Quasi-static approximations of Maxwell equations

G. Rubinacci, F. Villone

March 2002

1. General considerations

We focus our attention on the “curl” type Maxwell equations in the frequency domain:
∇ × E = − jωB (1)
∇ × H = J + jωD (2)
where standard symbols have been used: E(x) is the electric field, B(x) the magnetic flux density,
H(x) the magnetic field, D(x) the electric displacement, J(x) the current density, and x is the spatial
coordinate.
To close the problem, the “div” type equations must be added, together with suitable constitutive
relations, and boundary conditions, e.g. related to external sources (currents or charges). We assume
to deal with linear materials, although this assumption is not strictly necessary, as we will discuss in
the following, so that:
D = ε ( x )E
B = µ (x)H (3)
J = σ ( x )E

Now, we introduce some reference quantities E, B, H, D, J, L for the electromagnetic fields and for
the spatial coordinate x, so that:
x = L ξ
E(x) = E e(ξ )

B(x) = B b(ξ ) (4)

 H ( x ) = H h (ξ )
D(x) = D d(ξ )

J (x) = J j(ξ )

The reference quantities are chosen so that the non-dimensional quantities ξ, e, b, h, d, j are of
order 1. This can be achieved by choosing as reference quantities the root mean square values of the
related electromagnetic quantity, and supposing that the electromagnetic fields cannot be very
different from such mean values. The length L will be a typical length of the system considered. Of
course, it may be necessary to subdivide the original solution domain in sub-domains over which
the electromagnetic quantities are not dramatically varying. What we are going to say will be then
valid for one of such sub-domains.

We notice immediately that, due to (3), the quantities D, J, H depend on E, B, since for instance:
d = ε norm (ξ ) e
D = ε ( x )E ⇒  (5)
 D = ε ref E
where εref is a (constant) reference value for the electric permittivity such that the normalized value
εnorm = ε/εref is of order 1. One possible choice could be εref = ε0 (vacuum permittivity), so that εnorm

1
= εr (relative permittivity), if εr is of order 1. Notice that in fact it is not necessary that the
constitutive relation is linear; what we require is that it is possible to define εref that relates D and E,
such that d is of order 1 when e is of order 1.
Similarly, we have:
b = µ norm (ξ ) h
B = µ (x)H ⇒  (6)
 B = µ ref H
 j = σ norm (ξ ) e
J = σ ( x )E ⇒  (7)
 J = σ ref E

Rewriting (1) in view of (4) we have:

B (8)
∇ ξ × e = − jω Lb
E

We define:
 L
τ em =
 c
 B (9)
α = c
 E
 1
c =
 ε ref µ ref
i.e. c is the speed of electromagnetic waves in the material under consideration, τem is the time
needed to electromagnetic waves to travel the typical length L, α is linked to the squared ratio of
magnetic and electric energies:
2
B
B 1
1
V ∫
V
2
B dV ∫
V 2 µ ref
dV
α =c = =
E ε ref µ ref 1 (10)
∫
1 2
∫ ε ref E dV
2
E dV
V V V 2

With these definitions, (8) becomes

∇ ξ × e = − jω τ em α b (11)

Using similar arguments on (2) we have:

LJ D (12)
∇ξ × h = j + jω L d
H H
that becomes, using (5)-(7):
E E (13)
∇ ξ × h = L µ ref σ ref j + jω L µ ref ε ref d
B B

Now, we introduce two well-known characteristic electromagnetic times:

τ m = µ ref σ ref L2

 ε ref (14)
τ e =
 σ ref

2
The time τe is the electric charge diffusion time, i.e. the characteristic time with which the unpaired
electric charge decays in a conductor. The time τm is the current density diffusion time, i.e. the
characteristic time with which the current density (and hence the magnetic field) penetrates in a
conductor.

It is easily seen that it results:

2
τ em =τm τe (15)
and that
τ m τ em (16)
L µ ref σ ref c = =
τ em τ e
so that (12) becomes:
τm 1 1 (17a)
∇ξ × h = j + jω τ em d
τ em α α
or
τ em 1 1 (17b)
∇ξ × h = j + jω τ em d
τe α α

In the end, the equations to be considered are (11) and (17) (a or b).

We want to answer to the following question: “Which are the equations to be solved in the low
frequency limit?”, where “low frequency” means obviously:
ω τ em << 1 (18a)
We can quantify the “much smaller” in (18a), deciding a threshold value k<1 such that (18a) means
in fact:
ω τ em < k (18b)
A possible choice could be, for instance, k = 0.1.

The answer about the equations to be solved in the low frequency limit is not trivial, because the
term ωτem appears together with other terms like α and the other electromagnetic times. Moreover,
the term α in general varies with frequency; its behaviour depends also on the particular geometry
of the region under study. We have three possibilities, corresponding to the fact that the order of
magnitude of α can vary so that one of the terms in which it is present is of order 1:
1 (19a)
Case 1: α ≈
ω τ em
(19b)
Case 2: α ≈ ω τ em
τ τ (19c)
Case 3: α ≈ m = em
τ em τe
where”≈” stands for “of the order of”. To check the occurrence of one of such cases, it is sufficient
to examine α in the limit ωτem → 0, i.e. in the static limit. In case 1, we have that the energy related
to the electric field goes to zero, that means that current flows in perfect conductors. In case 2, the
energy related to the magnetic field goes to zero, that means that no current is present, that is the
electric field is present in some perfect insulators. In case 3 no perfect materials are present; this is
evidently the most realistic situation. In this last case α can well be much greater or lower than 1,
depending on the various situations; what we are saying is that the order of magnitude of α does not
scale with frequency. We concentrate on the latter case.

3
However, we must further distinguish three possibilities, that are depicted schematically in the two
figures. Notice that τem is always in between τe and τm, thanks to (15).

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
CASE A: << << ⇒ <k , <k
τe τ em τm τe τ em τ em τm

Admissible ω

1 1 1
τe τ em τm

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
CASE B: << << ⇒ <k , <k
τm τ em τe τm τ em τ em τe

Admissible ω

1 1 1
τm τ em τe

1 1 1
CASE C: ≈ ≈
τm τ em τe

Admissible ω

1 1 1
≈ ≈
τm τ em τe

4
Let us recall the equations to be solved:
∇ ξ × e = − jω τ em α b (20)
τ em 1 1 (21)
∇ξ × h = j + jω τ em d
τe α α
where, thanks to (19c):
ω α τ em ≈ ω τ m (22)
and
1 (23)
ω τ em ≈ ω τe
α

CASE A

In case A, it results, from (19c), that α<<1; this means that the energy of the electric field is
dominant over the energy of the magnetic field. Moreover, we have:
ω τ m < k ω τ em < k 2 (24)
We decide to neglect the terms of order k2, so that the right hand side of (39) is negligible:
∇ξ × e ≅ 0 (25)

We can distinguish various different possibilities.

1
“Relatively high frequencies”, i.e. ω ≈
τe
In this case also the second term in the right hand side of (21) is of order 1, so that the equations to
be solved are:
∇ × E = 0 (26)

∇ × H = J + j ω D
that are the ElectroQuasiStatic equations (EQS). If an equivalent circuit is looked for, evidently in
this case we will obtain a number of capacitors and resistors.

1
“Extremely low frequencies”, i.e. ω ≈ k 2 (note the k2)
τe
In this case we have:
ω τe ≈ k 2 (27)
so that, neglecting k2, we have:
τ em 1 (28)
∇ξ × h ≅ j
τe α
and the equations to be solved are:
∇ × E = 0 (29)

∇ × H = J
that are the equations of the Quasi Stationary Conduction (QSC).
If an equivalent circuit is looked for, evidently in this case we will obtain a number of resistors
alone.

5
 1
“Low frequencies”, i.e. ω ≈ k
τe
In this case we have:
ω τe ≈ k (30)
This situation is borderline. Indeed, if we decide to neglect also terms of the order of k, then we
have QSC again; if we retain such terms we have EQS again.

CASE B

In case B, it results, from (19c), that α>>1; this means that the energy of the magnetic field is
dominant over the energy of the electric field. Moreover, we have:
ω τ e < k ω τ em < k 2 (31)
2
and hence, neglecting terms of order k , (21) becomes:
τ 1 (32)
∇ ξ × h ≅ em j
τe α
In other words, the displacement current is negligible.

Hence, we can distinguish various different possibilities.

1
“Relatively high frequencies”, i.e. ω ≈
τm
In this case the right hand side of (20) is of order 1, so that the equations to be solved are:
∇ × E = − j ω B (33)

∇ × H = J
that are the MagnetoQuasiStatic equations (MQS).
If an equivalent circuit is looked for, evidently in this case we will obtain a number of inductors and
resistors.

1
“Extremely low frequencies”, i.e. ω ≈ k 2 (note the k2)
τm
In this case we have:
ω τm ≈ k 2 (34)
so that, neglecting k2, we have from (20):
∇ξ × e ≅ 0 (35)
so that the limiting equations are:
∇ × E = 0 (36)

∇ × H = J
that are the equations of the Quasi Stationary Conduction (QSC).
If an equivalent circuit is looked for, evidently in this case we will obtain a number of resistors.

1
“Low frequencies”, i.e. ω ≈ k
τm
In this case we have:

6
 ω τm ≈ k (37)
This situation is borderline. Indeed, if we decide to neglect also terms of the order of k, then we
have QSC again; if we retain such terms we have MQS again.

CASE C

In case C, it results, from (19c), that α≈1; this means that the energy of the magnetic field is of the
same order of magnitude of the energy of the electric field. Moreover, we have:
ω τ e ≈ ω τ em ≈ ω τ m (38)
i.e. the right hand side of (20) and the second term of the right hand side of (21) are of the same
order.
We have two possibilities (remember (18)):

1
“Extremely low frequencies”, i.e. ω ≈ k 2 (note the k2)
τm
In this case we have:
ω τm ≈ ω τe ≈ k 2 (39)
and hence the two terms are both negligible, and the situation is QSC.

1
“Low frequencies”, i.e. ω ≈ k
τm
In this case we have:
ω τe ≈ ω τm ≈ k (40)
If we decide to neglect also terms of the order of k, then we have QSC again. Conversely, if we
retain such terms we have:
∇ × E = − j ω B (41)

∇ × H = J + j ω D
that are the full Maxwell equations, but always in the low frequency limit (18). This implies that
propagation may be still negligible, so that we can call this situation as ElectroMagnetic Quasi
Static (EMQS).
If an equivalent circuit is looked for, evidently in this case we will obtain a number of capacitors,
inductors and resistors.

7
 log(τm/τem) =
log(τem/τe)
CASE B:
MQS
CASE B:
-log(k)
τe QSC
=k
τ em
CASE C: log(k) log(ωτe
QSC 2 log(k) log(k)/2

τm CASE C: log(k) ωτ m = k
=k
τ em EMQS
CASE A: ωτ m = k 2
QSC
CASE A:
EQS ωτ em = k

ωτ e = k 2
ωτ e = k

8
2. An example of application

We consider a test case depicted in Fig. 1: a linear material with uniform σ, µ and ε between two
perfectly conducting plane electrodes, fed with a sinusoidal voltage generator V g with angular
frequency ω at one end. A one-port element is connected at the other end.

Fig. 1. The test case (from [1]).

Ignoring fringing effects, the electromagnetic fields are as follows:

E = E ( z )ˆi x , D = D ( z ) î x , J = J ( z )ˆi x (42)
H = H ( z )ˆi , B = B ( z )ˆi
y y

where E ( z ) and H ( z ) are suitable phasors depending on the spatial coordinate z. The time domain
behaviour of the various quantities can be recovered as, for instance, E ( z , t ) = Im(E ( z ) )e jωt .

The equations to be solved become:

dE (43a)
= − jω B
dz
dH (43b)
− = J + jω D
dz
with the following constitutive equations :
D =ε E
(44)
B=µ H
J =σ E
The boundary conditions are:

9
 Vg
E ( z = −l ) = − (45a)
a
Ve (45b)
E ( z = 0) = −
a
Ie (45c)
H ( z = 0) =
w
Ig (45d)
H ( z = −l ) =
w
where Ve, Ie are the voltage and the current at the end of the plate, and Vg and Ig are the voltage and
the current at the generator. Assuming a sinusoidal voltage generator and that at the end an open
circuit is connected, then Vg is known and Ie=0, while Ve and Ig are to be determined.

The solution of the “full” equations (43a) can be done as follows. Due to the symmetry of the
electromagnetic field, a voltage between the plates and a current flowing into the plates can be
defined at each z coordinate as follows:
V ( z ) = −a E ( z ) (46a)
(46b)
I ( z) = H ( z) w
Using (46) and combining (43) and (44) we obtain the following equations:
dV (47a)
= − jωLI
dz
dI (47b)
= −(G + jωωCV
dz
where
σw εw µa (48)
G= ,C= , L=
a a w
These are the standard transmission line equations, to be solved with the following boundary
conditions:
V (−l ) = V g (49a)
(49b)
I (0) = 0
With standard manipulations we get:
d 2V (50)
− jωωL( + jωωC V = 0
dz 2
and hence
V = V+ e − jββ + V− e jββ (51a)
1
I = (V+ e − jββ − V− e jββ ) (51b)
Z0
with
1
β = ω 2 LC − jωLG = ω 2 µε − jωσµ = ω µε 1 − j , Re β > 0 (52)
ωτ e
ωL
Z0 =
β
Applying the boundary conditions we obtain:
(e − jββ + e jββ ) (53a)
V (z) = Vg jββ
(e + e − jββ )

10
 Vg ( e − jβz − e jβz )
I (z) = (53b)
Z 0 ( e jβl + e − jβl )

Now, we want to study the limiting equations in the three cases mentioned above.

1 1 1
CASE A: << <<
τe τ em τm
In this case, assuming a relatively high frequency, we have that the equations to be solved are the
EQS ones, obtained neglecting the right hand side of (43a):
dE (54a)
=0
dz
dH (54b)
− = J + jω D
dz
From (54a) we have that
E ( z ) = E0 (55)
i.e. the electric field is independent of z, while from (54b) it results:

dH (56)
− = (σ + jωε )E0 ⇒ H ( z ) = − z (σ + jωε )E0
dz
In order to find out an equivalent circuit, we observe that voltage and are:
V g = −aE 0 = Ve (57a)
(57b)
I g = H ( z = −l ) w = l w (σ + jωε )E0
Finally, the ratio between current and voltage is:
I g l w (σ + jωε ) l w σ l wε (58)
Y&g = = = + jω = G l + jωC l
Vg a a a
where G and C are the per unit length conductance and the capacitance of the system as defined by
(48). Hence, the equivalent circuit is depicted in Fig.2.

Ig Ie = 0

Vg jω C l Gl Ve

Fig. 2

In Fig. 3 we report the behaviours of the frequency response of the circuit of Fig. 2, in terms of
current, as compared with the true response given by (53b) with z=-l. The parameters used are:
a=1cm, w=10cm, l=1m, ε=ε0, µ=µ0. The conductivity σ has been varied in order to get different
ratio τem/τe. We can observe that when it results τem/τe << 1 then the equivalent circuit of fig. 2
provides the correct answer, consistently with the condition assumed to derive this model.

11
 τem /τe =0.10
0.015
abs(Yg ) [Ω -1 ]

0.01
full
RC
0.005

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5

1.5
angle(Yg ) [rad]

0.5
full
RC
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
ω τem

(a)

τem /τe =1.00

0.032
full
RC
abs(Yg ) [Ω -1 ]

0.03

0.028

0.026
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5

0.5

0.4
angle(Yg ) [rad]

0.3

0.2

0.1 full
RC
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
ω τem

(b)

12
 τem /τe =10.00
0.35
full
0.3 RC

abs(Yg ) [Ω -1 ]
0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5

0.2

0
angle(Yg ) [rad]

-0.2 full
RC
-0.4

-0.6

-0.8
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
ω τem

(c)

Fig. 3: Frequency responses

1 1 1
CASE B: << <<
τm τ em τe

In this case, assuming a relatively high frequency, we have that the equations to be solved are the
MQS ones, obtained neglecting the displacement current:
dE (59a)
= − j ωB
dz
dH (59b)
− =J
dz
Combining equations (59) with the constitutive relations, we get
d 2H (60)
2
− γ 2H = 0
dz
where
(1 + j ) 2 (61)
γ = , δ =
δ ωµσ
and δ is the penetration depth.
The solution of (60) can be expressed as:
H(z) = H − e −γz + H + e γz ⇒ I (z) = w(H − e −γz + H + e γz ) (62)

13
and, from (59b):
γ
E (z) =
σ
( H − e −γz − H + e γz ) ⇒ V (z) = − a (H − e −γz − H + e γz )
γ
σ
(63)

The complex constants H+, H- must be determined with the boundary conditions.

In order to get an equivalent circuit, we find out the impedance matrix Z of the two-port element
seen at the two ends. We define:
V ( − l) (64a)
Z&11 =
I ( − l) I( 0 )=0
V( 0 )
Z& 21 = (64b)
I ( − l) I( 0 )=0
where Z22=Z11 for symmetry reasons and Z12=Z21 for reciprocity.
In order to find such elements, we impose I(-l) = Ig and I(0)=0, and evaluate the voltage at the two
ends. We have:
Ig 1 (65)
H− = − H + =
w e γl − e −γl
and hence
e− γz − e γz (66a)
I (z) = I g γl − γl
e −e
aγ e− γz + e γz (66b)
V (z) = I g
wσ e− γl − e γl
From (66b) it results:
aγ eγl + e −γl (67)
Z&11 = − γl γl
σw e − e
aγ 2 (68)
Z& 21 = − γl γl
σw e − e
Now, we develop (68) in the limit γl << 1, using the following Taylor series expansions:
e x + e − x = 2 + x 2 + O( x 4 ) (69)
e x − e − x = 2 x + O( x 3 )
Hence, we have:
aγ 2 + γ 2 l 2 a al γ 2 a µa 1 L (70)
&
Z11 ≅ = + = + jω l= + jω l
σw 2γ l σwl 2σw σwl 2w Gl 2
according to definitions (48), and
aγ 2 a 1 (70)
Z& 21 ≅ = =
σw 2γ l σwl G l
In the end, the equivalent circuit is the tee one depicted in Fig. 4.

I (−l ) I ( 0)

jω L l/2 jω L l/2
V (−l ) Gl V ( 0)

Fig. 4

14
Of course, in order to make more valid the approximation used to get this equivalent circuit, one
could split the original system into a number of pieces of smaller length, over which the
approximation γl << 1 is more valid. The result would be a cascade of equivalent circuits as the
one of fig. 4. In Fig. 5 we illustrate the result obtained splitting the original system in two.

I ( 0)
I (−l )

jω L l/4 jω L l/4 jω L l/4

V (−l ) jω L l/4 V ( 0)
G l /2 G l /2

Fig. 5

In Fig. 6 we report the behaviours of the frequency response of the circuit of Fig. 4 and 5 in terms
of current, as compared with the true response given by (53b) with z=-l. The parameters used are
the same as before. We can observe that when it results τem/τe >> 1 then the equivalent circuit of fig.
5 provides the correct answer, consistently with the condition assumed to derive this model.
We further observe that neither this circuit nor the RC circuit of Fig. 2 can reproduce correctly the
true response of the circuit when τem/τe = 1, even for small values of ωτem.

τem /τe =0.10

0.015
full
RL
abs(Yg ) [Ω -1 ]

0.01 2 RL

0.005

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5

1.5
full
1 RL
angle(Yg ) [rad]

2 RL
0.5

-0.5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
ω τem

(a)

15
 τem /τe =1.00
0.032
full
0.03 RL

abs(Yg ) [Ω -1 ]
2 RL
0.028

0.026

0.024
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5

0.4
full
0.2 RL
angle(Yg ) [rad]

2 RL
0

-0.2

-0.4
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
ω τem

(b)

τem /τe =10.00

0.3
full
0.25 RL
abs(Yg ) [Ω -1 ]

2 RL
0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5

0
full
RL
angle(Yg ) [rad]

-0.5 2 RL

-1

-1.5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
ω τem

(c)

Fig. 6: frequency responces

16
 1 1 1
CASE C: ≈ ≈
τ m τ em τ e

In this case, the equations to be solved are the full equations (43), whose solution has already been
determined. However, we are always in the case in which ωτem.<<1 ⇒ β l<<1, so that we can
repeat on the solution (53) all the approximations applied in the previous case, and get the tee
equivalent circuit of Fig.7.

I (−l ) jω L l/2 jω L l/2 I ( 0)

V (−l ) jω C l Gl V ( 0)

Fig. 7

Of course, also in this case we could split the system in two and get the cascade of two circuits like
the one depicted in Fig. 7.

In Fig. 8 we report the behaviours of the frequency response of the circuit obtained with two tee
cells, as compared with the true response given by (53b) with z=-l, and the results obtained with the
previous equivalent circuits. The geometrical parameters used are the same as before. We can
observe that this circuit is able to reproduce correctly the results also when it results τem/τe = 1, as
expected.

17
 τem /τe =0.10
0.015
full
RC

abs(Yg ) [Ω -1 ]
0.01 RL2
RLC2

0.005

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5

1.5

1 full
angle(Yg ) [rad]

RC
0.5 RL2
RLC2
0

-0.5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
ω τem

(a)

τem /τe =1.00

0.032
full
0.03 RC
abs(Yg ) [Ω -1 ]

RL2
0.028 RLC2

0.026

0.024
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5

0.6
full
0.4 RC
angle(Yg ) [rad]

RL2
RLC2
0.2

-0.2
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
ω τem

(b)

18
 τem /τe =3.00
0.09

0.085

abs(Yg ) [Ω -1 ]
0.08

0.075 full
RC
0.07 RL2
RLC2
0.065
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5

0.2

0
angle(Yg ) [rad]

-0.2 full
RC
-0.4 RL2
RLC2
-0.6
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
ω τem

(c)

τem /τe =10.00

0.35
full
0.3 RC
abs(Yg ) [Ω -1 ]

RL2
0.25
RLC2
0.2

0.15

0.1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5

0.5

full
angle(Yg ) [rad]

0 RC
RL2
RLC2
-0.5

-1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
ω τem

(d)
Fig. 8: frequency responses

[1] H. A. Haus, J. R. Melcher, Electromagnetic fields and energy, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, 1989.
[2] L. De Menna, G. Miano, Unpublished

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