltatooling.co.jp/
Transfer dies
• Transfer dies are also called
compounding type dies.
• The part is moved from station to
station within the press for each
operation.
Transfer die

www.bgprecision.com
Schematic diagram of a die set
A die set is composed of pilot
1) Punch holder which holds punch plate connected with blanking and
piecing punches for cutting the metal sheet.
2) Die block consists of die holder and die plate which was designed to
give the desired shape of the product.
3) Pilot is used to align metal sheet at the correct position before blanking
at each step.
4) Striper plate used for a) alignment of punch and die blocks b) navigate
the punch into the die using harden striper inserts and c) remove the cut
piece from the punch.
Forming method
There are a great variety of sheet metal forming methods,
mainly using shear and tensile forces in the operation.
• Progressive forming • Shearing and blanking

• Rubber hydroforming • Stretch forming
• Bending and contouring • Deep drawing
• Spinning processes
• Explosive forming

Progressive forming
• Punches and dies are designed so that successive stages
in the forming of the part are carried out in the same die on
each stroke of the press.
• Progressive dies are also known as multi-stage dies.
Example: progressive blanking

and piercing of flat washer. washers
Punch
• The strip is fed from left to right.

Stripper
plate • The first punch is to make the
Die hole of the washer.
• The washer is then blanked from
the strip.
Strip washer
• The punch A is piercing the hole for
the next washer.
Progressive die www.bestechtool.com
Metal sheet used in

blanking process
www.hillengr.com
Progressive die
• Optimise the material usage.

• Determining factors are 1) volume of production
2) the complexity of the shape
Rubber hydroforming
• Using a pad of rubber or polyurethane

as a die.
• A metal blank is placed over the form
block, which is fastened to the bed of a
single - action hydraulic press.
• During forming the rubber (placed in the
retainer box on the upper platen of the
press) transmits a nearly uniform
hydrostatic pressure against the sheet.
• Pressure ~ 10 MPa, and where higher Guerin process
local pressure can be obtained by using
auxiliary tooling.

Hydroforming
www.egr.msu.edu
Upper fluid
chamber
Lower fluid Draw

chamber blank
material
fluid
Stamp hydroforming machine setup

A drawing of hydroforming setup with fluid
with a fluid supplied from one side of
supplied from to both sides of the materials.
the draw blank
• Used for sheet forming of aluminium alloys and reinforced

thermoplastics.

Bending and contouring
Bendmachine
(a) Three-roll bender: sometimes does not provide

Wiper rolls uniform deformation in thin-gauge sheet due to the
midpoint of the span localisation of the strain.
Form block
Often need the forth roll.
(b) Wiper-type bender: The contour is formed by

successive hammer blows on the sheet, which is
Clamp
clamped at one end against the form block. Wiper
Clamp
rolls must be pressed against the block with a
uniform pressure supplied by a hydraulic cylinder.
Tension
(c) Wrap forming: The sheet is compressed against

a form block, and at the same time a longitudinal
stress is applied to prevent buckling and wrinkling.
Ex: coiling of a spring around a mandrel.
Bending and contouring machines
Pipe bending
www.rollfab.com.au machine
www.diydata.com
www.macri.it
www.lathes.co.uk

Materials: aluminium and alloys, high
Spinning processes strength - low alloy steels, copper,
• Deep parts of circular symmetry brass and alloys, stainless steel,
such as tank heads, television cones.
(a) Manual spinning (b) Shear spinning
• The metal blank is clamped against a

form block, which is rotated at high speed.
• The blank is progressively formed against
the block, by a manual tool or by means of
small-diameter work rolls.
Note: (a) no change in thickness but diameter,
(b) diameter equals to blank diameter but
Suranaree University of Technology
thicknessTapany
staysUdomphol
the same. Jan-Mar 2007
Explosive forming
• Produce large parts with a relatively low production lot size.

• The sheet metal blank is placed over a die cavity and an
explosive charge is detonated in medium (water) at an
appropriate standoff distance from the blank at a very high
velocity.
• The shockwave propagating from the explosion serves as a
‘friction-less punch’

Shearing and blanking
Shearing The separation of metal by the movement of two blades
operated based on shearing forces.
• A narrow strip of metal is severely

plastically deformed to the point where
it fractures at the surfaces in contact
with the blades.
(a) Proper clearance • The fracture then propagates inward
Ragged
surface to provide complete separation.
(normally 2-10% thickness)
Clearance
(b) Insufficient clearance • Proper clean fracture surface.
blurr • Insufficient ragged fracture surface.
• Excessive greater distortion, greater energy
required to separate metal.
(c) Excessive clearance Thickness clearance

Maximum punch force
• No friction condition.
• The force required to shear a metal sheet ~ length cut, sheet
thickness, shearing strength.
• The maximum punch force to produce shearing is given by
Pmax ≈ 0.7σ u hL
where σu = the ultimate tensile strength

h = sheet thickness
L = total length of the sheared edge
The shearing force by making the edges of the cutting

tool at an inclined angle

Blanking : The shearing of
close contours, when the
metal inside the contour is the
desired part.
Punching or piercing :
The shearing of the material
when the metal inside the
contour is discarded.
Notching : The punch

removes material from the
edge or corner of a strip or
blank or part.

www.americanmachinist.com/
Parting : The simultaneous

cutting along at least two lines
which balance each other from
the standpoint of side thrust on
the parting tool.
Slitting : Cutting or
shearing along single lines
to cut strips from a sheet or
to cut along lines of a given
length or contour in a sheet
or workpiece.
Trimming : Operation of
cutting scrap off a partially or
fully shaped part to an
established trim line.

Shaving : A secondary
shearing or cutting operation in
which the surface of a previously
cut edge is finished or smoothed
by removing a minimal amount
of stock.
Ironing : A continuous
thinning process and often
accompanies deep drawing,
i.e., thinning of the wall of a
cylindrical cup by passing it
though an ironing die.
Fine blanking : Very

smooth and square edges are
produced in small parts such
as gears, cams, and levers.

Bending
• A process by which a straight length is transformed into a curved length.
• produce channels, drums, tanks.

Bending
The bend radius R = the radius of curvature on the concave,
or inside surface of the bend.
Fibres on the outer surface are

strained more than fibres on the
inner surface are contracted.
Fibres at the mid thickness is
stretched.
Decrease in thickness (radius

direction) at the bend to preserve
the constancy of volume.
R thickness on
bending
Condition:
- No change in thickness
- The neutral axis will remain at the centre fibre.
- Circumferential stretch on the top surface ea = shrink on the bottom
surface, eb
R strain 1
e a = − eb = …Eq.1
R bend radius (2 R / h ) + 1
h thickness
The minimum bend radius

• For a given bending operation, the smallest bend radius can
be made without cracking on the outer tensile surface.
• Normally expressed in multiples of sheet thickness.
Example: a 3T bend radius means the metal can be bend
without cracking though a radius equal to three times the sheet
thickness T.
Effect of b/h ratio on ductility
• Stress state is biaxial (σ2/σ1 ratio)
• Width / thickness b/h ratio
b/h biaxiality
Strain, ductility
Cracks occur near the

centre of the sheet
Effect of b/h on biaxiality and bend ductility

Springback
Dimensional change of the formed part after releasing the

pressure of the forming tool due to the changes in strain
produced by elastic recovery.
Yield stress
Elastic modulus
Plastic strain
Spring back
Springback is encountered in all forming operations, but most

easily occurs in bending.

For aluminium alloys and austenitic stainless steels in a number of
cold-rolled tempers, approximate springback in bending can be
expressed by
3
Ro  Ro σ  Ro σ
= 4  −3 +1 …Eq.2
Rf  Eh  Eh
Where Ro = the radius of curvature before release of load
Rf = the radius of curvature after release of lead
and Ro < Rf
Solutions: compensating the springback by bending to a
smaller radius of curvature than is desired (overbending). By trial-
and-error.
The force Pb required to bend a length L about a radius R may be

estimated from 2
σ o Lh α
Pb = tan …Eq.3
2(R + h / 2 ) 2
Tube bending
• Bending of tube and

structural material for industry,
architecture, medical, refinery.
• Heat induction and hot slap
bending require the heating
of pipe, tube or structural
shapes.
• Heat Induction bending is
typically a higher cost bending
process and is primarily used
in large diameter material.
www.precision-tube-bending.com
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Tube bending Jan-Mar 2007
www.dynabil.com
Stretch forming
• Forming by using tensile forces
to stretch the material over a tool
or form block.
• used most extensively in the Stretch forming feasible for aluminium,
aircraft industry to produce parts stainless steel, titanium.
of large radius of curvature.
(normally for uniform cross
section).
• required materials with
appreciable ductility.
• Springback is largely eliminated
because the stress gradient is
relatively uniform.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol www.ducommunaero.com Jan-Mar 2007

Stretch forming equipment
Ram Ram
• Using a hydraulic driven ram (normally vertical).

• Sheet is gripped by two jaws at its edges.
• Form block is slowly raised by the ram to deform sheet
above its yield point.
• The sheet is strained plastically to the required final shape.
Examples: large thin panel, most complex automotive
stamping involve a stretching component.

Diffuse necking (a limit to forming)
In biaxial tension, the necking which occurs in uniaxial tension is

inhibited if σ2/σ1 > 1/2, and the materials then develops diffuse
necking. (not visible)
The limit of uniform deformation in strip loading occurs at a

strain equals to the strain-hardening exponent n. ε = n
u
φ ~ 55o for an isotropic

Localised necking material in pure tension
• Plastic instability of a thin sheet will

occur in the form of a narrow localised
neck. followed by fracture of the
sheet.
• Normal strain along X’2 must be zero. ε u = 2n
Localised necking in a strip in tension

Deep drawing
The metalworking process used for
shaping flat sheets into cup-shaped
articles.
Examples: bathtubs, shell cases,
automobile panels.
Deep drawing of a
cylindrical cup
Pressing the metal blank

of appropriate size into a
shaped die with a punch.
Before drawing After drawing

Punch
• It is best done with double-action press.
• Using a blank holder or a holddown ring
Holddown ring
• Complex interaction between metal

and die depending on geometry.
• No precise mathematical description
can be used to represent the processes in
simple terms.

Flange
A cup is subjected to
As the metal being
three different types drawn,
Triaxial
of deformation. Cup wall • Change in radius
Punch region
Biaxial • Increase in cup wall
Biaxial
Thickness profile of drawn cup
Clearance between
the punch and the die
Stresses and deformation in a section from a drawn cup > 10-20% thickness.
• Metal in the punch region is thinned down biaxial tensile stress.

• Metal in the cup wall is subjected to a circumference strain,
or hoop and a radial tensile strain.
• Metal at the flange is bent and straightened as well as subjected
to a tensile stress at the same time.
Redrawing
• Use successive drawing
operations by reducing a cup or
drawn part to a smaller
diameter and increased
height – known as redrawing.
Examples: slender cups such
as cartridge case and closed-
end tubes.
1) Direct or regular redrawing : 2) Reverse or indirect redrawing :

smaller diameter is produced by the cup is turned inside out the
means of a hold-down ring. The outside surface becomes the inside
metal must be bent at the punch surface, Fig (c). Better control of
and unbent at the die radii see wrinkling and no geometrical
Fig (a). Tapered die allows lower limitations to the use of a hold-
punch load, Fig (b). down ring.

Punch force vs. punch stroke
Punch force = Fdeformation + Ffrictional + (Fironing)
Fdeformation - varies with length of travel

Ffrictional - mainly from hold down pressure
Fironing - after the cup has reached the
maximum thickness.

Drawability (deep drawing)
Drawability is a ratio of the initial blank diameter (Do) to

the diameter of the cup drawn from the blank ~ punch
diameter (DP)
Limiting draw ratio (LDR)
 Do 
LDR ≈   ≈ eη
D  …Eq.4
 p  max
Where η is an efficiency term accounting for frictional losses.
Normally the average maximum reduction in deep drawing is ~ 50%.

Practical considerations affecting drawability
• Die radius – should be about 10 x sheet thickness.
• Punch radius – a sharp radius leads to local thinning and
tearing. Clearance between punch and die should be about 20-
40% > sheet thickness.
• Hold-down pressure – about 2% of average σo and σu.
• Lubrication of die side - to reduce friction in drawing.
• Material properties - low yield stress, high work hardening rates,
high values of strain ratio of width to thickness R.
• Since the forming load is carried by

the side wall of the cup, failure
therefore occurs at the thinnest part.
• In practice the materials always
fails either at (a) the shoulder of
the die and (b) the shoulder of the
punch.
Practical considerations for round and
rectangular shells
• Different pressures (tension,

compression, friction, bending) force the
material into shape, perhaps with multiple
successive operations.
www.drawform.com
Round shell
• Different flow patterns at sides and corners.
• Corners require similar flow as round shells while
sides need simple bending.
• The corner radii control the maximum draw depth.
• Centre to center distance of corners ≥ 6 x corner radius

• Bottom radius ≥ corner radius Rectangular shell
To improve drawability
• To avoid failures in the thin parts

(at the punch or flange), metal in
that part need to be strengthened,
or weaken the metal in other parts
(to correct the weakest link).
• If sufficient friction is generated
between punch and workpiece,
more of the forming load is
carried by the thicker parts.
• Concerning about
crystallographic texture (slip
system), degree of anisotropy or
strain ratio R.
The dependence of limiting draw ratio on R

and work hardening rate, n
The plastic strain ratio R measures the normal anisotropy,
which denotes high resistance to thinning in the thickness
direction.
ln(ln(w
w / w)/ w)
R = ln(h o/ h)
R= o
o
…Eq.5
ln(ho / h)
Where wo and w are the initial and final width

ho and h are the initial and final thickness.
But it is difficult to measure thickness on thin sheets, therefore we have
ln(wo / w)
R= …Eq.6
ln( wL / wo Lo )

Example: A tension test on a special deep-drawing steel
showed a 30% elongation in length and a 16% decrease in
width. What limiting draw ratio would be expected for the steel?
L − Lo L
= 0.30 = 1.30
Lo Lo
w − wo w
= −0.16 = 1 − 0.16 = 0.84
wo wo
ln( wo / w) ln(1 / 0.84) ln 1.190

R= = = = 1.98
ln((w / wo )( L / Lo )) ln(0.84 × 1.30) ln 1.092
From Fig. 20-16 Dieter page 673, the limiting draw ratio ~ 2.7

Forming limit criteria
• Tensile test only provides ductility, work hardening,

but it is in a uniaxial tension with frictionless, which
cannot truly represent material behaviours obtained from
unequal biaxial stretching occurring in sheet metal
forming.
• Sheet metal formability tests are designed to

measure the ductility of a materials under condition
similar to those found in sheet metal forming.

Erichsen cupping test
• Simple and easy.
• symmetrical and equal biaxial
stretching.
• Allow effects of tool-workpiece
interaction and lubrication on
formability to be studied.
• The sheet metal specimen is
hydraulically punched with a 20 mm
diameter steel ball at a constant load
of 1000 kg.
• The distance d is measured in
millimetres and known as Erichsen
number.
Results of cupping test on steel sheets.

The forming limit diagram
• The sheet is marked with a close
packed array of circles using
chemical etching or photo printing
techniques. Grid analysis (a) before (b) after deformation of
sheet.
• The blank is then stretched over a
punch, resulting in stretching of Major strain ε1(%)
120
circles into ellipses.
100
• The major and minor axes of an Failure
ellipse represent the two principal 80
strain directions in the stamping. A B

ε2 60
ε2 AK steel
• The percentage changes in these 40 Safe
strains are compared in the diagram. ε1 ε1
20
• Comparison is done in a given
thickness of the sheet. -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100
Minor strain ε2(%)
Forming limit diagram

Example: A grid of 2.5 mm circles is electroetched on a blank of
sheet steel. After forming into a complex shape the circle in the
region of critical strain is distorted into and ellipse with major
diameter 4.5 mm and minor diameter 2.0 mm. How close is the part
to failing in this critical region?
Major strain ε1(%)

120
Major strain
100
Failure
4.5 − 2.5
e1 = × 100 = 80% 80
2.5 A B
ε2 60
ε2 AK steel
40 Safe
Minor strain ε1 ε1
20
2.0 − 2.5
e2 = × 100 = −20% -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100
2.5 Minor strain ε2(%)
Forming limit diagram
The coordinates indicate that the part is in imminent danger

of failure.
Defects in formed parts www.bgprecision.com
Springback problem
• Edge conditions for blanking.
• Local necking or thinning or
buckling and wrinkling in regions
of compressive stress.
• Springback tolerance problems.
• Cracks near the punch region in
deep drawing minimised by
Crack near punch region increasing punch radius, lowering
punch load.
• Radial cracks in the flanges and edge of the cup due to not
sufficient ductility to withstand large circumferential shrinking.
• Wrinkling of the flanges or the edges of the cup resulting
from buckling of the sheet (due to circumferential compressive
stresses) solved by using sufficient hold-down pressure
to suppress the buckling.
• Surface blemishes due to large surface area. EX: orange
peeling especially in large grain sized metals because each
grain tends to deform independently use finer grained
metals.
• Mechanical fibering has little effect on formability.
• Crystallographic fibering or preferred orientation may have
a large effect. Ex: when bend line is parallel to the rolling
direction, or earing in deep drawn cup due to anisotropic
properties.
Earing in drawn can

aluminium.matter.org.uk

• Stretcher strains or ‘worms’ (flamelike
patterns of depressions). Associated with
yield point elongation.
• The metal in the stretcher strains has
been strained an amount = B, while the
remaining received essentially zero strain.
• The elongation of the part is given by
some intermediate strain A.
Stretcher strain in low-carbon steel.
• The number of stretcher strains increase
during deformation. The strain will increase
until the when the entire part is covered it
has a strain equal to B.
A B
Solution: give the steel sheet a

small cold reduction (usually
0.5-2% reduction in thickness).
Ex: temper-rolling, skin-rolling to
Relation of stretcher strain to stress eliminate yield point.
strain curve.
References
• Dieter, G.E., Mechanical metallurgy, 1988, SI metric edition,

McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-100406-8.
• Edwards, L. and Endean, M., Manufacturing with materials,
1990, Butterworth Heinemann, ISBN 0-7506-2754-9.

PROSES MANUFAKTUR II
TEGUH DWI WIDODO, ST., M.Eng. Ph.D

POKOK BAHASAN
1.PENGECORAN
2.PEMBENTUKAN
3.PENGELASAN
PENILAIAN
1. TUGAS
2. UAS
3. QUIZ
PERKULIAHAN
JULAH PERTEMUAN: 16X PERTEMUAN
WAJIB MENGIKUTI KULIAH: 13X PERTEMUAN
E-Mail : widodoteguhdwi@ub.ac.id
Hp: 081333395309
Ketua Kelas A
Nama : Muhammad Fadlurahman
E-mail : Muhammadfadlurahman87@gmail.com
Hp : o83840911472
PERKULIAHAN
JULAH PERTEMUAN: 16X PERTEMUAN
WAJIB MENGIKUTI KULIAH: 13X PERTEMUAN
E-Mail : widodoteguhdwi@ub.ac.id
Hp: 081333395309
Ketua Kelas C
Nama : ROHFI LINGGA
E-mail :
Hp : O85258834205
ＰＥＮＧＥＣＯＲＡN LOGAM
Diffusion Welding (DFW)
1
 Diffusion-welding bukan merupakan sesuatu yang baru, lapisan permukaan emas
(gold ) diletakkan id atas inti perak (silver ) atau tembaga (copper) dan penekanan
sandwich dilakukan dengan pemberat. Tekanan yang diperlukan kadang-2 juga
dilakukan dengan pengepresan.  Sering disebut dengan hot pressure welding
(HPW).
 Secara umum, sambungan akan lebih baik bila suhu cukup tinggi untuk menimbulkan
difusi. Dengan mempertahankan di dalam furnace untuk waktu yang cukup lama
akan menghasilkan sambungan tetap. Th.1970-an, teknik ini digunakan pada
konstruksi air-frame. dan juga applicable untuk metal-matrix composite.
Diffusion Welding (DFW)
2
Hot Welding
3
 Hot-welding secara umum digunakan untuk mendefinisikan pengelasan/welding
yang menghasilkan deformasi pada range suhu hot-working. Ada beberapa
macam/cara yang digunakan dalam hot-welding :
 Forge-welding (FOW) , mengacu pada proses

pengelasan yang lebih lama. Sambungan
dihasilkan oleh deformasi lokal dari sambungan.
Benda kerja yang panas ( biasanya besi atau
baja ) di tahan bersama untuk menekan keluar
oksidasi, slag, dan kotoran serta memastikan
sambungan inter-atomik bisa terjadi. Cara ini
juga digunakan untuk mengelas tabung.
 Induction–Welding , panas pada pengelasan ini

dihasilkan dari pemanasan induksi (induction
heating ) untuk meminimalkan oksidasi.
Deformasi yang terjadi jauh lebih kecil tetapi
cukup sehingga butt-welding menjadi bisa
diaplikasikan.
Hot Welding
4
 Electric-butt–Welding , panas juga bisa
ditimbulkan dengan mengalirkan arus melalui
12/6/2016
permukaan yang ditekan. Electric butt welding
sekarang sudah banyak yang digantikan dengan
Flash-Butt-Welding.
 Hot-roll–Bonding , roll welding dengan suhu

yang tinggi. Cara ini banyak digunakan untuk
menghasilkan komposisi biaya rendah atau
performance tinggi.
Friction Welding (FRW)
5
 Friction–Welding , kerja pergeseran timbul ketika 2 benda bergeser di
antara-nya akan menimbulkan panas ; bila kecepatan gesernya tinggi dan bidang
gesernya kecil maka akan timbul pengelasan. Pada continous-drive FRW, satu
bagian tetap dan yang lain berputar dengan penekanan. Suhu akan naik, titik
pengelasan akan terbentuk bagian per-bagian, lapisan permukaan terpisah,
putaran akan tertahan secara tiba-tiba dan selanjutnya gaya tekan diberikan
ketika seluruh permukaan sudah pada kondisi/suhu pengelasan.
Friction Welding (FRW)
6
Friction Welding (FRW) 7
12/6/2016
Fusion Welding
8
 Pada sebagian besar aplikasi, sambungan inter-atomic terwujud akibat
pelelhan. Bila benda kerja ( material induk, material yang disambung )
dan material pengisi (bila menggunakan) sejenis (identik), tetapi tidak
harus mempunyai komposisi dan suhu leleh yang sama  proses
mengacu pada pengelasan fusi ( fusion welding ).
 Pengelasan mempunyai hubungan erat dengan proses pengecoran. Panas

digunakan untukmelelehkan material dasar dan material pengisi.
 Sambungan Fusi ( fusion joint ) sangat jauh dari homogen. Tingkat

ketidak –homogenitasnya dan kompleksitas meningkat dari material
murni sampai campuran multi-phase ( multiphase-alloys ), dan juga
merupakan fungsi dari panas-masuk per unit jarak. Intensitas panas
yang lebih besar akan memberikan penetrasi yang lebih dalam dan
daerah panas yang lebih terkonsentrasi.
Fusion Welding 9
12/6/2016
 Fusion welding ini bisa dilakukan dengan beberapa cara :
 Resistance - Welding
 Electric-Arc – Welding
 High-Energy-Beam – Welding
 Thermal Welding
Resistance Welding
10
 Electric-resistance-welding, merupakan tansisi dari solid-state welding ke fusion
welding.
2 bagian yang akan disambung di pres
Diberi tekanan yang tepat Daerah kontak dialiri listrik (AC)
Timbul tahanan listrik yang tinggi Daya terkonsentrasi di daerah ini
Daya terkonversi menjadi panas
Arus terus dialirkan sampai timbul

lelehan pada permukaan yang menyatu
Tekanan tetap dipertahankan sampai J = I 2 R t

bagain yang meleleh mulai memadat lagi
(setelah arus dihentikan)
Metallurgy-welding DHL Ghost Glassproff

Resistance Welding
11
 Resistance welding ini bisa dilakukan dengan beberapa cara :
12/6/2016
 Resistance-Spot-Welding (RSW)
 Projection – Welding (RPW)
 Resistance-Seam-Welding (RSEW)
 High-Frequency-Resistance-Welding (HFRW)
 Flash-Upset-Welding
Metallurgy-welding Solid-state-welding DHL Ghost Glassproff

Resistance-Spot-Welding (RSW)
12
 Resistance Spot Welding, karena aplikasi plat
logam yang luas maka resistance spot welding
12/6/2016
ini mendapat tempat yang utama  dari
pemasangan pegangan pada perlatan dapur
sampai perakitan bodi mobil.
 Elektroda terbuat dari bahan dengan

konduktivitas dan ketahanan panas yang tinggi
 tembaga dengan tambahan Cd, Cr atau Be,
atau campuran copper-tungsten atau
molybdenum.
 Pada industri-2 besar, sistem las titik ini sudah

menggunakan robot.

13
12/6/2016
14
12/6/2016
15
(a) (b)
(b)
12/6/2016
(c)

16
12/6/2016
Proses Produksi II - Janu Pardadi
Resistance-Projection-Welding (RPW)
17
 Resistance Projection Welding, tambahan
daerah pengelasan akan lebih mudah di-kontrol,
12/6/2016
dan beberapa titik pengelasan bisa dilakukan
secara bersamaan-simultan dengan satu
elektroda.
 Saat arus listrik

dialirkan, bagian
projection akan
melunak dan akan
tertekan di tempat
oleh tekanan
elektroda 
terbentuk weld
nugget

Resistance-Projection-Welding (RPW)
18
12/6/2016
Resistance-Seam-Welding (RSEW)
19
 Resistance Seam Welding, variasi dari spot
welding  beberapa titik pengelasan bisa
12/6/2016
dibuat sepanjang sebuah garis dan bisa
dikerjakan dengan lebih cepat bila elektrodanya
berbentuk roller / roda.
 Arus di-switch on – off, untuk memberikan

jarak yang sama antara titik-2 las. Bila arus
selalu ON  titik-2 las se-olah-2 akan menyatu
dan membentuk garis.
 Saat arus listrik dialirkan, bagian projection

akan melunak dan akan tertekan di tempat oleh
tekanan elektroda  terbentuk weld nugget

Resistance-Seam-Welding (RSEW)
20
12/6/2016
High-Frequency-Resistance-Welding (HFRW)
21
 High Frequency Resistance Welding, merupakan aplikasi yang penting dari resistance-
welding untuk membuat pipa, tabung, dan wheel rim ( pelg ). Tabung dibuat dengan
12/6/2016
pembentukan roll dan kemudian seam longitudinal dibuat dengan high frquency
resistance welding (HFRW) dimana arus listrik dialirkan melalui elektroda slading atau
roll.
 Pada High Frequency Induction Welding, tabung di kelilingi oleh koil induksi dan
frekuensi yang dioperasikan dipilih untuk mendapatkan penetrasi yang optimum. Makin
tinggi Frekuensi  kedalaman penetrasi makin kecil.

Flash Upset-Welding
22
 Flash Upset - Welding, secara umum berarti sambungan 2 benda kerja dengan
menekankan ke duanya dengan gaya yang cukup untuk menyebabkan deformasi. Secara
12/6/2016
yang lebih sempit, diartikan sebagai aplikasi resistance welding seperti spot welding
dengan tekanan yang mempunyai fungsi utama untuk men-switch on-kan arus.

Flash Upset-Welding
23
12/6/2016
Electric-Arc – Welding
24
 Electric arc welding, perbedaan dengan electric resistance welding pada dipertahankan
timbulnya busur listrik untuk mencairkan material (benda kerja induk, yang disambung,
12/6/2016
dan bahan pengisi-bila ada). Contoh yang terbaik adalah Pengelasan busur gas-tungsten
(Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding, GTAW) :
 GTAW, elektroda tungsten disambung pada terminal negatif dari
sumber tenaga DC (straight polarity atau direct-current electrode
negative  DCEN )  menjadi kathoda.
Benda kerja dihubungkan dengan terminal positif dan menjadi anoda.
Gas disemburkan untuk melindungi ke dua elektroda. Kathoda dipanasi
oleh arus pengelasan sampai work function (energi yang diperlukan
untuk melepas elektron) dari tungsten tercapai. Timbul space charge
(awan elektron) dengan aliran elektron ke benda kerja ( sebagian
besar panas timbul di sini ) – aliran elektron memberi kontribusi 85%
heat-transfer.
Di ruang antara ujung elektroda dan benda kerja, suhu tinggi meng-
ionisasi gas pelindung. Energi dari elektron menabrak benda kerja.
Daerah las-an biasanya dalam dan sempit (b).
Bila polaritas di-balik (DCEP-direct current electrode
positive), daerah las-an menjadi lebih lebar dan dangkal
(c)  baik untuk benda kerja tipis
Electric-Arc – Welding
25
 Electric arc welding , bisa dibedakan menjadi tiga :
12/6/2016
 Non Consumable Electrode
 Consumable Electrode
 Comsumable Work-piece
Non Consumable Electrode
26
 Non-consumable Electrode, yaitu proses pengelasan di mana elektroda tidak
12/6/2016
meleleh, logam pengisi las-an di supply dari batang terpisah (untuk tebal > 3mm )
atau dari logam induk sendiri (untuk tebal < 3 mm) :
 Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding ( GTAW )
 Plasma-Arc Welding ( PAW )
 Carbon-Arc Welding , merupakan type awal dari

pengelasan nonconsumeable electrode. Busur api timbul di
antara benda kerja dan elektroda karbon atau antara 2
elektroda karbon.
Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding ( GTAW )
27
 Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding, menunjukkan bahwa busur api yang timbul di antara
12/6/2016
benda kerja dan elektroda dilindungi oleh gas pelindung (inert gas)  dulu sering
disebut dengan tungsten inert gas ( TIG ) Welding. Perlindungan terhadap
atmosphere bisa dilakukan dengan gas Argon ( memberikan busur api yang lebih
dingin dan penetrasi ke logam yang lebih dangkal bila dibandingkan dengan gas
Helium)
Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding ( GTAW )
28
 Arus dengan frekuensi tinggi superimposed
baik pada alternating atau direct current
12/6/2016
untuk membantu memulai timbulnya busur api.
 Dimungkinkan operasi secara manual maupun

otomatis. Proses tergantung pada keahlian
operator , tetapi proses ini bisa menghasilkan
kuslitas yang sangat tinngi untuk hampir
semua material dan posisi pengelasan
(tergantung pada keahlian)
Plasma-Arc Welding ( PAW )
29
 Busur api dan plasma (gasnya)
dikonsentrasikan dengan menggunakan orifice
12/6/2016
 intensitas panasnya akan meningkat.
 Dengan mengalirkan listrik dengan frekuensi

tinggi, busur api akan timbul antara elektroda
dan nozzle. Kemudian api didekatkan ke benda
kerja, dialirkan arus pengelasan dan busur api
akan berpindah/mengalir ke benda kerja.
 Pada arus yang rendah (melt-in mode) daerah

leleh akan seperti pada busur pengelasan
listrik biasa. Pada Arus yang tinggi 9keyhole
mode), akan terbentuk lubang (seperti pada
gambar) dan benda kerja akan kembali
memadat di belakang busur api. dengan
frekuensi tinggi superimposed baik pada
alternating atau direct current untuk
membantu memulai timbulnya busur api.
30
12/6/2016
31
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Consumable Electrode
32
 Consumable Electrode , yaitu proses pengelasan di mana elektroda ikut leleh
menjadi lapisan las
12/6/2016
 Komposisi elektroda terumpan ini biasanya tidak sama dengan logam induk,
rekomendasi jenis elektroda yang digunakan bisa didapat pada pada tabel 18.3
 Daerah pengelasan dilindungi oleh gas atau flux.
 Gas Metal-Arc Welding ( GMAW )
 Shielded Metal-Arc Welding ( SMAW )
 Flux-Cored Arc Welding ( FCAW )
 Submerged Arc Welding ( SAW )
 Electroslag Welding ( ESW )
 Electrogas Welding ( EGW )

Gas Metal-Arc Welding ( GMAW )
33
 Logam Electrode terumpan, di umpankan
melalui “pistol “ las (seperti pada gambar di
12/6/2016
samping). Elektroda ini dilindungi oleh gas,
dulu disebut sebagai Metal-Inert-Gas
Welding ( MIG Welding )
 Baik untuk hampir semua logam.
 Seperti pada GTAW, tidak menimbulkan slag

(bara) dan bisa membentuk beberapa lapisan
las-an tanpa pembersihan yang berarti.
 Gas ARGON baik sebagai gas pelindung semua

material ; sedang HELIUM kadang-2 juga
digunakan.
 Elektroda selalu dihubungkan dengan terminal positif (DCEP atau polaritasnya di balik)
 Elektroda menyentuh benda kerja, arus naik, kawat elektroda leleh dan jatuh ke logam induk.
 Gas Pelindung dipilih untuk meminimalkan percikan dari lelehan logam
 Kawat elektroda yang diumpankan bisa dalam bentuk gulungan/koil sehingga pengumpanan
tidak terganggu untuk segala posisi dan dalam waktu yang panjang.
Gas Metal-Arc Welding ( GMAW )
34
12/6/2016
Shielded Metal-Arc Welding ( SMAW )
35
 Busur api terbentuk di antara
kawat/batang pengisi dan benda kerja
12/6/2016
yang akan disambung, tetapi sekarang
perlindungan terjadi dengan melelehnya
lapisan pelindung / flux di kawat las
( Na atau K  elektroda berlapis /
coated electrode ).
 Pelindung memenuhi fungsi-2 :

Pembakaran, dekomposisi, dan
melindungi dari udara.
 Pemilihan jenis elektroda merupakan

sesuatu hal yang kritis untuk
keberhasilan pengelasan.
Shielded Metal-Arc Welding ( SMAW )
36
12/6/2016
Flux Cored-Arc Welding ( FCAW )
37
 Flux-Cored Arc Welding ( FCAW ) , flux ada didalam kawat elektroda.
12/6/2016
Kawat las bisa digulung dan pengelasan bisa automatis, kontinyu.
Submerged-Arc Welding ( SAW )
38
 Elektroda terumpan berupa kawat
telanjang dan daerah pengelasan
12/6/2016
dilindungi butiran flux yang di-umpankan
terpisah. Flux ini melindungi busur api.,
sehingga bisa dihasilkan arus yang tinggi,
penetrasi yang dalam, efisiensi tinggi,
pencegahan oxidasi dan juga bisa untuk
memberikan campuran logam.
 SAW merupakan proses pengelasan

automatis yang utama dengan laju
deposisi yang tinggi.
 Posisi pengelasan harus horizontal,

baikuntuk jaringan pipa baja, silinder,
bisa untuk pengelasan dengan robot.
39
12/6/2016
40
12/6/2016
Electroslag Welding ( ESW )
41
 Proses ini digunakan secara luas untuk
12/6/2016
pengelasan vertikal (tegak) plat yang tebal
(25 mm atau lebih) dengan struktur  rig
minyak, jembatan,kapal dlsb.
 Kawat Elektroda diumpankan ke slag cair;

busur api timbul tetapi kemudian masuk ke
cairan slag dan panas dari fusi diberikan
oleh panas yng tertahan di dalam slag.
 Sepatu tembaga yang didinginkan oleh air

menempel di ruang antara bagian yang di-las
untuk menjaga lelehan dan slag keluar.
Electroslag Welding ( ESW )
42
12/6/2016
Electrogas Welding ( EGW )
43
 Proses ini merupakan
12/6/2016
pengembangan dari
Electroslag, tetapi
mempunyai hubungan dengan
Gas-metal-arc Welding.
 Kawat Elektroda solid (utuh)

atau diselubungi flux dan
perlindungan daerah las
dilakukan oleh gas ( 80% Ar,
20% CO2 ) Daerah lelehan
ditahan oleh sepatu (dam)
tembaga.
Consumable-Workpiece Welding
44
 Pada proses pengelasan ini, benda kerja menjadi elektroda.
12/6/2016
 Proses ini ada 2 macam :
 Stud Arc Welding atau Stud – Welding ( SW )
 Capacitor-Discharge Stud - Welding

Stud Arc Welding / Stud – Welding ( SW )
45
 Busur api dipertahankan di antara proyeksi dari
12/6/2016
STUD (biasanya batang halus atau berulir) –
ujung stud diperkecil dan permukaan benda kerja
(biasanya plat).
 Ketika proyeksi stud dan permukaan plat meleleh,

tekanan diberikan untuk melekatkan stud dengan
plat.
 Polaritas, biasanya DCEN untuk baja dan DCEP

untuk aluminium.
 Diameter stud dipilih sehingga sambungan terjadi

pada stud tidak di plat.
 Jutaan stud digunakan di konstruksi bangunan, kapal, industri automobil, konstruksi

panel listrik, dan untuk menempelkan pegangan (handle ) pada asesoris.
Stud Arc Welding/Stud–Welding ( SW )
46
12/6/2016
Capacitor-Discharge Stud - Welding
47
 Menggunakan diameter STUD yang lebih kecil.
12/6/2016
Pemnasan menggunakan energi yang tersimpan di
Kapasitor/kondensor.
 Pelepasan energi (discharge) dilakukan sesaat

sebelum atau selama proses pendekatan stud ke
permukaan plat. Pengaturan waktu dan kontrolnya
merupakan hal yang kritis.
 Stud bisa di-las pada plat yang tipis.
 Istilah Percussion Welding ( PW ) digunakan

untuk mendefinisikan Capacitor-discharge
Welding yang digunakan untuk me-las kawat ke
terminal dan permukaan plat lainnya.
High-Energy-Beam Welding
48
 Panas untuk proses FUSI bisa disediakan dengan meng-konversi energi dari
bertemunya (tabrakan) elektron atau sinar terpusat ke panas; aplikasi dari
12/6/2016
proses ini juga bisa untuk memotong.
 Proses yang sama bisa juga digunakan untuk menyambung.
 Electron Beam Welding ( EBM )
 Laser Beam Welding

Electron Beam Welding ( EBM )
49
 Pistol elektron sekarang melelehkan logam
induk; leleham logam di atas lubang uap
12/6/2016
mengalir memenuhi gap sehingga gap yang
kecil/tipis bisa di-las tanpa logam pengisi (bisa
juga menggunakan logam pengisi).
 HAZ (heat Affected Zone) sangat kecil/tipis.
 Sebagian Besar pengelasan dilakukan pada

kondisi High-Vacuum (EBW-HV) atau
Medium-Vacuum (EBW-MV) tetapi operasi
pada kondisi non-vacuum (EBW-NV) juga
menghasilkan kualitas pengelasan yang baik
untuk berbagai jenis bahan.
Electron Beam Welding ( EBM )
50
 Pistol elektron sekarang melelehkan logam
induk; leleham logam di atas lubang uap
12/6/2016
mengalir memenuhi gap sehingga gap yang
kecil/tipis bisa di-las tanpa logam pengisi (bisa
juga menggunakan logam pengisi).
 HAZ (heat Affected Zone) sangat kecil/tipis.
 Sebagian Besar pengelasan dilakukan pada

kondisi High-Vacuum (EBW-HV) atau
Medium-Vacuum (EBW-MV) tetapi operasi
pada kondisi non-vacuum (EBW-NV) juga
menghasilkan kualitas pengelasan yang baik
untuk berbagai jenis bahan.
Laser Beam Welding ( LBM )
51
 Energi dari Laser bisa digunakan untuk memanaskan permukaan benda kerja (pada mode
konduksi terbatas) atau untuk masuk ke kedalaman penuh suatu titik (depp-penetration
12/6/2016
mode atau keyhole welding).
 Karena pemanasan merupakan fungsi dari emisivity permukaan, laser gelombang pendek
Nd:YAG lebih baik untuk bahan dengan sifat memantul yang tinggi tetapi tidak bisa untuk
gelas atau polimer.
 Laser mempunyai kelebihan, tidak memerlukan kondisi vakum untuk proses pengerjaannya.
52

12/6/2016
Laser Beam Welding ( LBM )
Thermal Welding 53
 Panas yang diperlukan untuk proses fusi bisa di dapat dari sumber panas kimiawi.
 GAS WELDING, yang paling banyak digunakan adalah Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW).
12/6/2016
Panas dihasilkan dari pembakaran Acetylene (C2H2) dengan qxygen  Oxyacetylene
Gas Welding (OAW).
 Ke dua gs disimpan dalam tabung tekanan tinggi. Setelah timbul pembakaran, suhu
pada api yang timbul + 3400o C.
Thermal Welding 54
12/6/2016
55

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Thermal Welding
Thermal Welding 56
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Thermal Welding 57
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Neutral
Oxydizing
Carburizing
Thermal Welding 58
12/6/2016
Propane gas jet and nozzle design
Ocyacetylene gas jet and nozzle

design

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Metalurgi pengelasan

• Changes in Structure Resulting

Introductory Welding Metallurgy,

Introductory Welding Metallurgy,

Introductory Welding Metallurgy,

Introductory Welding Metallurgy,

Introductory Welding Metallurgy,

Cooling rate T - Tbase)2

• Carbon equivalent (CE) measures ability to form

Why Post-Weld Heat Treat?

Knife-Line Attack in the HAZ

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

• Methods of sheet metal processes such as stretching,

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

1) Singly curved parts

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

Blanking Stretching Deep drawing

Coining Stamping Ironing

Folding Bending Roll forming of sheet Wiping down a flange

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

• The principal stresses are by convention called σ1, σ2 and

Principal stresses on an element in

• Hydrostatic stresses cannot

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

• In sheet deformation processes • In bulk deformation processes

• Principal stresses σ1 and σ2

• The sheet is free to contact (not

• Since the stress are effectively

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

• Deformation (strain) often

• σ3 is finite, preventing deformation

Example: the extrusion of a thin sheet

Plane strain condition

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

Forming equipments include

1) Forming presses www.ptu.tu-darmstadt.de/.../ictmp/img00011.gif

Equipments in sheet metal forming process

• Using mechanical or hydraulic presses.

- quick - acting , short stroke.

Hydraulic deep drawing press

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

1) Single - action press

2) Double - action press

3) Triple - action press

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

Press brake – single action

• A single action press with a very long

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

• Punch A convex tool for making

Punches and dies

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

Schematic diagram of a die set

A die set is composed of pilot

• Progressive forming • Shearing and blanking

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

Example: progressive blanking

• The strip is fed from left to right.

Metal sheet used in

• Optimise the material usage.

• Using a pad of rubber or polyurethane

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

Lower fluid Draw

Stamp hydroforming machine setup