ADVANCED ELECTRONICS

WAVE SHAPING & GENERATING CIRCUITS

WAVE SHAPING CIRCUIT

• An ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT that are commonly

employed in generating waveforms of various
shapes for control and interfacing

• Applications such as peak signal detectors,

precision rectifiers, comparator circuits, limiters,
and others
 5.5 Diode Clippers
1
circuits are identical, as shown in Fig. 5.25(c), diode D2 in Fig. 5.25(b) remains on for a longer time than
diode D1 in Fig. 5.25(a). For this reason, the clipper of Fig. 5.25(a) is preferable to that of Fig. 5.25(b).
Diode D1 in Fig. 5.25(d) will conduct most of the time and be off for the portion of the positive half-
cycle during which the instantaneous input voltage vS is higher than the battery voltage E1 whereas A clipper
diode is a limiting circuit; it is basically an extension of the half-wave rectifier. The output of a clipper

A. CLIPPER CIRCUIT
D2 will remain on for a short time. The output waveforms for the clippers of Fig. 5.25[(d) and (e)] circuit looks as if a portion of the output signal was cut off (clipped). Although the input voltage can have
are iden-
any waveform, we will assume that the input voltage is sinusoidal, vS ! Vm sin !t, in order to describe the
tical, as shown in Fig. 5.25(f).
output voltage. Clippers can be classified into two types: parallel clippers and series clippers. The diode
The circuits of Fig. 5.25[(a) and (d)] (with E1 reversed and renamed as E2 ) can be combined to form
can be connected either in series or in parallel with the load.
a two-level clipper, as shown in Fig. 5.25(g). The positive and negative voltages are limited to E1 and
E2, respectively, as shown in Fig. 5.25(h). One battery terminal of the clippers in Fig. 5.25 is common
to the ground. 5.5.1 Parallel Clippers
A clipper is a limiting circuit; it is basically an extension of the half- A clipper in which the diode is connected across the output terminals is known as a parallel clipper
5.5.2 Series Clippers
wave rectifier. The output of a clipper circuit looks as if a portion of the because the diode will be in parallel (or shunt) with the load. In a shunt connection, elements are connected
in parallel such that each element carries a different current. Some examples of parallel clipper circuits and
A clipper in which the diode forms a series circuit with the output terminals is known as a series clipper. their corresponding output waveforms are shown in Fig. 5.25. The resistance R limits the diode current
output
The current-limiting signal
resistance was
R can be used cut
as a load, off
as shown (clipped).
in Fig. 5.26(a). If the direction of the bat-
tery is reversed, the negative part of the sine wave is clipped as shown in Fig. 5.26(b). If the direction of
when the diode conducts. In determining the output waveform of a clipper, it is important to keep in mind
that a diode will conduct only if the anode voltage is higher than the cathode voltage.

E1 vO vO
D1 on vS
A B
+ vO Vm − E1 D1 on
+ + − D1 + D2 off
+ R + + E1
0 D2 vO
vS D1
R vO wt R
−E1 vS vO vS vO 0
E1 + +
p 2p 3p q
− − vS E1 E1 Vm
− − − − − − D1 off
D1 off
D2 on
(a)
(a) (b) (c)

E1 vO
B A D1 on vO D1 off
E1 + Vm vO
+ − + + D2 on vO
D1 Vm + R + + +
D2 E1
vS vO D1 Vm
R E1 R
0 vS + vO vS + vO 0
− wt p 2p 3p q
− E1 E1
D1 off − − − − − − D1 on
vS vS
D2 off
(b)
(f)
(d) (e)
E1 vO
vO
A B D1 off vS D1 on
+ − + D2 off vS
D1 +
+ R
0 E1 vO
vS vO wt D1 D2
R −E1
vS + − vO 0
Vm p 2p 3p q
− E1 E2 Vm
−(E1 + Vm) − − + E2
vO D1 on − D1 off
D2 on
(c)
(g) (h)

FIGURE 5.26 Diode series clipper circuits

FIGURE 5.25 Diode parallel clipper circuits
5.6.1 Fixed-Shift Clampers

B. CLAMPER CIRCUITS
As shown in Fig. 5.29, a fixed-shift clamper shifts the output voltage by an amount !Vm with respect to
the zero level. Let us consider the clamping circuit in Fig. 5.29(a). As soon67722_05_ch05b_p264-298.qxd
as the input voltage vS is
switched on, diode D1 will conduct during the first positive quarter-cycle of the input voltage, and the
capacitor C will be charged almost instantaneously to the peak input voltage Vm. But the output voltage
2/19/10 5:04 PM Page 286

will be zero, vO ! 0. The circuit will reach a steady-state condition with a voltage of Vm across the capac-
A clamping circuit simply shifts the output waveform to a different DC
itor C, as depicted in Fig. 5.29(a). Therefore, after the first quarter-cycle, the capacitor voltage will be
vC " Vm, and the output voltage vO will become
level. Thus, it is often known as pa level shifter. The shapes of the input
v = v - v = v - V = V sin vt - V = V (sin vt - 1) for vt Ú
O S C S m m m m
2
and output waveforms are identical;
as shown in Fig. 5.29(b).
286 onlyMicroelectronic
the DC level is shifted.
Circuits: The
Analysis and Design
Let us assume that the input voltage v falls below the initial peak voltage of V (say, 20 V) to a
input
new peak voltage
value of V can
(say, 10 V). This
m1 have
situation any
is shown in
S
shape.
Fig. 5.29(c). The diode voltage is now
m

vO " vS # vC " 10 sin !t # 20, which is negative for all !t, and the diode becomes reverse biased.

vO p 3p 5p 7p D1
Vm p 2p 3p
2 2 2 2
+ − 0
+ 67722_05_ch05b_p264-298.qxd
+ + 2/19/10 5:04 qPM
= wt
Page 286+ + + +
vC D1 on
vS = Vm sin q vD D1 vO −Vm
vp +
− − − −2Vm vS = Vm sin q vC1 C1 = C Vm
−
(a) Circuit (b) Output voltage − − −
vO
Vm 286 Microelectronic Circuits: Analysis and Design
Vm + FIG
20 V
+ − + −
+ + + vC2 +
+ vC vC C2 = C V
vS = Vm sin q
−
~ vO D1 vS vO R D1
− m
− − − D1 − −
(c) Circuit for Vm1 < Vm (d) Circuit with changing
+ + input voltage + +
D2
vp +
vS = Vm sin q vC1 C1 = C Vm
-Vm vO −
−

5.7.2
FIGURE Voltage Triplers
doubler circuit and Qu
+
+ + −
2Vm
− −
vO
vC
+ 5.35 Full-wave voltage
vS = Vm sin q R D1 vO Vm
D1 on
− vC2 +
− C2 = C V
0
− m
p
2
p 3p
2
2p 5p
2
3p
−
q = wt
Two
−
half-wave voltage doublers can be cascaded to deve
(e) Circuit (f) Output voltage
D2
as shown in Fig. 5.36(a). Note that resistances, which are
FIGURE 5.29 Fixed-shift clamping circuit be connected so that the circuit can cope with a changing
5.7.2 Voltage Triplers and
cycleQuadruplers
(0 ! !t ! " ⁄ 2) of input voltage vS, capacitor C1 w
quarter-cycle (" ! !t ! 3" ⁄ 2), capacitor C2 will be cha
 SUPER DIODE Integrated Analog Circuits and Applications 1081

Superdiode
+ + vD −
ii +
vd A
+
− − D1
vO1
+
vS ~ −
− vO
iL +

vO vO = vS
RL

−
0
vS

(a) Superdiode (b) Transfer characteristic

FIGURE 16.1 Superdiode

2.1 Most Positive Signal Detectors

ue of the most positive of a number of input signals can be detected by the circuit shown in Fig. 16.2.
uts to the unity follower are the input signals to be detected. The diode that has the highest positive
 16.2.2 Precision Peak Voltage Detectors
POSITIVE SIGNAL DETECTOR
A precision peak voltage detector is used in many applications, such as monitoring the peak temperat
of a day (or month) or initiating the action of a device if the signal exceeds a reference value. The circ
of Fig. 16.3 will detect the peak input voltage. The superdiode circuit allows the capacitor to charge to

v1
D1
v2 +
D2
v3 Ao = ∞
D3 +
− FIGURE 16.2 Positive signal detector
vO
IDC
−
22_16_ch16_p1079-1176.qxd 2/19/10 6:08 PM Page 1082

PRECISION PEAK VOLTAGE

1082
DETECTORS
Microelectronic Circuits: Analysis and Design

+
ii
+ D1 vS, vO
+ +
vd
+ A1
vO
vS ~ −
− − vd A2
− +
C R − vS
vO
vd ≈ 0
ii ≈ 0 −
0
t
(a) Circuit diagram (b) Waveforms for voltages

FIGURE 16.3 Precision peak voltage detector

peak input signal. The unity follower offers a high resistance to the capacitor and supplies the capacitor
voltage to the output without discharging any charge of the capacitor. Resistance R, when connected, will
allow the capacitor to discharge slowly so that the circuit can adjust to a lower input voltage. Otherwise,
the capacitor will maintain its previous higher voltage and will not indicate the correct peak voltage.

16.2.3 Precision Half-Wave Rectifiers

A diode requires a minimum voltage, typically 0.7 V, to conduct. In a single-phase half-wave rectifier, one
A diode requires a minimum voltage, typically 0.7 V, to conduct. In a single-phase half-wave rectifier, one
diode conducts. If the input voltage is less than 0.7 V, the output of the rectifier will be zero. Therefore, diode

PRECISION HALF-WAVE
rectifiers are not suitable for rectification of low voltage. An op-amp circuit with two diodes, as shown in
Fig. 16.4(a), can rectify a very small voltage in the range of microvolts. The circuit operation can be divided

RECTIFIERS
into two intervals: interval 1 and interval 2. We will consider the circuit operation with a sinusoidal input
voltage vS ! Vm sin !t.

if RF = R1

D2 vS
Vm
R3 = R1 0
R1
wt
− − D1 R2 = R1 vO2
iS
vd A = ∞ −
o + + 0
+ + wt
+ Ao = ∞ −Vm
vS ~ +
− vO1 vO2 + vO
(R1 || R3) vO Vm
(R2 || R3) 0
p 2p wt
− − −

(a) Circuit (b) Waveforms

FIGURE 16.4 Precision half-wave rectifier

67722_16_ch16_p1079-1176.qxd 2/19/10 6:08 PM Page 1084

PRECISION FULL-WAVE
RECTIFIER
1084 Microelectronic Circuits: Analysis and Design

R4

RF R3
vS
Vm

R1 D2 0
wt
−
R2 vO2
A1 −
+ D1
+ 0
wt
+ + A2 −Vm
vS ~ +
− vO1 vO2 + vO
vO Vm
Rx = (R1 || RF)
Ry = (R2 || R3 || R4) 0
− p 2p wt
− −
(a) Circuit (b) Waveforms

FIGURE 16.6 Precision full-wave rectifier

16.2.4 Precision Full-Wave Rectifiers

The half-wave rectifier of Fig. 16.5(a) can be modified to operate as a precision full-wave rectifier if we
use the following algebraic relationship:
vO = 2vS - vS = vS (for the positive interval of the input voltage)
67722_16_ch16_p1079-1176.qxd 2/19/10 6:08 PM Page 1085

PRECISION CLAMPING CIRCUIT Integrated Analog Circuits and Applications 1085

vS

Vm Vref = 0
R
0
wt
C
B A vC
−
− vC + − D1
vd A1 Vm
+ + + +
vS ~ + 0
− + vO1 vO vO wt
Vref 2Vm
− − − Vm
(a) Circuit diagram 0
p 2p 3p wt
R (b) Waveforms

+ C
vO = Vm(1 + sin wt) + Vref
Ad −
− D1
_ vd A2 +
+ +
+ +
+ A3
vS ~ +
− + vO1 vO2 −
Vref vO = vO2
−
− − −

(c) Buffered circuit diagram

FIGURE 16.7 Precision clamping circuit

16.2.5 Precision Clamping Circuits

output voltage follows the input voltage with a change in polarity. The transfer characteristic is shown in
Fig. 16.8(b). If the direction of the diode is reversed, as shown in Fig. 16.9(a), the positive output voltage
is limited to VD, as shown by the transfer characteristic in Fig. 16.9(b).
FIXED VOLTAGE LIMITERS 67722_16_ch16_p1079-1176.qxd 2/19/10 6:08 PM Page 1087

16.2.7 Adjustable Voltage Limiters

Output voltage can be limited to an adjustable level by choosing resistors with
Output voltage can be limited to an adjustable level by choosing resistors with appropriate values. A circuit
appropriate
that values.
limits the negative A circuit
output voltage is shownthat
in Fig.limits
16.10(a).the
If thenegative output
output is positive, diodevoltage
D1 is reverse Integrate
biased, and the circuit operates as an inverting amplifier. If the output voltage is negative, its transfer

D1
vO D1

RF
RF
R1 RF R1
− − Slope = −
R1 −
is vd −
A=∞ is vd
+ 0 A = ∞v
+ + + S +
+ + −V
vS ~
vS ~ D +
− vO vO
Rx = (R1 || RF) Rx = (R1 || RF)
− −
(a) Circuit (b) Transfer characteristic (b) Tr
(a) Circuit

FIGURE 16.8 Negative voltage limiter FIGURE 16.9 Positive voltage limiter

+VA

R2
iD
Vx
ch16_p1079-1176.qxd 2/19/10 6:08 PM Page 1093

ZENER VOLTAGE LIMITER

Integrated Analog Circuits and Applications

vO
+ +
(VD + VZ1)
vd A=∞
+ − +
vS − VZ2
−
vO 0 vS
R
VZ1 Slope = 1 + F
Vx R1
R1 RF
− − (VD + VZ2)

(a) Circuit (b) Transfer characteristic

FIGURE 16.14 Output voltage–clamping circuit with zener diodes

16.2.8 Zener Voltage Limiters

The output can be limited by adding two zener diodes across the output terminals of a noninverting or an
inverting amplifier. An arrangement for a noninverting amplifier circuit is shown in Fig. 16.14(a). Zener
diodes limit the output voltage between !(VZ2 " VD) and (VZ1 " VD), where VD is the voltage drop of
a zener diode in the forward direction. Without zener action, the output voltage can be found by using
Eq. (3.18) for the noninverting amplifier:
 ZENER HARD LIMITER
Integrated Analog Circuits and Applications

VZ1 VZ2 vO

R1 VO(max) = (VD + VZ1)

−
A=∞
+ + vS
vS +
VO(min) = − (VO + VZ2)
− vO
Rx
Finite slope
−

(a) Circuit (b) Transfer characteristic

FIGURE 16.16 Zener hard limiter

EXAMPLE 16.5

D Designing a hard voltage limiter

to VH). The transfer characteristic of a practical comparator is shown in Fig. 16.19(c). The input voltag
swing required to produce the output voltage transition is in the range of about 0.1 mV to 4 mV. The out
put of a comparator must switch rapidly between the levels. The bandwidth must be wide because th
COMPARATORS
wider the bandwidth, the faster the switching speed will be. Some typical parameters (listed here for th
LM111 comparator) are as follows:
A comparator compares a signal voltage vS on one input terminal with a
• Operates from a single 5-V power supply
• known
Input voltage,
current: 150 nAcalled the reference voltage Vref, on the other input
(maximum)
• terminal.
Offset The
current: 20 symbol of a comparator, which is similar to that of an op-
nA (maximum)
• Differential
amp, input voltage: #30 V
• Voltage gain: 200 V/mV (typical)

vO vO
VH VH
vS +
Comparator
vO 0 Vref vS 0 Vref vS
Vref −
VL VL

(a) Symbol (b) Ideal transfer (c) Practical transfer

characteristic characteristic

FIGURE 16.19 Symbol and transfer characteristics of a comparator

 Integrated Analog Circuits and Applications
ZERO-CROSSING DETECTOR
vS
T

+VCC 0
t
External
R limiter
− −
vO
D1 D2 vd A
+
+ + +Vsat
vS +
− vO
0
Rx = R RL t
−VEE
− −Vsat

(a) Circuit (b) Waveforms

FIGURE 16.24 Zero-crossing detector

Diodes D1 and D2 in Fig. 16.24(a) protect the comparator from damage due to excessive input voltage vS.
Because of these diodes, the differential input voltage vd of the comparator is clamped to approximately
0.7 V or !0.7 V. These diodes, called clamp diodes, are external to the comparator. It is up to the designer
to determine if the diodes are needed to protect the circuit. Resistance R is connected in series with input
have no effect on the state of the output voltage. The complete transfer characteristics are shown in
Fig. 16.28(b).

SCHMITT TRIGGER
16.5.3 Schmitt Trigger with Reference Voltage
A Schmitt trigger compares a regular or irregular waveform with a reference signal and
converts voltage
The switching the wave-of a form
Schmitt to trigger
a square or pulse
circuit wave.
is defined as A
theSchmitt trigger
average of is V
VLt and often
. known
For the as
circuits
Ht
a squaring
in Figs. 16.25(a) circuit. It is also
and 16.28(a), VLt !known as ahence
"VHt, and bistable multivibrator
the switching because
voltage it has
Vst, which two
is the stable
width of the
states,band,
hysteresis lowisand high.
zero; that Itis,can remain
Vst ! (VLt #inVHtone
) ⁄ 2state
! 0. indefinitely;
However, someit applications
moves to the othershifting
require stablethe
crossover
state voltage
only whenin either the positive
a triggering or the
signal negative direction
is applied. along thecan
Schmitt triggers vS-axis. This can into
be classified be accom-
plished
twobytypes
adding a referenceonvoltage
depending the typeVrefoftoop-amp
the circuit in Fig. 16.25(a),
configuration as inverting
used: shown in Fig.
or 16.29(a) for a
noninverting.

if RF
vO
R1
+ +
Vref

vd A VLt VHt
Rx +
− −
0 vS
+ vO Vst
vS
− −

(a) Circuit (b) Transfer characteristics

FIGURE 16.29 Noninverting Schmitt trigger with reference voltage

 SQUARE WAVE GENERATOR
A square wave can be generated if the output of an op-amp is forced to swing repetitively
between positive saturation
7722_16_ch16_p1079-1176.qxd 2/19/10 6:08 ︎Vsat
PM and
Page negative
1110 saturation ︎Vsat. This can be accomplished by
connecting a bistable multivibrator (or Schmitt trigger) with an RC circuit in the feedback
loop. The circuit implementation is shown in Fig. 16.34(a). This square-wave generator is
also called a free-running or astable multivibrator because the output does not have any
1110 stable Microelectronic Circuits: of
state. The output Analysis and Designwill be in either positive saturation or negative
the op-amp
saturation, depending on whether the differential input voltage vd is positive or negative.

v vO

C Vsat ≈ VCC
vC R

RS +VCC
+Vth
vC
v− − − 0
t iC
vd µA741 R
R1 vO −Vth
v+ + + +
+
t1 t2 −
RS −VEE Vth C vC Vsat
−Vsat ≈ −VEE +
T − −
RF

(a) Circuit (b) Waveforms (c) Equivalent circuit

FIGURE 16.34 Square-wave generator

TRIANGULAR-WAVE GENERATOR
67722_16_ch16_p1079-1176.qxd 2/19/10 6:08 PM Page 1114

A triangular-wave generator can be produced by integrating the square-wave output of a

Schmitt trigger circuit. This can be accomplished by cascading an integrator with a
bistable multivibrator (or Schmitt trigger), as shown in Fig. 16.37(a), which consists of a
1114 Microelectronic Circuits: Analysis and Design
comparator A1 and an integrator A2.

v
5 v'O v'O
v1
− Vsat
− R
C
2 3 4
vd A1 vO
v2 + Vth
+ +VCC t1
0
6 − vpp t
−
1 −Vth
Node P vd A2
RF vO
+ +
R1 −Vsat
−VEE
T
4
(a) Circuit (b) Waveforms

RF IRF RF IRF
Node P Node P
+Vsat −Vsat
IR1 IR1

R1 R1

−Vth +Vth

(c) Equivalent circuit (d) Equivalent circuit

FIGURE 16.37 Triangular-wave generator

!Vsat, and one side of R1 will be at the negative-going ramp of A2. When the negative-going ramp exceeds
 16.8 Sawtooth-Wave Generators
SAWTOOTH-WAVE GENERATOR
In a triangular waveform, the rise time is always equal to the fall time. That is, the same amount of time
is required for a triangular wave to swing from !Vth to "Vth as from "Vth to !Vth. On the other hand,
In a triangular waveform,
a sawtooth waveformthe has
rise timeriseisand
unequal always equal
fall times. totime
The rise themay fall
be time. That
faster than is,time
the fall theorsame amount
vice versa. The triangular-wave generator in Fig. 16.37(a) may be converted to a sawtooth generator by
of time is required for a triangular wave to swing from ︎Vth to ︎Vth as from ︎Vth to ︎Vth. On the
adding a variable DC voltage Vref to the noninverting terminal of the op-amp. The addition of Vref,
which acts aswaveform
other hand, a sawtooth a reference signal
hasforunequal
the integratorrise
A2, can
and be fall
accomplished
times.byThe using rise
a potentiometer,
time may as be faster
shown in Fig. 16.40(a). The voltage waveforms are shown in Fig. 16.40(b). As with the triangular-wave
than the fall time or vice
generator, versa.ofThe
the operation triangular-wave
the circuit generator
can be divided into two modes. in Fig. 16.37(a) may be converted
During mode 1, v" # 0 and the output of A1 is at positive saturation "Vsat, which is the input signal
to a sawtooth generator by adding a variable DC voltage Vref to isthe
to the integrator A2. The equivalent circuit for the operation of the integrator
non-inverting terminal of
shown in Fig. 16.40(c). At
the op-amp. The the addition of mode,
beginning of this Vrefthe, which actsisasVtha, and
output voltage reference
the voltage atsignal forterminal
the inverting is v1 ! Vref. A2, can be
the integrator
Thus, the initial voltage on the capacitor is
accomplished by using a potentiometer, as shown in Fig. 16.40(a).
v (t = 0) = v - v = V - V
C 1 O ref th

+VCC vO

− v
C
R vO
A1 Vsat
+ +VCC
−VEE vO
Vth
A2 0
RF vO t
Vref
−Vth
R1 −VEE
+VCC −VEE −Vsat
R3 Rise time
Fall time tr T
tf
(a) Circuit (b) Waveforms

R C iC R C iC
v1 v1
Vsat vO −Vsat vO

Vref Vref

(c) Equivalent circuit (d) Equivalent circuit

FIGURE 16.40 Sawtooth-wave generator