Visual Analysis of Political Campaign Posters in US 2016

Presidential Elections

Thesis
By
Mansura Mehidyeva

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree of
Bachelor of Arts
In
Mass Media and Communication

State University of New York

Empire State College
2016

Reader: PhDr. Todd Nesbitt, Ph.D., M.A

 Acknowledgements

I would like to express my gratitude to Professor Todd Nesbitt for introducing me to the

field of Political Communication and inspiring me to dedicate my thesis project to this

field. Additionally, his help and support throughout the project, as well as my studies were

more than a student would expect.

I would also like to thank Professor Beth Lazroe for her classes in Visual Analysis that

truly altered my perception of images and were extremely eye-opening.

I am extremely grateful to my parents for giving me this opportunity to study abroad and

gain valuable knowledge and experience throughout my academic life. I highly appreciate

their support and willingness to help out by any means when I was faced with hardships.

Lastly, I am thankful to the contribution of the people that are close to me. Eynar Isayev,

thank you for your immense support and ability to show me the right way. A special

thanks to my friends, Zhala and Alia who over a long distance were an infinite source of

inspiration.
 Table of Contents

1. Introduction…………………………………………………..………………5

2. Political Communication……………………………………………..………9

2.1 The Field of Political Communication……………………………….…..9

2.2 Politics and Media………………………………………………………12

2.3 Public opinion……………………………………………………………15

3. Visual Analysis Theories……………………………………………………17

3.1 Semiotics Theory………………………………………………….……..17

3.2 Visual Rhetoric…………………………………………………………..19

3.3 Content Analysis…………………………………………………...…….21

3.4 The Process of Decoding…………………………..…………………….22

4. Visual Analysis of Political Advertising……………………………………..25

4.1 Case Studies: Obama ’08 and Reagan ’80…………………………….….25

4.2 Democratic Candidate: Bernie Sanders ………………………………..…29

4.3 Republican Candidate: Donald Trump……………………………………38

4.4 Summary…………………………………………………………………..47

5. The Impact if Strategic Images on The Public .……………………………...49

5.1 Decision-Making…………………………………………………………..49

5.2 Persuasion………………………………………………………………….51

6. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………...55

7. Works Cited .………………………………………..…………………………58

8. Bibliography …………………………………………………………………..64
 Abstract

This paper analyzes how aesthetic elements constructed in political advertising posters

influence the voter and to what degree it influences his or her decision-making process.

More specifically the paper will explore what techniques are used for presenting the

candidate at their best and how frequently these techniques appear throughout one’s

campaign. This paper will analyze the posters produced during U.S. presidential elections

in 2016, whereas one candidate is chosen from Democratic Party (Bernie Sanders) and

another comes from the Republican Party (Donald Trump). The analysis will compare and

contrast the approach of these two political forces have towards the public they are

attempting to reach out to.

The paper concludes that politicians are able to manipulate voters’ emotions by a

systematic positioning of aesthetic elements and usage of specific symbols. Emotions

elicited have an impact on the spectator’s decision-making process

1. Introduction

Powerful daily introductions of increasingly information flows have become a basic part of

everyday life. We hear people talking about an issue, we read news learning about the

current local or international events, thus for the main part of the day we are highly exposed

to different images that convey a specific. These images can vary from an advertising piece

seen on the street, tram, metro or newspaper to pictures that appear on social media,

whenever the page is updated. In the daily rush, images turn into one of the quickest

sources of sending a piece information; a viewer would be more receptive to a picture of a

product and base his or her opinion on it, than reading a full text or even a few sentences

about it. Consequently, every aspect of a picture should convey the detailed information

about the product shown to the observer, thus he or she can reflect on it or partly activate

their cognitive thinking.

Product like advertising strategies are applied during the political campaigns of the

candidates who are trying to raise awareness among the masses and attract as many

electorates in the given area as possible. Subsequently, every single image shown to the

audience plays a substantial role in the development of the candidate’s public image.

Whenever the message is seen, as the first impression, the viewer collects visually the

information represented and automatically conceptualizes it. During the process, opinion

about the candidate is derived from the mental image formed in the mind of observer and

5
remains fixed with a low probability of changes (Zenor, 2014). Thus, the very first

indirect encounter of the candidate and its potential follower should serve as a basis for

the further development of this parasocial relationship, a friend-like interaction between

mediated persona and an onlooker (Rubin and McHugh, 1987, p. 279-292).

One of the greatest influencers of the post-World War I American nation is a person who

immensely shaped the basic concept and understanding of the human self and the

architect of public relations – Edward Berneys, have successfully implemented

psychoanalytical techniques of his uncle Sigmund Freud in adverts and political

campaigns to pull certain societal strings to trigger desired outcomes from large numbers

of individuals. Berneys, for example managed to shift the public opinion on the character

of President Coolidge. The thirtieth president of the United States was often considered to

be glum-looking, by organizing a pancake breakfast with vaudevillians with hope that

cameras would catch his smile. The next day headlines announced “The President nearly

laughs” subsequently leading him into re-election after several weeks (Curtis and Kelsall,

2002).

The technological development in the sphere of communication and mass media for the last

100 years substantially changed the paradigm of political communication. This through

how it establishes the candidates’ image and the way it is perceived in public. The

cornerstone throughout these years in the political hemisphere became the development and

the demand for television. The first politician to utilize the television as a tool for spreading

his message to large publics was Dwight D. Eisenhower; this point revolutionized the

political communication in a manner of visual representation (Allen, 1993, p. 352-359).

Later in the context of presidential elections, the first televised political debate took place in
6
1960, where John F Kennedy managed to become accustomed with the contemporary way

of connecting with the public, as well as reinforcing his image of a fresh and modern man.

The non-verbal communication became a privilege for Kennedy in this race, he was able to

charm his audience by means of his body language; meanwhile Nixon was unfamiliar with

the essence of image building through the live medium. Fifty years later, Obama and his

campaign team discovers the practical use of the internet in the political horse race and the

unique approach towards this medium helped him to appeal to the younger generations and

build an image for him. Each of these candidates apprehended the importance of the new

and more visualized mediums available achieving a successful outcome.

This advertising principal based on the emotional approach, rather than cognitive, questions

the whole spirit of the democratic society. A viewer manipulated on the irrational level is

not able to make a rational choice of the product (or candidate, in this case), while being

completely unaware of the subconscious process of the information (Hartmann, 1935, p.

99-114; Brader, 2005, p. 388–405). Unfortunately, the issue lies much deeper than just an

acknowledgment of the circumstances; the viewer has to focus on the political agenda of

the candidate rather than his image. Franz, Freedman, Goldstein, and Ridout (2008) argued

that “campaign advertising in general serves to corrupt and debase the democratic

discourse, to mislead and confuse citizens, to shrink and polarize the electorate, and to

constrain elected representatives in their efforts to promote good public policy” (p. 262–

268).

7
The purpose of this paper is to examine the ways in which aesthetic factors are applied in

political advertising posters and these can communicate a persuasive message, in order to

identify effective strategies in visual political communication.

8
 2. Political Communication

This chapter will attempt to illustrate the field of political communication, define its

concept, relationship with the media and explain its interrelationship with the public

opinion. It is important to comprehend the concept of political communication and

understand how it works, in order to analyze the visual conduction of political campaigns in

The United States and examine the way in which it influences the public.

2.1 The Field of Political Communication

In order to understand the essence of the political campaigns, the structure of the visual

representation, and how profoundly it impacts the choice of the electorate, it is important

to actualize the concept of political communication and its historical background.

Political communication tracks the process of creation and dissemination of political

information as well as its influence on the masses. Scholars find it hard to concisely

describe what political communication is and how it works in its core.

According to the Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, political communication is a

communication process where the information is conveyed across politicians, the news

media and the publics; the messages are transmitted from the governing institutions

towards citizens, among politicians, and from public opinion towards authorities, in a

hierarchical manner (2001).

9
Denton and Woodward (1998), state that political communication is defined as process that

focuses on the political message and how it influences public sphere, not regarding the

source of the message, but its content. Thus, first of all it simply follows the basic rules of

the communications, where a sender transmits a message to the receiver with probable

noise and expected feedback after the message is decoded. Some also argue that political

communication is highly connected with the propaganda, due to its strategic approach to

the persuasion (Swanson and Nimno, 1990).

McNair believes that political communication does not solely depend on the verbal and

written attributes on of the political figure (or party), visualization plays a privileged role in

this process. Consequently, the image created and utilized throughout the whole political

career carries great responsibilities for the definitive outcome (2003).

Political communication could be applied on the national as well as on the supranational

level. In case of the global political communication experts develop an original conception

to establish, which is defined as strategic political (Torture, 2013). Strategic political

communication is simply a political communication that thoroughly examines social

scientific techniques to understand human interactions and media profile; decides what

should be communicated or withheld to influence a public opinion in a specific

manipulative way, as well as creating alliances and government policies (2013).

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The development of the political communication hinges on the chain of the events that

eventually formed the modern political process. The historical aspect highly influenced the

perspective in which the political arena is seen currently; within the historical outlook, such

factors as media, technology, and culture influence the path in which political

communication is led. This field is considered to be relatively young, as it was

acknowledged in the 1970’s; however, this area of study was practiced far earlier than 40

years ago. The pioneers of the political communication studies considered to be “four great

men”: Harold Laswell, who examined political propaganda in his research, Handley Cantril

& Gordon Allport with early studies of persuasion and public opinion theorist, Walter

Lippmann. Each was highly influenced by social psychology, which signifies the

prioritized role of this field in the political communication domain. Designated as a sub-

division of the political science, political communication gradually commenced from the

comprehension of interest groups in the political environment; Bentley argued that politics

is an interaction between interest groups. Lastly, political communication was highly

influenced by the media studies; this field is a keystone in measuring the effect of political

success (Ryfe, 2001).

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Technology shifted the political communication model from the national to global level.

It widens the public in terms of the accessibility and impact on the masses as well as

encourages faster processes within the governmental organizations. It is also argued, that

due to technological advances in the current era, political communication becomes more

globalized and there are no longer borders concerning the information flow. The

significance of the technological development in the communication field has been

recognized by Dalrymple and Scheufele (2007), who presented the statistical

differentiation between users of traditional and online media in regards to political

knowledge. The results showed the statistically significant difference between these two

groups of users, in favor of online media users (Miller and McKerrow, 2010).

2.2 Politics and Media

Media as an inevitable part of our daily lives is coming in various forms. It could be used

for educational as well as entertainment purposes. Moreover, political communication

was heavily influenced by the media studies; above all, media constitutes a large part of

political communication. Political figures and organization communicate their messages

through the media to reach larger masses. The communication could occur through

different vehicles such as news, advertising, interpersonal, musical, and others. However,

the preferences moderately shifted from the traditional media in print to electronic media,

online or in television. The relationship between political actions and the media is snug,

politics need media to gain wider influence, while media needs politics for the agenda

setting purposes. Nonetheless, when the communication is centered on political

campaigns, media is one of the primary components for the successful effect.
12
The mass media itself collects all the information and disseminates it to the public, helping

the crowds to stay informed; however, according to the agenda-setting theory, it is far

more than simply informing people. Media is not telling you what to think, but to set an

agenda that is current and relevant for the media (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997).

This perfectly fits the political agenda, whereas key figures are able to create news for

their personal purposes. Donald Trump, 2016 presidential elections candidate, could be a

perfect example; whatever he says that is considered to be irrelevant or radical

immediately appears on the news, not only on the national level, but globally. Coleman

and Banning (2006) described a term ‘second level agenda-setting effect’ in their research;

they claim that second-level research suggests that “attributes of candidates and issues

emphasized in news coverage become the attributes emphasized by voters.” Thus, it is

argued that this kind of framing has an enormous impact on a voter’s irrational choice.

As a result of high demand of massive reach and impact on the community mind, politics use

advertising in its every form during campaigns. Since 2008, when Obama and his team

became the successors of the online advertising, scholars began to analyze how internet affects

the masses. In spite of the challenges in limiting the information on the internet, politics

managed to successfully promote themselves with micro targeting and a more tailored

approach. Furthermore, internet users are able to find alternative news and educate themselves

on political matters. People tend to look for the information online since they share the

lack of political information on the traditional media (Bordiga and Stark, 2004). With the

rise of the internet a new medium appearing in the form of social media; it involves

billions of people in the 24/7 interaction. Social media assists as a tool for personalized

communication with each user. The key figures on the global political arena such as

13
Obama, Putin, or Merkel heavily utilize this modernized medium in order to promote and

share their ideology. Presidential elections in 2016 represent the role of social media in

presidential campaigns. Besides the websites that are customized according to the

candidate’s image, each has their own Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram online pages with

thousands of followers. At this stage candidates use the social media for promotional

purposes, however, appearing as if they are sharing simple thoughts, photos and videos

with their online “friends.”

Politicians also heavily use advertising during the campaigns. They attempt to appear on as

many mediums as possible in order to have a considerable influence on masses. Print ads,

direct mail, handouts, television ads, online advertising (online videos), radio ads, political

signage, and others. Politicians tend to issue positive as well as negative advertising. The

positive generally manifest the good qualities of the particular candidate and claim why the

electorate should vote for him or her, while negative advertising highlights feeble features of

their opponent. Every four years, when it comes to presidential campaigns, candidates invest

millions of dollars on producing advertising and creating a public image. But does it actually

work? Does the advertising persuade? Franz and Ridout (2007) in their article presented works

of many scholars and conducted study themselves on whether advertising persuades (p.

465-491). In the literature review they came to a conclusion that the impact is “sporadic,

either non-existent or significant but fairly small in magnitude” (2007). As a result of their

own studies, they concluded that advertising influences the perception of the candidate and

voter choice, particularly on the people who are considered to be “politically illiterate.”

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 2.3 Public Opinion

When the topic touches upon media, politics and their relationship, the concept of public

opinion is one of the main factors of this sophisticated relationship. The information created

through the political actions is highly in influenced by the public opinion and vice versa.

Politicians have an enormous impact on how the public opinion is shaped through

manipulation of the events and their depictions. According to the Oxford Dictionary, public

opinion is “A view or judgment formed about something, not necessarily based on fact or

knowledge.” Politics enter the public sphere in order to influence or ‘help’ to shape the public

opinion.

According to Jürgen Habermas, public sphere is a platform which allows the ‘birth’ of the

public opinion and discloses the public debate on the political ideas, where the media

serves as a medium for forming a rational public discourse (as cited in Iosifidis, 2013).

This public discourse is vital in forming successful operations of liberal democracy in the

society. The concept of democracy does not only apply solely the freedom and freedom of

choice, it stimulates the choice to be perceived skeptically, analyzed critically in order to

give an individual a right to make profound and rational choice. Here the public sphere

plays an enormous role in conceptualizing the political ideas through the public dialogue,

which gives a citizen a chance to analyze his and his interlocutor’s standpoint objectively

and rationally.

Phillips Davison (1958) highlights the importance of distinguishing the public from the

groups (p. 91-106). Members of the public do not necessarily know or interact with each

15
other, the only connection they have is the interest shared or “public interest”.

Nevertheless, it is difficult to define public interest since it alters throughout the time

segment and varies in different context. Each culture, society, organization, or individual

perceive the media or the information given by the media in different ways applying it to

their own objectives. Therefore it creates a different perspective and complicates the

process of defining the “public interest” as a universal index

16
3. Visual Analysis Theories

In this chapter different visual analysis theories will be discussed in the context of political

advertising. In order to understand the core of visual analysis it is important to examine

these theories proposed by the visual communication experts. The chapter will look at

semiotic theory, analyze visual rhetoric and how it works in political communication, as

well as scrutinize the way the messages are decoded and processed. Moreover, this chapter

will explore the scale of impact of the images on the mind of the voter, how the visuals

subconsciously affect viewer’s perception of the candidate.

3.1 Semiotics Theory

To understand the way communication is managed visually and how the message travels

across the audience, we have to take a look at the concept of semiotics. Semiotic theory is

the study of sign processes, it analyzes how the signs are constructed and how they are

interpreted by the viewer (Hamel, 2011). According to Berger (2014), the first one to come

up with the term semiotics was American philosopher Charles Sanders Pierce and was later

developed by Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure to semiology (p. 3). In addition,

Saussure’s book A Course in General Linguistics was the first one to suggest the semiotic

analysis. The field of study could be applied in film, theater, architecture, zoology and all

other areas that are attempting to comprehend the communication and the way it works.

17
Saussure (1983) suggests that the sign does not solely represent an object; rather it

discloses a specific concept. He believes that the sign consists of two main components:

‘signifier’ and ‘signified’(as cited in Fiske, 1990, p. 43-45). Hereby, signifier represents the

actual form (i.e. square) and the signified is responsible for the mental concept. The

relationship between two components is inconsistent, the meaning of the sign highly

depends on the culture where the signs are structured. For example, in the culture where

democratic values are non-existent the interpretation of the eagle might differentiate from

the American view as a sign of freedom.

The way the signs are constructed depends on the medium (Berger, 2014). Different

aesthetic aspects influence the construction of those signs and the meaning they convey.

The camera angle, the colors used in the image, the lighting used, the perspective of the

image, all of these factors impact on the outcome of the picture. It is up to the author of the

image to manipulate those factors, in order to create a picture that transmits a specific

message to the viewer. For instance, if the illustrator chooses to depict the politician from

lower angle it represents his or her authority and a viewer subconsciously puts himself in a

subordinate position. This could be interpreted negatively as well as positively depending

on the culture and overall personality of the viewer. Some might feel uncomfortable, others

may feel more connected to the politician. One way or another, the creator presented the

politician as a powerful, independent character.

The semiotic analysis is also a subject to a major criticism, despite its importance of image

decoding. The analysis is mainly concerned with the relationship of the signs and

18
tends to ignore the quality of the work itself; it neglects the bigger picture and focuses on

its particular elements solely. As Berger (2014) mentions “semiotics is not really concerned

with art, but rather with meaning and modes of cognition (the codes that we need to

understand a text)” (p. 37).

Semiotics in the political context has been examined by the philosophers such as Ernst

Cassier, who analyzed political semiotics in relation to the concept of utopia and C.G. Jung

that applied political semiotics to his Archetypes theory (Drechsler, 2009). A few studies

have observed semiotics in the political nature to analyze the images used for general

elections (William J. Jones, 2013) and propaganda posters (Lu Xing-Hua, 2005).

Semiotics is important in relation to political advertising. The camera manipulation and the

image constructed influences the outcome of the image presented to the public. The mental

image that will be fixed in the minds of the viewer will influence their opinion on the

performance and likability of the candidate.

3.2 Visual Rhetoric

Visual rhetoric theory has a slightly different approach towards interpretation of the

images, compared to semiotics. Rhetoric theory looks at the hidden message within the

picture and analyzes the way it affects the audience. The main questions that should be

asked are “why” and “how.” Scott (1994) states that the image-maker (sender) creates the

message according to the shared knowledge and understanding of the audience, intended

to impact a specific response (p. 252-273). Thus the cultural knowledge shared amongst

the audience works as a foundation for the interaction and persuasion. As Grancea (2014)
19
mentioned: “understanding the meaning of an image implies the application of known

conventions of the genre to which the image belongs that are not confined to visual

literacy but rather to knowledge of that genre” (p. 146). For example, the Thai negative

political advertising featuring dog masquerading in a human form as a politician might be

understood differently in American culture due to a specific cultural understanding of the

dog in Thai culture.

Nevertheless, Scott (1994) argues that we must learn to recognize the pictorial material as

a symbol rather than interpreting them according to mentally established patterns. In other

words, the rhetoric theory focuses on the visuals as a communication system.

When applied to political advertising, visual rhetoric theory plays a large role in the

construction of the meaning in the picture. The politicians and their PR team could easily

manipulate the public if the theory is carefully studied and implied. Erickson (2000) came

to conclusion that the politicians tend to use visual rhetoric for self-interested purposes.

Hereby, the images tend to mislead the public on the matter of political issues,

“misdirecting” the public attention, in order to “exert the political dominance”. This

unethical practice deteriorates the concept of liberal democracy.

3.3 Content Analysis

Compared to previously mentioned theories that essentially examine the pictures

according to the aesthetical features, content analysis is empirical by its nature and

delivers more objective and verifiable data. According to Fiske (1990), “it analyzes the

denotative order of signification” (p.136). The main goal of the content analysis is to

20
collect quantitative data without any bias involved. The methodology is based on

determining a specific component and counting its occurrence in media over a specific

period of time.

Applied to the political sphere, content analysis assists in understanding the political

agenda of the candidate. For instance, the study examines the number of times the

candidate features children in their advertising as a part of their official campaign. As a

result it might turn out that children tend to occur more in republican candidates’

advertising compared to democrats. In spite of the factual numbers given the study neglects

the way children are presented. Therefore, Fiske (1990) highlights the fact that content

analysis leaves us with the question ‘so what’ and lacks the question ‘why’ and ‘how’, thus

not presenting any specific argument that would support their claims (p. 143).

Gerbner (1970) underlines that the content analysis’s advantage lies in its nature of looking

at the material from the perspective of whole message system rather than from the

individual point of view. He believes that this analysis reflects our social and cultural

values (as cited in Fiske, 1990, p.143).

Berger (2014) suggests that the best way of analyzing the content is including the historical

as well as comparative elements (p. 138). By looking at the data from the historical

standpoint the study can reveal trends and identify changes; from the comparative

perspective the differences between specific societal and cultural values can be analyzed.

Applying content analysis in political advertising could be used as a tool for

counting the most frequently appearing elements. This paper specifically focuses on
21
distinguishing aesthetic elements that appear on posters of Democratic candidates as well

as Republican candidates in order to present the difference in approach towards its

supporters on the side of both parties. Since Republican and Democratic candidates

endorse different political agendas, the exploration of the visual elements each uses will

reinforce this idea.

3.4 The process of decoding

As mentioned above, the interpretation of the messages depends on the cultural background

of the viewer, the meaning of signs is embedded on a subconscious level. Eco (1965) based

on the observation of the way people decode the messages conceptualized the term

‘aberrant decoding’ which states that the message which was encoded for a specific

audience utilizing the shared codes will be decoded roughly close to the encoding (as cited

in Fiske, 1990, p. 78-82). But the same message decoded by the audience with different

cultural backgrounds leaves the meaning disrupted. This should be taken into consideration

while the image is analyzed. However, Scott believes that cameras are made to structure

the picture in the Western manner, therefore creating a standardized western way of seeing

the picture. This results in ethnocentric view (1994).

Connotation is a part of the decoding process which refers to the cultural meaning of the

word (or sign). The connotation of the word and sign is based on historic, emotional and

symbolic elements associated with it. On the other hand, denotation represents the literal

(dictionary) meaning of the word. For instance, terrorism denotes an unauthorized use of

violence in pursuit of political purposes; the connotation of the word could vary amongst

22
the cultures, but in Western countries the word connotes fear and safety hazard. These

concepts should be taken into consideration during the analysis of political images, in

order to understand the difference between universal meaning and irrational meaning of

the signs and words in the American culture.

Saussure (1983) also identified that there are two ways in which codes are organized. First,

is paradigm which is a set of signs from which one is the one is chosen to use (as cited in

Fiske, 1990; p. 57). For instance, types of animals (cats, dogs, horses) altogether form a

paradigm. The second one is syntagm, which characterizes the message where the chosen

signs of paradigm were combined (1990). Fiske also proposes a “communication test” that

helps identify and define the significant difference within paradigm and syntagm (p.109-

110). It is an imaginary technique which offers to alter the elements of the image and

assess the meaning. For example, a political advertisement in the United States features

both, black and white people standing next to the White House. If the White House is the

subject to change (i.e. to Capitol instead) the meaning of the message will remain the

same. Thus the building is not the paradigm of significance. Nonetheless, if we mentally

substitute black and white people by solely white, the context of the picture will be

changed and the message could be potentially conveying a racist message.

The idea of paradigm and synatgm implied in political advertising plays a significant role.

The designer produces a poster and chooses specific elements that fit together in order to

create a unified meaning and the choice of elements to be utilized comes from the set of

paradigm and syntagm.

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 4. Visual Analysis of Political Advertising

The purpose of this chapter is to analyze the political images used during the current

presidential elections (2016) the candidates chosen are from the leading names in each

party. Also addressed are two historically iconic images of Barack Obama (2008) and

Ronald Reagan (1980), in order to examine the degree to which visual elements

influenced each leader’s followers. The methodology will include the combination of

aforementioned techniques, which will assist in explaining the way aesthetic elements are

generally used in political advertising in order to influence voter’s choice. As a

foundation for the analysis the techniques and terminology used by Beth Lazroe in her

book Photography as Visual Communication published in 2001 will be used in the

process.

4.1 Case Studies: Obama ’08 and Reagan ‘80

Image A1 is the iconic Obama Hope poster, created by street artist Shepard Farey in

agreement with Obama’s campaign team, became a symbolic sign of his 2008 presidential

campaign (Tolbert, 2010). The poster creates an emotional bond between the viewer and

the candidate, by representing Obama as a leader that is able to support his people and

move the country forward.

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The poster’s thoroughly chosen colors are a strategic combination of red and blue, with

white insets. Despite the prevailing amount of blue color which represents the Democratic

Party, red color is extremely vivid and creates a feeling of equal depiction of both colors.

The angle of the camera is eye-level, which makes the audience feel the connection with

Obama and identify him as a casual yet stately man. The image-maker presented Obama as

“one of us” and thereby created an emotional bond between the viewer and the candidate.

The audience is not “otherizing” Obama, rather seeing him as a leader running as a person,

for people. The way Barack Obama raised his chin slightly up the way he looks up creates

a feeling as if he is looking at the God and follows his path. Moreover, than a half of his

face is colored white, the lighting that falls on the most part of his face. Creates an illusion

of the heaven light falling on the right part of his face. This makes the audience believe

subconsciously that Obama is connected to higher forces and that whatever he does is done

solely out of conscientious reasons. The word “Hope” itself underlines the nature of

Obama’s deeds.

Image A1: Fairey, S. (n.d.). Hope. Retrieved from

http://www.complex.com/style/2012/11/10-iconic-political-posters/barack-obama-
hope-poster (Originally photographed 2008)
25
The rhetoric of the image is slightly inclined towards the representation of Jesus, whose

mission is to change the world for better. Tolbert (2010), Williamson and Ferrara (2013)

argue that the rhetoric of this iconic image stands for the depiction of black culture. They

argue that Obama echoes hard past of longtime fights for civil rights. In fact, his character

shown on this poster represents all the African-American civil rights movements’ leaders

such as Malcom X and Martin Luther King. In addition, Williamson and Ferrara (2013)

believes that Obama’s Hope rhetoric intentionally presents him based upon the American

mythologies of heroes such as Abraham Lincoln (p. 748).

Image A2 represents another presidential candidate, Ronald Reagan in 1980’s. This image

contains a large amount of signs underlying Reagan’s American nature. It is important to

take into consideration the ongoing Cold War and how Reagan and his campaign team

made a strategic choice by bringing Reagan’s Americanism out. On the background of the

image different American landmarks such as Statue of Liberty, Capitol, Manhattan, Mount

Rushmore, and other American traditional buildings are pictured. This presents a patriotic

approach of the president and he calls his people to follow him on that path.

The eye-view camera angle, whereas Reagan “looks” into the eyes of the viewer shows

Reagan as down-to-earth man. He is one of us. This photo commutes Reagan’s connection

with his supporters, he does not have to get off his “high horse,” and he is always there for

his people. The cowboy hat worn only headlines his dedication to American cultural

practices. The cowboy hat also conveys (especially during 80’s) brutality, macho, charming,

and savior qualities. With regards to application of these terms to the context of Reagan’s

political advertising, the poster does not solely present his belonging to the culture, but rather

his apprehension of cultural traditions and his strong and brutal cowboy character.
26
Another factors pushing on patriotic emotions to elicit on the side of the viewer is

representation of the country flag on the word “America” written in big bold letters.

Moreover, the “Reagan country” written under does not point out solely his belonging to

American culture, but rather tries to show that every American patriot is invited to build

this country with Ronald Reagan.

Image A2: Reagan, C. (n.d.). America, Reagan Country. Retrieved from

http://www.complex.com/style/2012/11/10-iconic-political-posters/america-reagan-country (Originally
photographed 1980)

Overall, Reagan and his team made a critical choice by using the approach to the audience

during wartime elections, where the country needs a leader that will unite the people and

will remind them where they belong to and where they come from.

27
 4.2 Democratic Candidate: Bernie Sanders

During presidential elections 2016 two main candidates have progressed to the final rounds

leading to democratic nomination for president: Hillary Clinton and Bernie Sanders.

Clinton leading for some time, until Sanders began getting more publicity and made

significant gains in the polls. Furthermore, Bernie Sanders is a social democrat and as it is

known Americans are inclined to connect this concept with communism. Therefore, this

subchapter will analyze the techniques used in the posters presented by his campaign team

and will examine first, the degree to which these images play on emotions, and second

what political messages might be understood from the images presented.

Image B1: Lewis, A. (n.d.). Not Me, US. Retrieved from https://berniesanders.com/this-
campaign-is-about-you/

28
Image B1 representing the silhouette of Bernie Sanders from the back, contains large

number of aesthetical key elements, altogether contributing to the poster eliciting emotional

response and emphasizing Sanders’s political position. Concerning the colors, the poster

presents four colors: dark red, light red, yellow, blue, and dark blue. Blended together the

colors are associated with rainbow, which signifies happiness and joy. However, it is fair to

say that light blue color is predominating in this picture emphasizing his belonging to

Democratic Party. The decision of coloring people with such a variety of colors might also

signify Sanders’s inclination to unite people of different gender, class, and race. In other

words, the picture features people coming from different backgrounds being united and

fighting altogether for the same cause.

The way Sanders holds his hand up creates a line that is used strategically to highlight a

few points. First of all, the spectator is supposed to visually travel Sanders’s body from

down to up (which is replete with people in the meanwhile). Hereby, the viewer notices

people within his body shape rather than Bernie Sanders alone. Thus, the image maker does

not fully emphasize the attention on the candidate, as it is generally done, but rather focuses

on the people. In fact, presenting people silhouettes inside of Sanders’s body shape

represents an implicit caring and deliberation about the American nation. It is important to

mention, that the word “US” is almost fully filled with people as well, highlighting the fact

that people have to unite together, it is not only about Bernie Sanders, people play

important role in his agenda. In the meanwhile, part of the text saying Not me, is empty,

sending the sign of the void of Bernie Sanders’s actions without the nation standing with

him.

29
In addition to all these factors, the poster serves the viewer by inviting him into it. The image

maker chose a specific angle of placing people body’s “inside” of Bernie Sanders.

The poster sends the sensation of belonging to this group by using viewer space. The

spectator is invited to be a part of this political movement. He feels as one of those people

following Bernie Sanders on his path to the White House. This factor creates a strong

emotional bond between the audience and Bernie Sanders, under the circumstances the link

is also established with the imaginary followers of Bernie.

Investigating the symbols used in the image according to visual rhetoric theory, his fist

raised up in the air has been used strategically, in order to stress more on irrational response

from the viewers. The raised fist sign stands for the solidarity and unity. However due to

historical movements from the side of minorities, particularly on American soil, the fist

also represents opposing forces (Calbris, 2011). In the context used, the fist represents

Bernie Sanders as a part of those resistance forces. This is rhetorical symbolism used to

send out the message of unity and solidarity to the audience. Subsequently, in one picture,

the author tries to create an emotional connection with the viewer, by serving as a tool for

reminding them of who they are and where they come from.

Image B2, featuring Bernie Sanders with people once again, takes a slightly risky step in

choosing the symbolism depicted, however, the picture also creates an ambient

atmosphere. The picture presents a number of people standing in line, in profile, from the

left side the face shapes are bleeding from the frame, leaving the observer questioning the

number of people standing in the line. The last person on the right is Bernie Sanders. He is

the only one whose face features are clearly visible and recognizable. Perhaps, by doing so
30
the author intended to show Bernie Sanders’s ability to lead people and become a

successful leader. Furthermore, the candidate is pictured out of the frame; he is not standing

with them, the horizontal line cuts the connection between Sanders and his followers.

Nevertheless, this technique invites the viewer to stand next to Bernie Sanders and continue

the line. The originator created a slightly 3 dimensional effect, by putting Bernie Sanders

out of the frame, while keeping him close to the spectator. This leaves the viewer with the

feeling of imaginary physical connection.

Image B2: Rogers, J. (n.d.). Together. Retrieved from https://berniesanders.com/this-

campaign-is-about-you/jermaine/

In image B2 the designer’s idea to use these specific colors represents the variety of

people on the picture. If judging each color on its own, they send out warm and friendly

messages; the colors are not too bright and sharp, even the tone of red color is not too

prominent and matches the combination.

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Despite the faces represented do not visualize the facial feature of those people, the author

highlighted the face shape of those people to underline their diversity and uniqueness.

Depending on the race, gender, ethnicity and sexual orientation as well, the physical traits

vary (Ossorio, 2006; Moskowitz, Turrubiates, Lozano and Hajek, 2013). By tracing their

face shapes according to their race, gender, ethnicity and sexual orientation, he highlights

their belonging to different groups of people, coming from different background.

Hereby, the author, once again, draws attention upon the diversity of Sanders’s followers

and his relationship with these people. Bernie Sanders and his followers, both are pictured

on the same level, showing their equal social positions with no hierarchal division

between Sanders and his supporters.

Face silhouettes put in line also create a triangular shape; more specifically the angle

between the neck and the chest creates a shape of an arrow. The ‘arrow line’ is continued

by five silhouettes and finishes the moment it reaches Bernie Sanders. These arrows point

at Sanders, while observing, the viewer will visually travel the arrow line to meet the

candidate. This technique underlines the focus on the protagonist of the picture; in

combination with other aesthetic factors such as depicting Sanders outside the frame and

presenting his facial traits, while hiding others, the image-maker stresses a lot of attention

on the main character, accentuating his importance. Nonetheless, at the same time the

author is not letting Sanders to play the main role in the picture and does not stress upon his

superiority. Moreover, the angle of the picture is center on eye-level. This aspect sends out

a friendly invitation to the viewer, creating a feeling of belonging to this group of people.

32
 Image B3: Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Lenin and Stalin. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.gettyimages.com/event/years-since-the-death-of-joseph-stalin-
130583067?media_id=89856241 (Originally photographed 1953)

The most obvious visual rhetoric that is presented on the poster is the analogy with famous

picture featuring ‘fathers of communism’, that are Marx, Engles, Lenin, and Stalin. Image

B3 presents an original pictorial material. The decision behind choosing this visual rhetoric

is questioned. However, judging upon the stereotype and prejudice people have towards

the communism, this might serve as an intimidation tool towards the audience. On the

other hand, the American nation might have not been exposed to the poster featuring

fathers of communism, therefore having a limited notion about the rhetoric of this picture.

In addition, the author might have intended on pointing out the overall political position of

senator Bernie Sanders, which is social democracy.

The last Bernie Sanders poster that will be analyzed, does not feature the candidate himself.

However, the picture uses strong and strategic aesthetical cues to build up a picture

stressing out Bernie Sanders name, while his figure is absent. Image B4, compared to afore-

33
mentioned posters, is a photograph rather than a graphically created picture. The poster

feature a silhouette of a young man standing with his back facing the spectator and facing

the crowd below him.

The poster strategically utilizes the lines to highlight the main points of the image. Firstly,

young man’s arms raised up, create two parallel lines pointing out the poster that he is

holding. The poster features Bernie Sanders’ name on it; therefore, the main focus of the

picture falls on his name. The viewer visually travels over man’s body, finishing the

“journey” upon the poster, mentioning the candidate’s name. The roof of the building

creates a horizontal line, clearly dividing the photo into two parts, serves as another factor

stressing upon Bernie’s name on the image. The lower part of the image is black and white

and uses high contrast, while the upper part is colored in blue and utilizes lower contrast.

Subsequently, Bernie Sanders’s name poster, which is also high contrasted, is placed on the

blue background that makes the poster singled out.

Overall, the poster mainly uses a high contrast to leave the sky part of the picture plain.

Even though the colors are not highly visible, the color of the upper part of the photo could

be defined as light blue. Moreover, in comparison to the middle ground of the picture,

which depicts the mass of people, the young man on the foreground is in low contrast;

consequently, the importance of the presence of this figure is highlighted. He is the

protagonist of this poster, he is the one who holds up Bernie’s name, thus his figure is

sufficient and has to be visually prominent.

34
Image B4: Sigala, H. (n.d.). Together. Retrieved from https://berniesanders.com/this-
campaign-is-about-you/jgjzeau/

The middle ground, picturing a large mass, creates a feeling of chaos. In the context of this

poster, the chaos conceptualizes a political revolution. The main player of the picture is

placed on a higher position compared to the public, which could be observed from the high

angle. Technically this represents his superiority in relations to the mass; however, the fact

that he stands facing the crowd, creates a closer connection between the mass and the

young man.

The figure of the young man is bleeding out of the picture frame; the audience is not able to see

the down part of his body. This technique creates a slightly 3 dimensional effect once again.

Therefore, the image uses viewer space and invites him to follow the man. In addition, the

eye-level angle makes the spectator feel as if a part of the crowd. The bleeding factor of the

poster also leaves the viewer questioning the full number of supporters. It is open for his or

her imagination to decide the massiveness of the public.

35
The text of the image stating “We are democracy”, stresses on the significance of unity.

By saying so, the author offers the spectator to join in the community. He points out the

fact, how each of us is an important contributor to the democratic functioning of the

whole nation. It is not only about Bernie Sanders, the image-maker underlines how we

should contribute to common good and become united. This factor presents the political

strategy of Bernie Sanders, whereas the candidate highly believes in strength of the

people and attempts to avoid the ‘me’ feature from his agenda.

Summarizing the analysis of Bernie Sanders’s political campaign posters, common

features could be identified. These features serve as a tool for reinforcing the emotional

bond with the viewer. In all three posters analyzed above, the image-maker stresses out

the ‘we’ factor. Judging upon that factor, Bernie Sanders shows his ability to rely on

people and to what degree he values every single follower. Overall, the image-maker

attempted to put as less stress on Bernie Sanders figure as possible. It is all about him

and them together, not him alone. Another common technique is a strategic use of

viewer space. Looking back at each poster, the viewer is able to imaginarily become a

part of the crowd, the line (standing next to Bernie Sanders), or participate in political

revolution, following the young man. Thus, it makes the spectator feel a special

connection with the people featured on posters. These two elements combined create a

feeling of the urgency of becoming a part of this political movement. Sanders’ posters

do not emphasize on his political agenda, as much as pushing the ideas of unification

and inclusion.

36
 4.3 Republican Candidate: Donald Trump

Compared to Democratic Party, the number of Republican candidates was notably

sizeable. Throughout the horse race some of the candidates, even those that seemed to be

promising, withdrew from the race. Towards the final months of the campaign, three main

candidates were leading the polls: Donald Trump, Ted Cruz, and John Kasich. Compared

to his opponents, Donald Trump had a unique political program that attracted large number

of American people. Nevertheless, he is highly criticized for his extremist tendencies; his

agenda is based on nationalistic approach. The analysis will explore first, how do images

influence on emotional response and second, what political messages his posters and

political images convey.

Image C1 presents edited version of well know Uncle Sam Wants You for US Army,

that was spread around during wartime propaganda campaigns. The image-maker

shifted Uncle Sam’s face to Donald Trump’s and changed the text to Trump’s campaign

slogan. The lack of strategic positioning of the aesthetical elements in the picture does

not constitute an immediate emotional response or simply do not attract the viewer.

However, due to the patriotic symbolism utilized in the poster establishes a strong

relationship between the audience and the candidate.

37
 Image C1: I Want to Make Ametica Great Again. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.brandchannel.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/donald-trump-make-
america-great-uncle-sam.jpg

The symbolism is built through the emphasis of the colors used: red, blue and white. These

colors represent the American flag, subsequently the combination of these colors represent

the American nation. Furthermore, Uncle Sam/Donald Trump wears a hat with stars

printed on it, hereby fully representing an American flag outfit. The dark blue jacket worn

over the bright white shirt makes this area highlighted and assists the spectator in playing a

visual tennis, where the spectator coordinates the attention between Trump’s face and the

text. This factor helps to balance the attention between the face and face expression of the

main character in the image and the text. In this particular representation, the facial

expression is not attracting attention solely based on the highlights created by the contrast.

Trump’s facial expression embodies anger and pressure; therefore it distracts attention

from other details and concentrates on Trump. More specifically, his face expression

sends out negative message, the viewer might feel subordinate to the candidate, feeling as

38
if he is shouting at them.

The finger pointing straight at the viewer also adds up to the disturbing pressure upon the

spectator. Taking into consideration the fact that the original Uncle Sam poster was used

for army recruitment as a part of war propaganda. Subsequently, the image-maker wanted

to make the viewer feel obliged to obey the protagonist. The position of pointing finger

also disturbs the viewer space, whereas the audience feels the disturbance in personal

space. In addition, the audience is located slightly lower than an eye-level angle. Even

though it does not completely present Trump’s superior approach, the poster positions him

on a higher position. Thus, the viewer either otherizes Trump, meaning that he is

oppressed, or the spectator might reinforce his connection with the candidate through

subordination.

The text of written on the poster reflects candidate’s official campaign slogan. Perhaps,

compared to the official one, the text of the poster focuses on the “me” factor. While the

original slogan states “Make America Great Again!” highlighting the importance of “you”

to participate in the process of making America great again; the poster text focuses on

Trumps wishes. To be more precise, the text does not elaborate on what they want from the

viewer. In spite of the lack of “guidelines,” all other aesthetical elements stress on the

spectator, making him or her feel constrained.

The creator simplified his task, by choosing such a strong historic symbolism for the

poster. Referring back to the visual rhetoric of the images, this poster uses Uncle Sam as a

way of sending out a specific message crafted for American people. Uncle Sam is

considered to be one of the most famous and beloved American symbols, he “symbolizes
39
the way Americans see themselves (Hicks, 2006). Accordingly, the image provokes

emotional response, particularly patriotic emotions. The viewer might feel slightly

vulnerable due to the flow of patriotic emotions based on historical background of the

country and its cultural values. The poster reminds the viewer where they come from. The

emphasis on patriotism is the only factor that strongly connects the viewer with the poster

and Trump.

Compared to the previous poster, Image C2 creates a more peaceful atmosphere around the

poster. Nonetheless, the aesthetical elements of the image were not used strategically;

therefore the poster does not leave one with any strong emotion. This poster is also an

edited version, the original version feature planet Earth, instead of rectangular shape with

Trump name and slogan written on it.

Image C2: Trump Train. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.instagram.com/p/BAKh7JLGheL/?taken-by=realdonaldtrump

40
Eight hands chained together, create a round shape in the center of the photo. This directly

emphasizes the significance of paying attention to whatever is contained within the shape,

especially with highlight contrast on the background. In this case, the shape contains the

endorsement of Donald Trump campaign. The name of the candidate and the slogan are

featured in the rectangular form. Trump’s surname is the most bolded and the most visible

part of the shape. Furthermore, the endorsement also contains five (5) stars, which is

usually associated with high quality service and assistance (hotel ratings) or high general

positions in militaries. Therefore, the presence of stars conveys the message of excellence

and authority. It is important to mention that chained hands do not only shape a round,

they shape could also be associated with the sun, whereas the wrists represent sun rays.

Since the hands are bleeding out the frames, which invites the viewer to join in and

become a part of the poster. Thereupon, the poster constitutes positive and friendly

atmosphere.

Despite the lack of strong aesthetic elements featured, the poster uses strong symbolic

messages. Firstly, the image represents the hands that belong to people from different

races. In fact, all these hands chained together depicts a racial equality. In due course, it

represents unity and solidarity. The image calls upon unification and peace. In addition,

the way the hands are placed simulates the prevention sign. If communication test,

proposed by Fiske (1990) applied and the rectangular shape will be replaced by the planet

Earth (the original picture), the meaning of the picture shifts, the signification perfectly

accords with the meaning of the image. Thus, the importance of the object presented the in

the center serves as a cue of the poster. But in this specific case, this factor puts the

viewers in a confusing position, because the image communicates the message as if

41
Trump’s name is and should be prevented. Therefore, the image does not resemble

Trump’s political agenda and conveys vague and unspecified message.

Overall, the image does not state its purpose and focus visually as well as verbally.

The text does not specify anything except the candidate’s surname and slogan. The non-

strategic approach towards creation of the picture resulted in poor visual content that

does not present any political agenda and does not play on emotions.

The last Donald Trump official campaign poster is visually constructed better, than two

previous images. But compared to the first poster, Image C3 also utilized national patriotic

symbols to highlight the Trumps Americanism and dedication to that country. In spite of the

large amount of symbolic messages constituting the image, lack of strategic positioning

of aesthetical elements do not create a necessary atmosphere for the viewer to be highly

attracted. Moreover, aesthetic elements used limit the spectator from establishing an

emotional connection with the candidate. One of the aspects influencing this outcome is

the use of American flag. The image creates a sense of heaviness (the flag is bleeding off

all the edges); it seems like the flag that covers the picture, restricts the viewer from the

elements placed underneath. Even though the American flag is an integrate part of

American culture and “has become not only an important part of our country’s history

but an integral component to being an American citizen” (Marmo, 2010, p. 45), it

confines the audience to visually access other details of the picture and to minutely

analyze the given material.

42
 Image C3: We Need Real Leadership. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/jul/14/donald-trump-nazi-soldiers-tweet-
top-republican-polls

Due to the flag overlaying the other items of the poster, the image is divided into many

parts. The most visible division comes between Donald Trump and the dollars, White

House and soldiers. The division is extremely visible, since two parts of the picture look

completely different and do not have any connection with each other apart from a vertical

line, which technically divides them. Colors highlight this detachment; the right part of the

picture is also divided into five parts, each featuring different elements. This division

contributes as an element that mentally separates Donald Trump from the objects

presented on the right side of the image. This, however, does not reflect Trump’s political

position, therefore this specific strategy was used unsuccessfully.

The left side of the picture shows Donald Trump. Since he is not contained and bleeds off

the edges, the image creates a feeling of heaviness. The angle of the camera is on eye-

level; therefore the viewer is able to relate himself to the candidate presented.

Nevertheless, the way he squints, lightly insinuates his contemptuous attitude towards the

43
audience. Depending on viewer’s temper, this might be either fully neglected or result in

dissent.

On the right part of the image different nationally well recognized elements were used. The

first one is a pile of dollars fading off the edges, thereby leaving the viewer questioning an

actual amount of dollars. Dollars are also one of the most recognized American symbols.

Nonetheless, in the context of Trump’s presidential campaign, the dollars also represent

Donald Trump’s strong connection with businesses and overall emphasizes his capitalistic

views. The next cultural element presented is the White House. This building represents

the culture and the history of the US; this house has been an object where millions of

politically vital questions were discussed, the place where tough decisions were made, and

the venue for so many historically important events. Furthermore, by featuring the White

House in the poster, the image-maker intended on linking it with Trump. Consequently,

the poster sends the message about Trump’s confidence in relations to winning

presidential campaign and making the White House his new home. The last cultural

element outlined is 4 soldiers. US military is a huge part of the American nation and

represents the strength of the country and its people. It also stands for the historical

experience of the nation and reminds its people of what they survived through and what

value their military brought on a global level. Taking into consideration Trump’s political

agenda, when the candidate endorses military actions and encourages people to act upon

his nationalistic standpoints this part of the image perfectly resembles his position

regarding this matter.

Surprisingly, after a detailed examination the poster was turned out depicting Nazi soldiers

44
instead of American. Later, but not immediately, the poster was deleted from all Trump

supporting database. According to Holpuch (2015), who wrote an article in Huffington

Post called Donald Trump campaign tweets photo with Nazi soldiers – then leads polls,

which talks about the scandal, after the inspection it turned out that “the soldiers actually

have the SS eagle insignia on their arms”. Nevertheless, the image does not represent

actual SS soldiers; it is a reincarnation available online. Why did image-maker decide to

use Nazi soldiers will probably be left as a mystery. Notwithstanding, the author of the

article elaborates on the fact that in the same hour as the photo was published online,

Trump took the first place among republicans on a national poll.

Overall, Donald Trump’s posters are not properly conducted, since the powerful

aesthetical elements are not used or create an opposite reaction. For instance, as it was

mentioned above, the line divides the picture in to two parts (Image C3), therefore the

viewer mentally detaches elements of one part of the picture from the second part. There is

no specific system in image-making spotted; therefore the overall performance of the

posters is not outstanding. Nonetheless, Trump pushes on patriotic emotions by putting

various cultural elements reminding the viewers who they are and what their country

represents. As well as Bernie Sanders, Trump does not apply his political agenda in his

posters. Rather the primary idea is to push on patriotic emotions and focusing attention on

Trump as an individual; compared to Sander’s that avoids emphasizing ‘me’ factor.

4.4 Summary

Visual analysis of campaign posters produced by two competing parties emphasizes

the overall ideology of each party and each candidate. Comparing Bernie Sanders and
45
Donald Trump according to their posters, analysis shows great differences between their

approaches towards the voter. The composition of Bernie Sanders posters indicates his

attitude towards his followers; the image-maker picked on the specific values an

underlined their significance in this race. The audience observing Sanders’s posters are

given an opportunity to join the community. Moreover, the composition of the posters

make the observer feel related to Berne Sanders and his followers; this is significantly

highlighted through the strategic utilization of aesthetic elements such as lines, angles and

space.

While Bernie Sanders attempts to attract the potential audience by applying special

visual aspects that convey an anticipated emotional response, Donald Trump chooses

to avoid a systematic usage of aesthetic factors; therefore his posters do not produce

any strong emotional connection with the audience.

Both cases are perfect manifestation of how candidate’s personality is reflected upon the

visual representation. Even though both of the candidates do not underline their political

agenda or their views on political issues in their campaign posters, the image composition

presents how each of the candidates feels about the issues and the nation as a whole. Based

on the elements chosen, the spectator can distinguish candidate’s personality.

Consequently, after examining the poster, the viewer will be able to either identify with the

presented candidate or oppose him or her.

46
 5. The Impact of Strategic Images on the Public

The following chapter will explore the effect of an imagery representation of the

candidate as a part of official campaign. First, the chapter will review decision-making

processes and analyze how emotions are involved in it. The previous chapter analyzed

visual elements of different political posters, arguing that those posters carry an

emotional character: specific positioning of particular aesthetic elements construct

meaning for the audience, which associated with particular emotions felt. Therefore, it is

important to understand to what degree those emotions have an influence on viewer’s

perception in a political decision-making context. Secondly, the chapter will examine

how persuasive political advertising is and how emotions are manipulated in order to

attract the potential voter.

5.1 Decision Making Process

Every human being is exposed to the decision-making process. On a daily basis we are forced

to make some kind of decisions: from eating, sleeping, and other casual interactions to more

complex political and social decisions. In the context of political elections, each voter’s final

decision has an enormous impact on subsequent social changes in the country.

Composition of the image is not the only aspect affecting voter’s decision-making

processes. There have been extensive research on the process of decision-making,

investigating the factors that have an influence on it. Schvaneveldt and Adams (1983) argue

47
that the way adults involve themselves with the decision-making process highly depends on

sex, age, social class, religion, lifestyle, and temperament. The skill develops through social

interaction. However, in connection with political decision-making, there are three (3)

primary factors influencing voter's behavior in the context of political campaigning:

personal identity (identification with candidate), personal ethics (ethical and moral

principles), and personal benefit (what benefits the voter could receive) (Levine, 2005). The

study revealed that the most significant motivator behind voter’s decision-making process

is overt personal benefit (2005). Nevertheless, these results oppose the basic democratic

values, whereas the voter should process the information according to social values, rather

than personal.

A number of studies argue that a voter engages emotions during the decision-making

process (Naqvi, Shiv & Bechara, 2006; Huddy and Gunnthorsdottir, 2000; Brader, 2005, p.

388–405; Hartmann, 1935, p. 99-114). The level to which people rely on emotions during

this process is not defined; it depends on the personal approach on the side of each viewer.

However, it is argued that political commitment and involvement are the primary factors

that provoke strong emotional response (Huddy and Gunnthorsdottir, 2000; Jin, An and

Simon, 2009). On the contrary, another study found that people lacking enough of political

information are more vulnerable towards the advertisement message (Franz and Ridout,

2007). One way or another, these studies provide a strong evidence for the presence of

strong emotional response.

48
How specifically do viewer’s emotional responses influence overall candidate

evaluations? Chang (2001) also conducted a study, where he established a mediating

process of ad-evoked emotion. According to this model, ad valance (assigned negative or

positive emotions) has an effect on the candidate evaluations through the mediation of ad-

evoked emotion. Nonetheless, it is important to keep in mind, that the cultural differences

have a large impact on the way messages are constructed in political advertising and what

kind of emotional response it triggers, if it induces one. The experimental study has shown

a sustainable difference between the U.S., Japanese and Korean political advertising

strategy implications. Surprisingly, the results have indicated that Japanese ads are more

inclined to use logical appeal, while U.S. and Korean advertising were carrying an

emotional appeal, with no significant difference.

5.2 Persuasion

Does political advertising actually persuade the viewer to vote for a candidate? Of course,

advertising is not the only source of political information. The voter has a big choice of

platforms that will be able to educate him or her enough, in order to be capable of

rationalizing the final choice. It is hard to examine how specifically persuasion works in

political advertising, but the exposure to it could affect an attitude towards the candidate

(Franz and Ridout, 2007).

Some critics argue that political advertising campaigns can influence voter behavior, by

manipulating emotions. Brader (2005) conducted a study measuring how enthusiasm and

49
fear emotions are manipulated in the political ads and examined whether it has an impact

on voter’s choice (p. 388–405). The results have shown that by manipulating visuals and

music in political advertising, the voter can potentially alter his or her choice (2005).

Moreover, as Phillips, Urbany and Reynolds stated, political affiliation has an influence on

the way the political ad is processed in the mind of the spectator (as cited in Daignault,

Soroka and Giasson, 2013) and has an impact on candidate image evaluation (Kaid,

Postelnicu, Landreville, Yun and LeGrange, 2007). Franz and Ridout (2007) specify in

their study the difference of ad processing and perception among Democrats and

Republican. The study has concluded that those who strongly relate themselves to

Democrats are more sensitive towards political advertising, while strong republicans are

indifferent to that matter (2007). Another study came to conclusion, regarding emotive

imagery being the most persuasive tool, particularly among those who support the matter

presented (Huddy and Gunnthorsdottir, 2000).

Some assert that political advertising is not persuasive in all the cases. It strongly depends

on the viewer, his background and on the candidate or as a representative of a particular

party. For instance, Surlin and Gordon (1976) claims that if the subject of the advertising

is not likeable to the viewer’s interest, the advertising will fail at “cognitively reaching”

this target group. Furthermore, during the political campaigns candidates utilize positive

political advertising, where they attempt to reinforce their positive traits. However, in

order to win the race, candidates have recourse to negative political advertising, which is

utilized to take advantage of their opponent’s negative attributes. Studies have shown that

an audience is more resistant to persuasion in negative advertising rather than positive

(Daignault, Soroka and Giasson, 2013).

50
The process of persuasion might also take place in viewer’s subconscious mind. The

image that the viewer is exposed to does not solely represent all the best features of the

product or service, contrariwise big companies avoid this strategy altering it with depicting

the ideology that they want to share with the masses and leave a colossal impression on

the subconscious level. The concept of subliminal stimuli means sensory stimuli that

appear to be below the weakest stimuli for consciousness (Loftus and Klinger, 1992).

Subliminal messages have the strongest impact on the development of the human

perception of the world as a whole, our future attitudes, values, preferences and overall

behavior highly depend on the messages read or seen throughout the entire life; the

trickiest part is that the whole process occurs without basic conscious consent of the man

(Zanot, Pincus & Lamp, 1983; Moore, 1982; Gratz, 1984).

Political figures also count on the subliminal messages in the advertising and anticipate the

potential electorate to become the active one. The strategy is practiced in positive as well

as in negative advertising. Looking back on the elections in the 2000 (George H.W. Bush

vs. Al Gore), in the negative advertising by Bush against Al Gore, where he is subject of

criticism for government funding of prescriptions for pensioners, the word “RATS”

appeared in white capital letters on the black background for a fraction of a second, as a

part of the word “bureaucrats”. It is considered to be one of the most prominent occasions

of subliminal advertising during the presidential elections. In fact, each financially

dominating candidate chooses to leave ‘invisible’ messages to influence thousands (Kaid,

2001).

51
 6. Conclusion

Advertising has definitely integrated into our lives without any consent and has an

enormous impact on our behavior, changing views and attempting to persuade the target

audience to act upon a given matter. With the advent of technological convergence and

development in the sphere of communication, the way advertising works has sustainably

changed. Nowadays, it has an ability of reaching niche markets serving as a subset of

target markets enabling the marketers to manipulate the advertising according to the

preferences and interest of once thought unreachable market. As advertising develops, the

ability of political campaign to adjust to these transformations is a vital part of political

communication, in order to be capable of approaching as broad of a base as possible.

Incorporating traditional and digital advertising, marketer’s gain a great deal of control

over what is said, how it is said, and in what way it affects the consumer behavior. As it

becomes almost impossible to avoid advertisement, it definitely has an increasing impact

on our daily interactions, at very least becoming a part of our subconscious mind, whereas the

information received by glance or side vision remains fixed and affects our behavior.

The analysis of visual elements incorporated within the political poster, in this paper, have

shown how specifically each element contributes to the overall campaign agenda. More

specifically, the paper analyzed how each party’s candidates take different kind of

approach towards its audience. If Bernie Sanders was trying to mainly focus the attention

on the importance of the viewer to become a supporter, Donald Trump chose to leave a

stress on his or his name, not picking on any emotions, rather than patriotic. It is difficult

to claim that given visual material actually resembles each candidate’s party. However,

52
images reflect upon each candidate’s personality traits and style.

Some critics argue that advertising has a positive impact on voter turnout; however the

effect is not consistent (Franz, Freedman, Goldstein and Ridout, 2008, p. 262–268).

Additionally, some critics believe that political advertising contributes to development of

cynical attitude among voters; however, one study found that young voters feel more

efficient in a matter of political information due to political ads. Notwithstanding,

according to Pew Research Center (2000), the American public is not in favor of political

advertising (as cited in Jin, An and Simon, 2009). However, it does not mean that the mass

will fails to be influenced by the ad message. As previous chapter discussed, subliminal

messages are a integral part of the equation, where even if chosen to be ignored the

message remains in the minds of the audience.

Nevertheless, the study has limitations making it difficult to generalize its findings. Firstly,

the author of the paper does not possess the necessary cultural knowledge of the American

nation. The meaning of specific symbolic signs might have been interpreted by an

American group of people. As visual analysis theories suggest (except content analysis), it

is important for the audience to have the same cultural knowledge as the author of the

image, in order to be able to read decoded messages in closely same way as it was encoded

by the image-maker. Kim (2005) found in his study, that the differences in political system

and cultural attributes play significant role in the outcome of political ads in the matter of

content and style. Secondly, the findings of this study are considered not to play a major

role on a wider picture. Political advertising in the form of posters is not the only platform

used for gathering the political information about the candidate.

53
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Brader, T.. (2005). Striking a Responsive Chord: How Political Ads Motivate and Persuade

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Calbris, G. (2011). Elements of meaning in gesture. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Pub.

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candidate evaluation. Media Psychology, 3(2), 91-118.

Coleman, R., & Banning, S. (2006). Network TV News' Affective Framing of the

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54
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Franz, M. M., & Ridout, T. N. (2007). Does Political Advertising Persuade? Political

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An exploratory investigation. Psychology & Marketing, 26(6), 551-568.

Hamel, S. C. (2011). Semiotics: Theory and Applications. Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science.

Hartmann, G. W. (1936). A field experiment on the comparative effectiveness of

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Huddy, L., & Gunnthorsdottir, A. H.. (2000). The Persuasive Effects of Emotive Visual

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56
Kaid, L. L., Postelnicu, M., Landreville, K., Yun, H. J., & LeGrange, A. G. (2007). The

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American Behavioral Scientist, 44(12), 2370-2378.

Kim, C. (2005). The Impact of Political System and Culture on Political Advertising.

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Ethics, and Personal Benefit. American Behavioral Scientist, 49(1), 63-77.

Loftus, E.F., & Klinger, M.R. (1992). Is the unconscious smart or dumb? American

Psychologist, 47, 761-765.

Marmo, J. (2010). The American flag and the body: How the flag and the body create an

American meaning. Kaleidoscope: A Graduate Journal Of Qualitative Communication

Research, 945-63.

McCombs, M.E., D.L. Shaw, and D. Weaver, eds. 1997. Communication and Democracy:

Exploring the Intellectual Frontiers in Agenda-Setting Theory. New York: Routledge.

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57
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Cognitive Neuroscience Perspective. Current Directions in Psychological Science Current

Directions in Psychol Science, 15(5), 260-264.

Ossorio, Pilar N. "About Face: Forensic Genetic Testing for Race and Visible Traits." The

Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics. 34.2 (2006): 277-92. Web.

Rubin, R. B., & McHugh, M. P. (1987). Development of Parasocial Interaction

Relationships. Journal Of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 31(3), 279-292.

Ryfe, D. M. (2001). History and Political Communication: An Introduction. Political

Communication, 18(4), 407-420.

Saussure, F. D., & Bally, C. (1983). Course in General Linguistics. London: Gerald

Duckwort.

Schvaneveldt, J. D., & Adams, G. R.. (1983). Adolescents and the Decision-Making

Process. Theory into Practice, 22(2), 98–104.

Scott, Linda M. Images in Advertising: The Need for a Theory of Visual Rhetoric. Journal

Of Consumer Research. September 1994; 21(2):252-273.

Smelser, N. J., & Baltes, P. B. (2001). International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral

sciences. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

58
Surlin, S. H., & Thomas F. Gordon. (1976). Selective Exposure and Retention of Political

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Tolbert, Caroline J. Political Research Quarterly, December 2010; vol. 63, 4: p. 860-862.

Williamson, J. G., & Ferrara, M. S. (2015). Barack Obama and the Rhetoric of Hope.

Rhetoric and Public Affairs, 18(4), 748.

Xing-Hua, Lu. Political representation within the libidinal economy of a pictorial space: A

political-semiotic reading of three propaganda posters of the Chinese Cultural Revolution.

Semiotica. November 2005(157):213-232.

Zanot, E. J., Pincus, J. D., & Lamp, E. J. (1983). Public perceptions of subliminal

advertisng. Journal of Advertising (Pre-1986), 12(000001), 39.

Zenor, J. (2014). Parasocial politics: Audiences, pop culture, and politics. London:

Lexington Books.

59
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Journalism Quarterly, 65(2), 352-359.

Bakir, V. Torture, Intelligence and Sousveillance in the War on Terror: Agenda–Building

Struggles. Farnham: Ashgate (2013)

Berger, A. A. (1982). Media analysis techniques. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.

Brader, T.. (2005). Striking a Responsive Chord: How Political Ads Motivate and Persuade

Voters by Appealing to Emotions. American Journal of Political Science, 49(2), 388–405.

Calbris, G. (2011). Elements of meaning in gesture. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Pub.

Chang, C. (2001). The impacts of emotion elicited by print political advertising on

candidate evaluation. Media Psychology, 3(2), 91-118.

Coleman, R., & Banning, S. (2006). Network TV News' Affective Framing of the

Presidential Candidates: Evidence for a Second-Level Agenda-Setting Effect through

Visual Framing. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 83(2), 313-328.

Curtis, A. (Director), & Kelsall, L. (Producer). (2002). The Century of the Self [Motion

picture on Documentary]. United Kingdom: BBC.

Davison, W. P. (1958). The Public Opinion Process. Public Opinion Quarterly, 22(2), 91-

106.

60
Daignault, P., Soroka, S., & Giasson, T. (2013). The perception of political advertising

during an election campaign: A measure of cognitive and emotional effects. Canadian

Journal of Communication, 38(2), 167-186.

Dalrymple, K. E., & Scheufele, D. A. (2007). Finally Informing the Electorate? How the

Internet Got People Thinking about Presidential Politics in 2004. The Harvard International

Journal of Press/Politics,12(3), 96-111.

Denton R.E., Woodward G.C. Political Communication in America, New York: Praeger,

1998, p.11

Drechsler, W. (2009). Political semiotics. Semiotica, 2009(173).

Erickson K. Presidential Rhetoric's Visual Turn: Performance Fragments and the Politics of

Illusionism. Communication Monographs. June 2000;67(2):138.

Fiske, J. (1990). Introduction to communication studies. London: Routledge.

Franz, M. M., Freedman, P., Goldstein, K., & Ridout, T. N.. (2008). Understanding the

Effect of Political Advertising on Voter Turnout: A Response to Krasno and Green. The

Journal of Politics, 70(1), 262–268.

Franz, M. M., & Ridout, T. N. (2007). Does Political Advertising Persuade? Political

Behavior Polit Behav, 29(4), 465-491.

Grancea, Ioana. Visual Rhetoric and Framing Strategies in Advertising Word-Based

Product Categories. Argumentum: Journal The Seminar Of Discursive Logic,

Argumentation Theory & Rhetoric. January 2014;12(1):146-162.

61
Gratz, J. E. (1984). The ethics of subliminal communication. Journal of Business Ethics

(Pre-1986), 3(000003), 181.

Jerry L. Miller & Raymie E. McKerrow (2010) History of Political Communication,

Review of Communication, 10:1, 61-74

Jones, William J. Political semiotics of national campaign posters and pictorial

representation: Thailand's 2011 general elections. Semiotica. April 2014(199):269-296.

Available from: Communication & Mass Media Complete, Ipswich, MA.

Jin, H. S., An, S., & Simon, T. (2009). Beliefs of and attitudes toward political advertising:

An exploratory investigation. Psychology & Marketing, 26(6), 551-568.

Hamel, S. C. (2011). Semiotics: Theory and Applications. Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science.

Hartmann, G. W. (1936). A field experiment on the comparative effectiveness of

"emotional" and "rational" political leaflets in determining election results. The Journal of

Abnormal and Social Psychology, 31(1), 99-114.

Hicks, T. A. (2006). Uncle Sam. New York: Marshall Cavendish Benchmark.

Holpuch, A. (2015, July 15). Donald Trump campaign tweets photo with Nazi soldiers –

then leads polls. Retrieved March 27, 2016, from http://www.theguardian.com/us-

news/2015/jul/14/donald-trump-nazi-soldiers-tweet-top-republican-polls

Huddy, L., & Gunnthorsdottir, A. H.. (2000). The Persuasive Effects of Emotive Visual

Imagery: Superficial Manipulation or the Product of Passionate Reason?. Political

Psychology, 21(4), 745–778.

62
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1137-1151.

Kaid, L. L. (2001). TechnoDistortions and effects of the 2000 political advertising. The

American Behavioral Scientist, 44(12), 2370-2378.

Kim, C. (2005). The Impact of Political System and Culture on Political Advertising.

International Area Studies Review, 8(1), 23-43.

Levine, K. J. (2005). Voter Decision Making: The Tensions of Personal Identity, Personal

Ethics, and Personal Benefit. American Behavioral Scientist, 49(1), 63-77.

Loftus, E.F., & Klinger, M.R. (1992). Is the unconscious smart or dumb? American

Psychologist, 47, 761-765.

Louw, P. E. (2005). The media and political process. London: SAGE.

Marmo, J. (2010). The American flag and the body: How the flag and the body create an

American meaning. Kaleidoscope: A Graduate Journal Of Qualitative Communication

Research, 945-63.

McCombs, M.E., D.L. Shaw, and D. Weaver, eds. 1997. Communication and Democracy:

Exploring the Intellectual Frontiers in Agenda-Setting Theory. New York: Routledge.

Mcilwain, C. D. (2007). Race, pigskin, and politics: A semiotic analysis of racial images in

political advertising. Semiotica, 2007(167).

McNair B. An Introduction to Political Communication, London: Routledge, 2003, p.24.

63
Moore, Timothy E. (1982), "Subliminal Advertising: What You See Is What You Get,"

Journal of Marketing, 46 (Spring), 38-47.

Moskowitz, David A., Jonathan Turrubiates, Hector Lozano, and Christopher Hajek.

"Physical, Behavioral, and Psychological Traits of Gay Men Identifying as Bears." Arch

Sex Behav Archives of Sexual Behavior. 42.5 (2013): 775-84. Web.

Naqvi, N., Shiv, B., & Bechara, A. (2006). The Role of Emotion in Decision Making: A

Cognitive Neuroscience Perspective. Current Directions in Psychological Science Current

Directions in Psychol Science, 15(5), 260-264.

Ossorio, Pilar N. "About Face: Forensic Genetic Testing for Race and Visible Traits." The

Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics. 34.2 (2006): 277-92. Web.

Rubin, R. B., & McHugh, M. P. (1987). Development of Parasocial Interaction

Relationships. Journal Of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 31(3), 279-292.

Ryfe, D. M. (2001). History and Political Communication: An Introduction. Political

Communication, 18(4), 407-420.

Saussure, F. D., & Bally, C. (1983). Course in General Linguistics. London: Gerald

Duckwort.

Schvaneveldt, J. D., & Adams, G. R.. (1983). Adolescents and the Decision-Making

Process. Theory into Practice, 22(2), 98–104.

Scott, Linda M. Images in Advertising: The Need for a Theory of Visual Rhetoric. Journal

Of Consumer Research. September 1994; 21(2):252-273.

64
Smelser, N. J., & Baltes, P. B. (2001). International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral

sciences. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Surlin, S. H., & Thomas F. Gordon. (1976). Selective Exposure and Retention of Political

Advertising. Journal of Advertising, 5(1), 32–44.

Swanson, D. & Nimmo D. "New Directions in Political Communication: A Resource

Book." Thousand Oaks: Sage, 1990, p. 9.

Tolbert, Caroline J. Political Research Quarterly, December 2010; vol. 63, 4: p. 860-862.

Vliegenthart, R. (2011). The Professionalization of Political Communication? A

Longitudinal Analysis of Dutch Election Campaign Posters. American Behavioral Scientist,

56(2), 135-150.

Williamson, J. G., & Ferrara, M. S. (2015). Barack Obama and the Rhetoric of Hope.

Rhetoric and Public Affairs, 18(4), 748.

Xing-Hua, Lu. Political representation within the libidinal economy of a pictorial space: A

political-semiotic reading of three propaganda posters of the Chinese Cultural Revolution.

Semiotica. November 2005(157):213-232.

Zanot, E. J., Pincus, J. D., & Lamp, E. J. (1983). Public perceptions of subliminal

advertisng. Journal of Advertising (Pre-1986), 12(000001), 39.

Zenor, J. (2014). Parasocial politics: Audiences, pop culture, and politics. London:

Lexington Books.

65
66