9 Linear Regulators

EEET2404 – Electronic Circuits
Lecture 9 – Linear Regulators

Assoc. Prof. James Scott
Original Course Notes: Dr. Kourosh Kalantar-zadeh

Revised by: Dr Glenn Matthews
Regulating Power Supply Topologies
•  Broadly speaking, two competing topologies exist for power supply
regulation.
–  Linear and Switch-mode regulators.
–  Each technology has it’s own advantage and indeed sub-groups.
•  Linear supplies are often simpler to implement however due to large

transformers are more bulky.
–  The transformer serves two main purposes.
–  Reduce the voltage in the secondary.
–  Provides a safety barrier.
–  However, linear supplies require different transformer taps to compensate for
alternative input voltages.
•  Switch-mode supplies are significantly more complex, but are quite

compact.
–  The high-voltage AC is rectified to high-voltage DC and then switched at 100 to 500
kHz.
–  Disadvantages – Switch-mode supplies can cause significant ripple on the output.
The can also generate significant amounts of radio frequency radiation.
RMIT University © 2013 Electrical and Computer Engineering 2

Power Supply Regulation
•  This lecture considers the design and implementation of linear
regulators.
–  By the end of the lecture you should be able to design, implement and test a
variable output linear supply.
•  With respect to linear power supplies, two main topologies exist.

–  Series regulators.
–  Shunt regulators.
•  Depending on the final application, and the power required, each

topology has its own unique advantages / disadvantages.
–  Shunt regulators are simple to implement and are relatively inexpensive.
–  A shunt regulator can be implemented using a zener diode and a single resistor (for
zener current limiting).
–  The series regulators we will be considering utilise a transistor to regulate the
current and voltage to a load.
–  In the case of monolithic regulators, complete regulation, including the sampling
network, can be obtained in a single package.

Power Supply Regulation - Aims
•  The aim of a power supply circuit is to provide a consistent and stable
voltage to a load.
–  The circuit employed must be capable of compensating for changes in the load
resistance which naturally corresponds to changes in load current.
–  The system must be insensitive to changes in the unregulated line input.
–  The system should be as efficient as possible and minimise wasted power, which is
typically dissipated as heat.
•  In the linear systems considered, a line AC voltage is to be converted

to a steady state DC value.
OBJECTIVE
Vur
vUR VL
VL(0)
POWER
RL IL
SUPPLY
t t
VL
VL(0)
IL(FL) IL
Figure 1 - Power Supply Aims [1]

Power Supply Block Diagram
•  A linear power supply typically consists of five main blocks.
–  Transformer
–  The transformer converts the AC line voltage (240Vrms) into a more appropriate range.
–  Rectifier
–  The AC voltage is typically full-wave rectified.
–  Filter
–  The output of the rectifier is filtered by a capacitor network to remove unwanted ripple.
–  IC Regulator
–  An IC regulator, or discrete transistor(s) reduce the rectified voltage to the appropriate load
voltage(s) and remove any remaining ripple from the output.
–  Load
–  In this instance the load should receive ‘clean’ DC for the required application.
5V DC
240Vrms
Figure 2 - Power Supply Block Diagram [2]

Transformer Revision
•  Two alternative transformer technologies are typically used for power
supplies.
–  Centre-tap transformers.
–  Typically three outputs.
–  Multi-tap transformers.
–  Numerous taps throughout the transformer.
–  The individual output voltages may not be symmetrical.
•  A centre-tap transformer can be used to derive both positive and

negative voltages from a single supply.
–  The output of the two windings are 180° out of phase.
–  The centre-tap provides two symmetrical output voltages (+/-)
–  Example: 36V centre-tapped transformer can be used to construct individual +/- 18V
voltage rails.
–  Remember that the winding voltages specified on many datasheets are the RMS
values of voltage. When determining component values ensure that you have
allowed for peak voltages / currents.

Transformer Revision
•  The ratio of primary to secondary turns determines the output (and input)
voltages of the transformer.
–  A typical step-down application would require a primary to be 240V AC (e.g.150 turns).
–  Assume that the output required is 12.6V AC, what would be the number of turns required on the
secondary?
Vs N s 12.6
= = = 0.0525
V p N p 240
N s = 150 * 0.0525
N s = 7.875 ≈ 8 turns
Figure 3 – Centre-Tapped Transformer Figure 4 – Multitapped Transformer[4]

AC Rectifiers – Topologies
•  The most common simple rectifier topologies include [3]:
–  Half-Wave (single diode)
–  Full-Wave, Centre-tapped (two diodes)
–  Full-Wave Bridge (four diodes)
–  Dual Complementary Supply (four diodes, individual +/- supplies)
•  Depending on the application, several factors should be considered when selecting a

rectifier topology [3].
Full-Wave Centre-Tap Full-Wave Bridge

Uses ½ of secondary windings at a time. Uses full secondary winding continuously.
Requires a centre-tapped transformer. No centre-tap required.
Uses two diodes. Uses four diodes.
•  In general, half-wave rectifiers should be avoided as they can cause secondary issues
with other components.
–  As the diode conducts for only half the available cycle, significant current spikes are caused due to the filter
capacitor charging.
–  The current drawn by the charging capacitor is only limited by the series impedance of the rectifier and
transformer secondary.
–  As current flows in only one direction, the transformer core can become saturated with the DC flux density. As a
result, a larger iron core is required [3].

AC Rectifiers – Half-Wave Rectifiers
•  A typical circuit for a simple half-wave rectifier appears in Figure 5.
Figure 5 – Half-Wave Rectification
•  As the diode, D1, only conducts for positive half-cycle (when forward
biased), the output waveform would be as in Figure 6
–  During the half-cycle where the diode does

not conduct, the capacitor has to ‘power’ the
load (assuming constant current).
–  Note: The diode will not conduct until

vi > 0.7V.
Figure 6 – Half-Wave Rectified Output [2]

AC Rectifiers – Full-Wave Centre-Tap
•  One method to achieve full-wave rectification is to use two diodes and
a centre-tap transformer.
–  The centre-tap becomes the reference terminal.
–  During the positive portion of the AC input, diode D1 conducts.
–  Conversely, during the negative portion, diode D2 conducts.
Figure 7 – Full-Wave Centre-Tap Output [2]

AC Rectifiers - Full Wave Diode Rectification
•  A diode bridge network is typically employed to provide full-wave
rectification of an AC source.
–  Four diodes are configured as a bridge network.
–  During each half-cycle, only two of the diodes are conducting.
Figure 8.1 – Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier Design Figure 8.2 – 0 – T/2 Conduction Path
Figure 8.4 – Complete Output Voltage

Figure 8.3 – T/2 - T Conduction Path
Figure 8 – Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier Output [2]

AC Rectifiers – Dual Complementary Supply
•  A ‘dual complementary’ supply is a method of deriving both positive
and negative supplies from the transformer.
–  In this configuration, a centre-tap transformer is employed.
–  Two additional diodes are used to complete the bridge.
–  This topology is essentially two full-wave centred-tapped systems combined.
–  The complementary supply will be discussed in the tutorials and week 9 lectures.
Figure 9 – Dual Complementary Supplies

Input Filters
•  Either inductive or capacitive filters can be employed to ‘smooth’ the
rectified output.
–  For our discussion, we will consider only capacitive filters.
•  The primary role of the capacitor is to smooth the rectified waveform.

–  Consider the full-wave, centre-tapped design below.
•  During each half cycle, the voltage

across, and hence the current,
through the load will tend towards
zero.
•  This would not be suitable for

microprocessor systems and it
would constantly reset!
Figure 10 – Full-Wave Centre-Tap Output – No Filter
Capacitor [2]

Input Capacitor Filter
•  By applying a capacitor across the output of the rectifier, a DC voltage
can be obtained.
–  The waveform obtained is not “pure DC”.
–  The variation in the waveform is known as the ripple voltage.
–  Essentially the capacitor charges when the output voltage from the rectifier is
greater than the voltage across the capacitor.
–  As the output from the rectifier reduces, energy is required from the capacitor to
power the load.
–  Furthermore, as the load current
increases, the ripple will also increase
as more energy is required from the filter
capacitor.
–  An Engineer must ensure that they

select a capacitor the can deal with the
load and supply the correct voltage an
current.
Figure 11 – Full-Wave Centre-Tap Output –With Filter

Capacitor [2]

•  Figure 12 demonstrates the voltage across the filter capacitor as a function of
time.
–  Vr denotes the ripple voltage.

–  Vm is the peak voltage output from the
rectifier
–  T1 is the capacitor charging time.
–  T2 is the capacitor discharge time
–  T/2 indicates the half-period of the input
AC waveform.
–  Vdc is the DC equivalent voltage of the
output.
Figure 12 – Full-Wave Centre-Tap Output – Capacitor Voltage [2]
•  Based on this information, an expression for several key parameters can be

obtained.
I dc 2.88 I dc
Vr (rms ) = =
4 3 fC C
–  (Idc in milliamperes, C is in microfarads)

•  As illustrated in the last slide, the filter capacitor value will adjust the
ripple voltage.
–  Although it may appear that ‘bigger is best’, remember that the capacitor will need to
be charged during time period T1.
–  The larger the capacitor, the greater the charge current required which places
additional demands on the rectifier circuit and transformer secondary.
•  After the rectified voltage has been filtered, the equivalent dc value
across the capacitor can be determined.
I dc 5I
Vdc = Vm − = Vm − dc
4 fC C
–  Vm is the peak rectifier voltage, Idc is the load current in milliamperes and C is the
filter capacitor in microfarads.

Diode Conduction Period
•  Although it appears that increasing the capacitor value will reduce the ripple
voltage, there is naturally a trade-off.
–  An increased capacitance will reduce the average ripple and increase the average voltage.
–  However, the larger the capacitor, the larger the peak current drawn from the rectifier diodes.
–  Furthermore, during the initial charging cycle (power-on condition) an large inrush current will be
required which has the potential to damage the transformer windings and rectifier.
–  A “rule of thumb” is 2000µF per

amp required.
–  The peak current through the

diode rectifier (assuming
constant capacitor current) is
given by:
T
I peak = I dc
T1
–  Note: T = 1/f (f = 2 * 50 for full-
wave)
Figure 13 – Small Input Filter Capacitor Value Figure 14 – Large Input Filter Capacitor Value
[2] [2]

RC Input Filters
•  Another commonly employed technique to reduce the ripple voltage is
to utilise a RC filter network.
–  In this configuration an additional low pass filter is added after the initial rectifier
filter.
–  From previous studies, the aim of the RC network is to pass most of the DC
component whilst reducing the AC component.
–  What would be the drawback of employing such a system?
–  What constraints would have to be met?
240V ac
Figure 15 – RC Input Filter [2]

Reference Voltages - Zener Diodes
•  In many power supply circuits a consistent reference voltage is required.
–  One typical method employed is the use of a zener diode.
–  Zener diodes are typically used in their reversed bias condition.
•  In comparison with standard diodes, such as the 1N4148, a wide range of

reverse bias voltage devices can be obtained.
–  Furthermore, the I-V curve in reverse bias is much ‘sharper’ than in the forward bias condition.
–  At a given reverse voltage, the device enters avalanche mode where the reverse current
increases.
0.5W
2.7V 3.0V 3.3V 3.6V 3.9V 4.3V 4.7V
5.1V 5.6V 6.2V 6.8V 7.5V 8.2V 9.1V
10V 11V 12V 13V 15V 16V 18V
20V 24V 27V 30V
1.3W
4.7V 5.1V 5.6V 6.2V 6.8V 7.5V 8.2V
9.1V 10V 11V 12V 13V 15V 16V
18V 20V 22V 24V 27V 30V 33V
36V 39V 43V 47V 51V 56V 62V
68V 75V 100V 200V
www.reuk.co.uk/What-is-a-Zener-Diode.htm
Reference Voltages – Zener Diodes
9.8V
@2mA?
Vz = 10V
10.1V
@33mA?
Figure 16 – Zener Diode Characteristics [2]

Reference Voltages - Zener Diodes
•  Several different approximations exist to model the behaviour of a
zener diode.
–  Initially, the Engineer must decide whether the diode is in reverse bias.
–  If so, have the conditions been met such that the diode is conducting in reverse
bias.
•  The simplest model is a voltage source (in reverse configuration).

VZ
IZ IZ
•  A more thorough model is a voltage source and a series resistor.

–  The resistor is employed to model the change in reverse voltage as the reverse bias
diode current increases.
VZZ
rZ
IZ “ID”

Shunt Regulation
•  As the name implies, shunt regulation is a topology where the
reference voltage / device is in parallel with the load.
•  Using the zener diode example, a simple shunt voltage regulator can
be constructed.
–  Assume RLoad (minimum = 47Ω).
–  The minimum zener current of 10mA is required (generally specified as test
current).
•  W h y i s r e s i s t o r R 1
required?
–  What occurs when the load is
disconnected?
•  What issues exist with this

topology?
–  What power is dissipated in the
Figure 17 – Simple Shunt Regulation zener diode?

Series Regulation – Block Diagram
•  In a series regulation circuit, the series element controls the amount of input
voltage that is present on the load.
Figure 18 – Series Regulation Block Diagram [2]
•  A series regulator employs a feedback network to sample the output voltage.
•  A comparator circuit is used to ‘compare’ the output and reference voltages.

–  These can be either discrete components or a simple comparator (LM311).

Series Regulation Circuits – Single Transistor
•  As discussed earlier a zener diode and resistor can be used to
generate a simple shunt regulator.
–  One problem addressed was the potentially high zener currents (and hence power
dissipation) when the load was disconnected.
•  By incorporating a BJT transistor a more suitable circuit can be

developed.
–  The transistor base is held at a constant voltage by the zener diode.
–  The resistor sets the appropriate base current as well as protecting the zener diode.
–  The load current is now regulated by the BJT Transistor.
Figure 19 – BJT Series Regulator [2]

Series Regulation – Single Transistor
•  The output voltage can simply be determined by the addition of the
zener and transistor base-emitter voltage.
–  Recall from earlier courses, the emitter current is the addition of the collector and
base currents.
–  As the load resistance increases, the base and emitter currents decrease.
–  The resistor R controls the maximum load current.
Control
element IL = IE =(β+1)IB
IR = IV + IB
z
Vo=VZ –VBE
and R = (Vi-Vz)/IR
KVL
Figure 20 – BJT Series Regulator Analysis [2]

Series Regulation – Improved Series Regulator
•  The regulation can be further improved by the addition of a second
transistor and an improved sampling network.
–  The output voltage is sampled by resistors R1 and R2.
–  The zener diode provides a reference voltage and Q2 controls the base current of
transistor Q1.
Figure 21 – Improved BJT Series Regulator [2]

•  How does this circuit regulate the output voltage, Vo?
–  As the output voltage VO attempts to increase, it is sampled by the voltage divider
created by R1 and R2.
–  As voltage V2 increases the base current for Q2 increases.
–  An increase in Q2 base current naturally causes an increase in Q2 collector current
thus reducing the base current available to Q1.
Figure 22 – Improved BJT Series Regulator Analysis [2]

•  Conversely, if the output voltage attempts to decrease:
–  Voltage V2 will decrease, thus reducing the Q2 base current, therefore increasing the available
current for transistor Q1
–  An increase in Q1 base current will have the effect of increasing the output voltage.
•  To simplify the analysis, the current drawn by R3 is deemed to be negligible.

–  Assume that the base-emitter voltage (VBE2 = 0.7V)
R2
VBE 2 + VZ = V2 = VO
R1 + R2
R1 + R2
VO = (VZ + VBE 2 )
R2
Figure 23 – Improved BJT Series Regulator Analysis 2 [2]

Operational Amplifier Series Regulator
•  Rather than implementing a transistor, an operational amplifier can be
used to provide negative feedback.
–  In this configuration, the operational amplifier is used in a non-inverting configuration.
–  The zener diode acts as a reference for the voltage output.
–  Resistor R3 is used to limit the zener current and provide a suitable voltage drop from
the unregulated supply.
–  The output voltage is sampled by the R1 and R2 divider network.
R1
VO = (1 + )VZ
R2
Figure 24 – Operational Amplifier BJT Series Regulator [2]

Current Limiting
•  The circuits discussed so far do not have any inbuilt protection.
–  What happens to the series pass transistor if the load is shorted to ground, RL=0?
Figure 25 – Operational Amplifier BJT Series Regulator [2]
–  Q1 attempts to provide the requested load current.

–  As it tends toward infinity, the transistor will be destroyed. (IC > ICmax)
–  The rectifier network could potentially be destroyed as well as the input filter
capacitor.
•  In short, a disaster waiting to occur!

Current Limiting - Solution
•  Rather than await a disaster, current limiting can be simply built into
the circuit.
–  An additional transistor (Q2) and a current sense resistor (RSC) has been added.
–  Depending on the expected load currents, RSC could be on the order of 1Ω.
–  Under normal conditions, transistor Q2 is off and the voltage drop across RSC is
minimal.
–  As the current increases, VRSC also increases, thus turning on transistor Q2.
–  The effect is that the available base current for Q1 is reduced thus decreasing the
output voltage.
Figure 26 – Current Limited Operation Amplifier BJT Series Regulator [2]

Shunt Voltage Regulation
•  So far we have primarily considered series pass regulation circuits.
Another technique routinely applied is shunt regulation.
•  A shunt regulator regulates by “shunting” the available current away

from the load to regulate the output voltage.
Figure 27 – Shunt Regulator Block Diagram [2]
–  Similar to the series pass regulators, the control element can be a transistor.
–  The transistor must be adequately specified to handle the required shunt current.

Shunt Regulation – Single Transistor
•  Consider a single transistor shunt regulator.
–  What is the purpose of resistor RS?
–  How should RS be selected?
Figure 28 – Simple Shunt Regulator [2]
•  The output voltage of the shunt regulator is given by:
VL = VZ + VBE
–  Under no load conditions, the transistor must be able to sink the total circuit current.

Monolithic Voltage Regulators
•  Rather than using discrete regulators, several different monolithic
(single package) voltage regulators are available.
–  A commonly used series is the LM78XX (fixed positive) and LM79XX (fixed
negative) three-terminal devices.
–  These devices consist of three separate pins (input, output and ground).
–  The devices are internally trimmed to provide a fixed output voltage.
•  Monolithic regulators are specified as either standard, low-power or

low-dropout voltages.
–  A standard LM7805 regulator has a drop-out voltage of 2.0V (i.e. input must be at
least 7.0V).
•  To obtain an variable / programmable voltage supply the LM317 is

also a prime candidate.
–  The tutorials and laboratories will focus in this device.

Monolithic Voltage Regulators
•  A top level view of a monolithic regulator would be:
Figure 29 – Monolithic Voltage Regulator [2]
•  Although appearing to be a comprehensive solution, monolithic

regulators also have their own limitations.
–  The series pass transistor (internal) still have a fixed power rating (7805T – 1A)

Monolithic Voltage Regulators – 78XX Series
•  When developing circuits using the 78XX series of voltage regulators,
there are a few hints / tips to improve performance.
–  An additional capacitor at the input should be included in improve the ripple
rejection (minimum 0.33µF).
–  At the output at least a 0.1µF capacitor is used to improve stability and transient
response.
–  The quiescent current (current consumed by the device under no load) is 5mA.
Similar technology low current versions are also available with quiescent currents
less than 75µA.
•  In terms of device protection, this series of device include:

–  Short circuit protection.
–  Overload protection (Device reduces available current).
–  Thermal shutdown.
–  Safe Operating Area (SOA) prevents the series pass transistor from catastrophic
failure.

78XX Series – Circuit Hints
•  Although the 78XX series are very useful, the ‘standard’ versions are
only rated to 1 A.
–  It is possible to incorporate a secondary series pass transistor to boost the output
current.
–  As the current through resistor R1 increases to 100mA, transistor Q1 is turned on.
–  The regulator maintains the output voltage as per usual by limiting the input current,
which in turn controls the base of Q1.
–  Essentially the regulator only ‘knows’ that it is outputting 100mA.
–  The only provision is that the input voltage VIN must be at least the required output
voltage plus the dropout voltage and VBE.
–  What limitations occur in this circuit?

–  How can they be overcome?
VBE
I O = I REG + β ( I REG− )
R1
Figure 30 – High Output Current Voltage Regulator Circuit

78XX Series – Circuit Hints
•  Another typical example is where the output voltage is increased.
–  This may be due to the circuit requiring a voltage that is not available in the
standard series (05,06,08,10,etc).
–  The ground reference can be shifted by external circuitry, or even a zener diode.
–  Consider the case of high input voltage as well as high output voltage.
–  The output voltage Vo is determined by the zener voltage, Z1 and the standard
regulator output.
–  Transistor Q1 acts as a pre-regulator to reduce the input voltage to the monolithic
regulator
–  Diode D1 protects the device during short circuit conditions.
Figure 31 – High Input / Output Voltage Regulator Circuit [5]

Variable Output Monolithic Regulators
•  Rather than use a fixed output regulator, several variable output linear
regulators are available.
–  A commonly used device is the LM317.
–  This is a three terminal device that can be purchased in a variety of configurations
(high current, high differential voltage).
–  Instead of a ground reference, the device adjusts the output to maintain a constant
1.25 volts between the output and adjust terminals (VREF).
–  The adjust ‘current’ is typically 50

- 100µA.
–  Resistors R1 and R2 should be

selected such that a change in
temperature does not vary the
adjustment current by more than
50µA.
R2
VO = 1.25(1 + ) + I ADJ R2
R1
Figure 32 – LM317 Simplified Diagram [2]

Variable Output Monolithic Regulators – LM317
•  The LM317 is designed to handle a relatively high differential voltage
of approximately 40V.
–  Note that the maximum current output is not consistent as the voltage differential
increases.
–  Inbuilt protection prevents the device from dissipating excessive power.
–  The dropout voltage (the minimum voltage across the device) also varies with
temperature and output current.
–  There is no protection against excessive input voltages or voltages applied to the output.
Figure 33 – LM317 Current Limit [3] Figure 34 – LM317 Dropout Voltage [3]

Monolithic Device Protection
•  Although the monolithic devices have significant inbuilt protection,
they may not be able to withstand ‘user mistakes’.
–  A common failure is where a voltage is applied to the output terminals (reverse
bias).
–  Consider a DC power supply being connected to the output of a LM317 and a
voltage greater than .
–  What happens?
•  A simple method to protect against voltages being applied to the

output and damaging the device is to use a simple diode.
–  During normal operation, diode D1 is
reversed bias.
–  As the output voltage increases 0.7V

beyond what the LM317 is supplying,
the diode shunts across the device.
–  Diode D2 and C3 are included to

Figure 35 – LM317 Reverse Bias Protection
improve the ‘ripple rejection’.
LM317 Internal Structure
•  Figure 36 is the internal structure of an LM317 Linear Regulator.
–  Transistor Q26 is the series pass regulator.
Constant Current for base
–  The 1.25V reference is provided by a ‘bandgap’ reference. drive of output stage
–  This particular implementation is designed to track

with temperature. Bandgap Reference
Foldback Current Limiting
(latching)
Stability
Figure 36 – LM317 Internal Structure [3]

Ripple Rejection Ratio
•  Ripple Rejection ratio is commonly stated in Monolithic linear regulator
datasheets, but what does it mean?
–  Simply put, the ripple rejection ratio is a measure of the output voltage ripple due to
input ripple.
–  Remember that the input ripple minima must be greater than the dropout + regulated
output voltage otherwise the device may shutdown.
–  Ripple rejection can also be expressed across various frequency ranges as in Figure
37.
Vrinput
PSRR = 20 log10 ( ), dB
Vroutput
–  Example: Assume an input voltage

ripple of 1V and an output of
1.75mV. What is the power supply
ripple rejection?
–  Answer: 55.14dB
Figure 37 – Ripple Rejection Ratio [6]

Load Regulation
•  Load regulation is the variation in output voltage due to the change in load
current.
VL ( I L = 0) − VL ( I L = FL)
Load Regulation = ×100%
VL ( I L = FL)
–  Where VLis the load voltage, IL is the load current and FL indicates full load conditions.
•  In a simple full bridge rectified circuit with a filter capacitor, changing the load
resistance, will change the load voltage.
–  As the load resistance is reduced, naturally the load current increases which causes more ripple in
the output voltage.
–  This is due to the additional voltage drop across the transformer windings and diodes.
•  Example – Load Regulation.

–  Consider a system where the voltage across the load is given by:
–  VL(FL) = 9.25V (IL = 1A), VL(IL = 0) = 10.6V
10.6 − 9.25
Load Regulation = ×100% = 14.6%
9.25

Line Regulation
•  As the secondary transformer voltage depends on the primary, the regulation
system should be able to sufficiently compensate for changes in primary
voltage.
•  A measure of the ability to compensate for changes in primary voltage is called

line regulation and is defined as:
VHL − VLL
Line Regulation = ×100%
VLL
–  Where VHLis the load voltage when the line is high and VLL is the line voltage with low line voltage.
•  Example – Line Regulation.

–  Consider a system where the voltage across the load is given by:
–  VHL = 11.2V VLL = 9.2V
11.2 − 9.2
Line Regulation = ×100% = 21.7%
9.2

References
•  [1] F. H. Payne, “Electronics and Signal Processing Circuits (EL303)”, RMIT
University,1996.
•  [2] R. Boylestad and L. Nashelsky, “Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory”, Prentice
Hall, Sixth Edition, 1996
•  [3] National Semiconductor Corporation, “National Semiconductor Voltage Regulator

Handbook”, 1980
•  [4]http://www.electro-tech-online.com/general-electronics-chat/120631-question-about-
multi-tap-transformers.html
•  [5] ON Semiconductor, “Linear & Switching Voltage Regulator Handbook”, Rev 4. Feb-
Denver, Colorado, 2002.
•  [6] Texas Instruments, “Understanding power supply ripple rejection in linear

regulators”, Texas Instruments Incorporated, Dallas, Texas, 2005

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EEET2404 – Electronic Circuits

Lecture 9 – Linear Regulators

Original Course Notes: Dr. Kourosh Kalantar-zadeh

• Linear supplies are often simpler to implement however due to large

• Switch-mode supplies are significantly more complex, but are quite

RMIT University © 2013 Electrical and Computer Engineering 2

• With respect to linear power supplies, two main topologies exist.

• Depending on the final application, and the power required, each

RMIT University © 2013 Electrical and Computer Engineering 3

• In the linear systems considered, a line AC voltage is to be converted

RMIT University © 2013 Electrical and Computer Engineering 4

Figure 2 - Power Supply Block Diagram [2]

RMIT University © 2013 Electrical and Computer Engineering 5

• A centre-tap transformer can be used to derive both positive and

RMIT University © 2013 Electrical and Computer Engineering 6

Figure 3 – Centre-Tapped Transformer Figure 4 – Multitapped Transformer[4]

RMIT University © 2013 Electrical and Computer Engineering 7

• Depending on the application, several factors should be considered when selecting a

Full-Wave Centre-Tap Full-Wave Bridge

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Figure 5 – Half-Wave Rectification

– During the half-cycle where the diode does

– Note: The diode will not conduct until

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Figure 7 – Full-Wave Centre-Tap Output [2]

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Figure 8.4 – Complete Output Voltage

Figure 8 – Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier Output [2]

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Figure 9 – Dual Complementary Supplies

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• The primary role of the capacitor is to smooth the rectified waveform.

• During each half cycle, the voltage

• This would not be suitable for

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– An Engineer must ensure that they

Figure 11 – Full-Wave Centre-Tap Output –With Filter

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– Vr denotes the ripple voltage.

Figure 12 – Full-Wave Centre-Tap Output – Capacitor Voltage [2]

• Based on this information, an expression for several key parameters can be

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– A “rule of thumb” is 2000µF per

– The peak current through the

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Figure 15 – RC Input Filter [2]

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• In comparison with standard diodes, such as the 1N4148, a wide range of

2.7V 3.0V 3.3V 3.6V 3.9V 4.3V 4.7V

5.1V 5.6V 6.2V 6.8V 7.5V 8.2V 9.1V

10V 11V 12V 13V 15V 16V 18V

20V 24V 27V 30V

4.7V 5.1V 5.6V 6.2V 6.8V 7.5V 8.2V

9.1V 10V 11V 12V 13V 15V 16V

18V 20V 22V 24V 27V 30V 33V

36V 39V 43V 47V 51V 56V 62V

68V 75V 100V 200V

Figure 16 – Zener Diode Characteristics [2]

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• The simplest model is a voltage source (in reverse configuration).

• A more thorough model is a voltage source and a series resistor.

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• What issues exist with this

•  Linear supplies are often simpler to implement however due to large

•  Switch-mode supplies are significantly more complex, but are quite

•  With respect to linear power supplies, two main topologies exist.

•  Depending on the final application, and the power required, each

•  In the linear systems considered, a line AC voltage is to be converted

•  A centre-tap transformer can be used to derive both positive and

•  Depending on the application, several factors should be considered when selecting a

–  During the half-cycle where the diode does

–  Note: The diode will not conduct until

•  The primary role of the capacitor is to smooth the rectified waveform.

•  During each half cycle, the voltage

•  This would not be suitable for

–  An Engineer must ensure that they

–  Vr denotes the ripple voltage.

•  Based on this information, an expression for several key parameters can be

–  A “rule of thumb” is 2000µF per

–  The peak current through the

•  In comparison with standard diodes, such as the 1N4148, a wide range of

•  The simplest model is a voltage source (in reverse configuration).

•  A more thorough model is a voltage source and a series resistor.

•  What issues exist with this

•  A series regulator employs a feedback network to sample the output voltage.

•  A comparator circuit is used to ‘compare’ the output and reference voltages.

•  By incorporating a BJT transistor a more suitable circuit can be

•  To simplify the analysis, the current drawn by R3 is deemed to be negligible.

–  Q1 attempts to provide the requested load current.

•  In short, a disaster waiting to occur!

•  A shunt regulator regulates by “shunting” the available current away

•  The output voltage of the shunt regulator is given by:

•  Monolithic regulators are specified as either standard, low-power or

•  To obtain an variable / programmable voltage supply the LM317 is

•  Although appearing to be a comprehensive solution, monolithic

•  In terms of device protection, this series of device include:

–  What limitations occur in this circuit?

–  The adjust ‘current’ is typically 50

–  Resistors R1 and R2 should be

•  A simple method to protect against voltages being applied to the

–  As the output voltage increases 0.7V

–  Diode D2 and C3 are included to

–  This particular implementation is designed to track

–  Example: Assume an input voltage

•  Example – Load Regulation.

•  A measure of the ability to compensate for changes in primary voltage is called

•  Example – Line Regulation.

•  [3] National Semiconductor Corporation, “National Semiconductor Voltage Regulator

•  [6] Texas Instruments, “Understanding power supply ripple rejection in linear