Types of sentences according to the aim of communication.

The sentence is a minimal unit of communication. From the viewpoint of their role in the process
of communication sentences are divided into 4 types: declarative, interrogative, imperative,
exclamatory. These types differ in the aim of communication and express statements, questions,
commands and exclamations respectively. Dickens was born in 1812. Come up and sit down.
What a quiet evening! A declarative sentence contains a statement which gives the reader or the
listener some information about various events, activities or attitudes, thoughts and feelings. A
statement may be positive (affirmative) or negative, as in: I have just come back from a business
trip. I haven't seen my sister yet. Interrogative sentences contain questions. Their communicative
function consists in asking for information. They belong to the sphere of conversation and only
occasionally occur in monological speech. All varieties of questions may be structurally reduced
to two main types, general questions (also called "yes-no" questions) and pronominal questions
(otherwise called "special" or "wh"-questions). In general questions the speaker is interested to
know whether some event or phenomenon asked about exists or does not exist. A general question
opens with a verb operator, that is, an auxiliary, modal or link verb followed by the subject. Is that
girl a friend of yours? Can you speak French? A tag question is a short "yes-no" question added
to a statement. It consists only of an operator prompted by the predicate verb of the statement and
a pronoun prompted by the subject. George is a football fan, isn't he? You know French, don't
you? An alternative question implies a choice between two or more alternative answers. The
conjunction or links either two homogeneous parts of the sentence or two coordinate clauses. Will
you go to the opera or to the concert to-night? Which do you prefer, tea or coffee? Suggestive
questions (declarative) keep the word order of statement but serve as questions owing to the rising
tone in speaking: You still don't believe me, sir? So you knew about it before? Pronominal
questions open with an interrogative pronoun or a pronominal adverb, the function of which is to
get more detailed and exact information about some event or phenomenon known to the speaker
and listener. The interrogative pronouns and adverbs: what, which, who, whom, whose, where,
when, why, how: Whose team has won the match? Which story did you like best? Who came first?
A rhetorical question contains a statement disguised as a question, which is usually positive
hiding a negative statement. No answer is expected. What else could I do? Do we always act as
we ought to? Imperative sentences express commands which convey the desire of the speaker to
make someone, generally the listener, perform an action. Besides they may express prohibition, a
request, an invitation, a warning, persuasion, depending on the situation, context or intonation.
Stand up! Sit down. Open your textbooks. Be quick! Exclamatory sentence. Each of the
communicative sentence types, besides performing their main communicative function, may serve
as exclamations. You do look a picture of health! (statement) Hurry up! (command). An
exclamation as a sentence type opens with one of the pronominal words what and how. What
refers to a noun, how to an adjective or an adverb. What a terrible noise! What a funny story she
told us!

Indefinite Article
The article is a form-word which functions as a noun determiner. There are 2 articles in English:
indefinite and definite. There are two variants of this article: "a" (before consonants),"an" (before
vowels). By origin the IA is a numeral in the meaning "one". That's why it occurs only before
nouns in the singular. It has 3 functions: 1. Classifying, in which it means "one of (the
like)",Henгу is a student. My father was still a busv man. 2. Generalising, in which it means "any".
A tiger is a dangerous animal. = Any tiger is a dangerous animal. 3. Numerical, in which it means
"one" (this is its original meaning). Wait a minute. Be back in a second. Have a word with Leo.
The IA is used only in the singular. In the plural such nouns are used without any article: There
were books on the shelves. In English the nouns "advice, information, fun, luck, news, weather"
are never used with the IA. In speech the IA most often introduces the referent of its noun into the
situation of speech for the first time: A nurse was coming from the first tent. Emily shouts from the
house that I have a visitor. IA is used: 1. When the referent of the noun is mentioned for the first
time: From a hill he saw the city. 2. Before predicative class nouns (without any specification):
You are a fine child. It is an American coin. 3. In the generalizing meaning (here in its meaning the
article is near to the pronoun "'any"): A sentence is a language unit. A horse with a broken leg
cannot run. 4. With abstract or material nouns preceded by descriptive attributes denoting special
aspects or concrete instances of the notion or special kinds of the referents denoted by material
nouns: It was a cold autumn. It was a very rare book.5. In its original numerical meaning of
"one”: I’ll wait a minute. 6. with singular class nouns in exclamatory sentences beginning with
"what": What a lovely picture it is! 7. with personal names: when a person is one of the family,
clan: he was a Burton before his marriage; when the name is preceded by the adjective “certain”
or if the referent is indefinite: A certain Mrs. Smith rang me up today. She was a Miss Crawford

Definite article.
The article is a form-word which functions as a noun determiner. There are 2 articles in English:
indefinite and definite. By origin this article is a demonstrative pronoun with the meaning "that".
Sometimes it occurs in a demonstrative meaning-even at present: I had no idea what the future
held and at the time I did not care. It has 2 functions: 1. Individualizing (meaning "this definite),
in which it shows a noun whose referent is known or definite in the situation of speech: The
person I saw today was an old friend. Our apartment was on the first floor. 2. Generic (meaning
"the whole class of), in which it is used before a singular noun indicating the whole class of
objects, denoted by this noun: The lion is a wild animal from Africa. The DA is used in the
individualizing function before nouns whose referents are definite. They are made definite by: 1. a
restrictive (limiting) attribute or a restrictive attributive clause. We arrived at the house in
which I lived. Where is the book I bought this morning. 2. the preceding context: Oliver opened
the door and looked around, but could not see a big boy. "Do you know who I am?" asked the boy.
"No, sir", replied Oliver. 3. the situation of speech: Mary sprang up and rushed to the door (of
the room where Mary was). 4. the meaning of the noun (which takes place only in the case with
nouns denoting unique objects): The sun rises in the West. The Earth is a planet. Тhе Moon and
Sixpence. DA is used: 1. When the person, thing, event, etc. (referent) is already mentioned in the
given situation of speech: Yesterday he wrote a letter. A girl entered the room. 2. When any noun is
modified by a restrictive attribute or a restrictive attributive clause: I’ll never forget the town in
which I was born. 3. When the situation of speech itself makes the referent definite: Go to the
blackboard (in the classroom). 4. before the names of unique referents: the sun, the moon, the sky,
the world, the universe, the earth. 5. with nouns preceded by adjectives in the superlative degree,
the pronoun "same", the adjectives “proper", "right". "wrong”: It was the happiest day in his life.
He had taken the wrong tone. 6. With personal names: with personal names in the plural, denoting
a whole family: The Davidsons lived in the next house. 7. with the names of historical events: the
Renaissance. 8. Names of buildings, hotels, restaurants: the Tower, The Hermitage, the Kremlin. 9.
Names of ships, newspapers, clubs, organizations: the Titanic, the United Nations, the Times. 10.
with geographical names: a) names of four cardinal points: the east, west, south, north; b) groups
of islands, deserts, mountain chains, names of rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, channels: The Baltic Sea,
The Atlantic Ocean, the Thames, the Alps, the English Channel. c) Names of some countries and
provinces: the Crimea, the Netherlands, the Argentine.

Absence of the article

The most typical cases of the absence of articles are: 1. Before plural nouns if the corresponding
singular noun is used with the IA: John is a student. - John and Mary are students. A dog barks. -
Dogs bark. The bare plural form corresponds to the classifying and generalizing uses of the IA and
to the generic use of the DA: A man who has nothing to say has no words. - Men who have
nothing to say have no words. The tiger lives in the jungle. - Tigers live in the jungle. 2. Before
non-count abstract and mass (material) nouns used in the most general sense: We walked forward
in silence. Life isn't all fun. He has such huge pride. Light travels much faster than sound.
Besides, the nouns "man" and "woman" are used without any article in the generic meaning: Man
is a hunter: woman is his game. Used: 1. with the names of some diseases: appendicitis, fever,
malaria, typhoid.2. With nouns denoting titles, rank, dignity, relationship and used as appositions:
Lord Byron, Sir Walter Scott, Aunt Molly, Miss Garnet. 3. With personal names preceded by the
adjectives young, old, little, poor, dear, honest which have emotional coloring and are parts of the
proper names: Old Jolyon goes to the opera. Little Francie, as she was usually called, was an
important personage. 4. With predicative and appositive nouns denoting unique positions, posts:
Hi is rector of Moscow Universal. Academician Marchuk is President of the Academy of sciences.
5. With nouns denoting dignity, title, post, when they follow the head-nouns in appositive of-
phrase: He was awarded the title of hero. He occupied the post of Minister of education. 6. With
predicative nouns introduced by the conjunction "as", e.g. Mr. Davidsont will act as referee. 7.
Before nouns followed by the adverb "enough”: Peter began to fear that he was not man enough
to get and hold a job. 8. With the nouns school, college, bed, prison, jail, hospital, church, when
they lose their concrete meanings and express the purpose for which their referents serve: He’s in
hospital. She was the best at college. They may send me to prison for that. They go to church
every week.9. With the names of towns and cities (the only exception is "the Hague"), a majority
of countries, peninsulas, separate islands, mountain peaks: London, France, Germany, Florida,
Madagascar, Elbrus.

Conjunctive, Relative, Interrogative, “one”.

Interrogative pronouns. These pronouns are who, whose, what, which. Who is a noun-
pronoun, whose is an adjective-pronoun, what and which are both noun- and adjective-pronouns.
Who has the grammatical category of case (nominative and objective). Besides, strange as it may
seem, we occasionally encounter who's for whose: The prosecutor made a detailed analysis of
the disturbance; who hit whom, who stepped on who’s foot. Thus, the pronoun who is a single
pronoun which has three case forms. Who, whom, and whose ask questions about persons. Who
is used when the question word is the subject of the verb. Who’s coming to your party? (a number
of guests). There is a strong tendency to replace whom by who. The difference between who and
what and which is that which presupposes choice while the others commonly do not: Which is
the better of those two? Conjunctive pronouns. They are the same pronouns as interrogative but
used to introduce subject, predicate, object and appositive clauses: What she was afraid of was
not easy to explain. Ask him which he wants. Conjunctive pronouns have the same grammatical
categories as the interrogative ones. Relative pronouns. They are that, who, whose, which, as,
used to introduce attributive relative clauses: But the few years that separated us were wider than
an ocean. That’s the man whose house was burned down. As correlates with the pronouns same
and such in the main clause: Dead there on the slope on such a day as this is. Only who changes:
has the category of case. The prop-word "one”. It is used to avoid the repetition of a noun
already mentioned. It has the grammatical category оf number: Are those your books? I want to
borrow a good one/some good ones on gardening. One can be preceded by the definite article,
nouns, demonstratives, adjectives, ordinal numerals: this wool suit is a good one. You sit in that
chair and I’ll sit in this one. On the other hand, the prop-word one cannot be preceded by a noun
in possessive case, cardinal numerals, the indefinite pronouns some, аnу, the adjectives several
and 'own'.

Pronouns Reciprocal, Possessive, Demonstrative, Reflexive, Personal

Are notional words which indicate objects and their properties without indicating them, He rose.
Many have come. Some did not do it, where the subjects are not named. There are several
classifications of English pronouns. The present one was suggested by Prof. Blokh. According to
it English pronouns fall into several classes: 1. Personal, 2. Possessive, 3. Demonstrative, 4.
Reflexive, 5. Reciprocal, 6. Indefinite, 7. Interrogative, 8. Conjunctive, 9. Relative, 10. The prop-
word "one". Personal pronouns have a single purely grammatical category -- case. The cases are
nominative and objective. The case forms are: nominative – (I, he, she, It, we, you, they),
objective – (me, him, her, it, us. vou, them respectively). Personal pronouns are noun-pronouns,
they occupy the position of nouns: John did it – He did it, I saw John – I saw him. Nominative
case forms are usual here if they are followed by attributive clauses: For once it was she who
lowered her eyes. According to M. West's statement, nominative case forms are inevitable in such
cases. But objective case forms are quite possible here too: It’s me he’s interested in. Possessive
pronouns have no purely grammatical categories. There are two kinds of their forms: conjoint,
which are used, as adjective-pronouns (my, his, her, its, our, your, their) and absolute, which are
noun-pronouns (mine, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs): He left his hand on mine. Where’s your
book? Is this hat yours? Demonstrative pronouns are this, that, same, such. This and that have
the category of number, which can be called grammatical with reservation. Sing. this, that PI.
these, those. This (these), that (those) and same are both noun- and adjective-pronouns: Read
this. That’s just it (n.-p.). That train never does arrive on time (adj.-p.). Reflexive pronouns
(self-pronouns). They are noun pronouns: myself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves,
themselves, oneself. They have no purely grammatical categories (only yourselves is built up
purely grammatically: yourself-yourselves). Ganshina and Vasilevskaya divide self-pronouns into
two separate classes: reflexive and emphatic. But Prof. Blokh, points out an emphatic meaning of
reflexive pronouns in some cases of their use: I had myself seen a charming picture quite to me
taste. Reciprocal pronouns. They are composites, two in number: each other and one another.
They function only as noun-pronouns and have the grammatical category of case (common,
possessive, genitive): common-The three gentlemen looked at one another; possessive case-we
dine in one another’s houses. Some people like to say each other about 2 people or things, and
one another about more than 2, but this is not a fixed rule.

Predicate. Simple verbal.

The predicate is the second principal (main) part of the sentence and its organizing centre, as the
object and nearly all adverbial modifiers are connected with and dependent on it. The predicate
may be considered from the semantic or from the structural point of view. According to the
meaning of its components, the predicate may denote an action, a state, a quality, or an attitude to
some action or state ascribed to the subject. From the structural point of view there are two main
types of predicate: simple and compound. Both these types may be either nominal or verbal,
which gives four sub-groups: simple verbal, simple nominal, compound verbal, compound
nominal.
The simple verbal predicate is expressed by: 1. A verb in a synthetic or analytical form. John runs
quickly. I was sent in to get my tea. Don't come too late. 2. A verbal phrase (a phraseological
equivalent of a verb denoting one action). a) Phrases denoting momentaneous actions: to have a
look, to have a talk, to give a look, to make a move, to make a remark, to pay a visit, etc. Did you
have a sleep'? It's time we were making a move. b) Phrases denoting various kinds of actions. In
most cases they comprise an abstract noun used with no article: to change one's mind, to get rid
(of), to make fun (of), to make up one's mind, to take care (of), to take part (in). I have never taken
much interest in German songs.

Pronouns Indefinite
Have an inner classification of their own. They are subdivided into: 1) indefinite proper, 2)
distributive, 3) negative 4) quantitative. Indefinite proper are some, somebody, someone,
something, any, anybody, anyone, anything and one in the meaning "some": I saw her one day.
One John came to see you. Some and any are both noun- and adjective-pronouns, one is only an
adjective-pronoun. The compounds with them are only noun-pronouns. Those with -body and -one
have the category of case (common, possessive, genitive). Commonly some and compounds with
it occur in affirmative sentences. But their use is possible in interrogative sentences, firstly, when
the question does not refer to the pronouns, that is, when the sentence expresses rather an offer or
request: Would you like to have some coffee? Can I have some of those nuts?, secondly when the
pronouns imply previous knowledge: Do you know something? Can I ask you something?
Distributive are: all, every, everybody, everyone (every one) everything, each (one), both, either,
another, other. The pronouns all, each, both, either, another, other are both noun- and adjective-
pronouns, every is only an adjective-pronoun, the compounds with every and each are only noun-
pronouns. Another has the grammatical category of case (common, possessive, genitive). Other
has the grammatical categories of number and case: She’s cleverer than any of the others. The
main difference between every(body) and each (one) is that the former occurs when the members
of a group have something in common, whereas the latter denoting the same draws attention to
some point of difference between them: On each side of him walked a beautiful girl. Each one
talked to his neighbor. Both implies two persons or things. It functions both as a noun-pronoun
and as adjective-pronoun: Both are well. We can do both this things. Both doesn’t occur in
negative sentences. Either also implies two persons or things, but unlike both, is followed by a
singular noun and verb: I doubt if either of them is coming. They walked on either side of the girl.
Negative are no, nobody, no one, none, nothing, neither. Neither, like either, is both a noun- and
adjective-pronoun, applied to two persons and things only and is normally followed by a singular
noun or verb: Neither of these cars is what I want. Neither picture is satisfactory. None is a noun-
pronoun only, it is applied to more than two persons or things or to a complete absence of them:
None of my problems are solved. None of them were present at the meeting. No is an adjective-
pronoun only, nobody, nothing and no one are noun-pronouns. Nobody and no one have the
grammatical category of case (common, genitive or possessive): nobody’s fool. Quantitative are
many, much, (a) few, (a) little. All of them are both noun- and adjective-pronouns. Many and (a)
few are used with counts and much and (a) little with uncounts. In common with adjectives
quantitative pronouns have the grammatical category of comparison. For this reason some
grammarians do not include them in pronouns.

Category of number
English nouns that are inflected for number have singular and plural forms. S. denotes one, plural
denotes more than one. Most count nouns are variable and can occur with either singular or plural
number. The plural form is marked by the inflexion - (e) s. Regular plurals: 1. N. ending in
vowels and voiced consonants have the plural ending pronounced as [z]: bee - bees, dog - dogs. 2.
N. ending in voiceless consonants have a voiceless ending: book - books. 3. N. ending in -s, -sh,
-ss, -ch, -x, -z have the ending [iz]: actress -actresses, bush - bushes, watch - watches, box - boxes.
4. N. ending in -o have the ending [z]: hero -heroes, potato – potatoes. The regular plural inflexion
of nouns in -o has two spellings; -os occurs in the following cases: a) after a vowel — bamboos,
embryos, folios, kangaroos, radios, studios, zoos; b) in proper names - Romeos, Eskimos,
Filipinos; c) in abbreviations, kilos, photos; In other cases the spelling is -oes: tomatoes,
dominoes, heroes, potatoes.5. The letter -y after a consonant usually changes into -i: sky – skies
But the letter -y remains unchanged -ys: a) after vowels: days. b) in proper names: the two
Germanys. 6. Thirteen nouns ending-in -f (e) form their plural changing -f (e) into -v (e): the
ending in this case is pronounced (z]:calf –calves, life - lives, thief - thieves, elf - elves, loaf-
loaves, wife – wives, half – halves, self - selves, wolf - wolves, knife – knives, sheaf - sheaves
(снопы), leaf –leaves, shelf – shelves. Other nouns ending in -f(e) have the plural inflexion -s in
the regular way: proof -proofs, chief- chiefs, safe - safes, cliff- cliffs. 7. The plural of nouns ending
in “th” – the plural ending in this case is – s: month – months, heart – hearts. Irregular plurals. 1.
Seven nouns distinguish plural from singular by vowel change: man-men, woman-women, louse-
lice, tooth-teeth, foot-feet, goose-geese, mouse-mice. 2. two nouns have –en to mark the plural: ox-
oxen, child-children. 3. with some nouns the plural is identical with the singular form: a) sheep-
sheep, swine-swine, deer-deer. There are some animal names that have 2 plurals: fish-fish(es),
carp-carp(s), salmon-salmon(s). b) identical singular and plural forms are also typical of
nationality nouns in –ese, -ss: Chinese, Swiss, Japanese. c) names, indicating number: pair,
couple, dozen, score, stone, head.

Category of case.
Case is a grammatical category which shows relation of the noun with other words in a sentence.
It is expressed by the form of the noun. English nouns have two cases: the common case and the
genitive case. However, not all English nouns possess the category of case; there are certain
nouns, mainly nouns denoting inanimate objects, which cannot be used in the genitive case. The
common case is unmarked, it has no inflexion (zero) and its meaning is very general. The genitive
case is marked by the apostrophe s ('s). In writing there are two forms of the genitive: for most
nouns:‘s (mother's) and for nouns ending in -s and regular plural nouns only the apostrophe
(mothers'). In speech there are four ways of pronunciation of the genitive case: 1. [z] after vowels
and voiced consonants Negro's. Dog’s. 2. [s| after voiceless consonants: student's. 3. [iz] after
sibilants prince’s. 4. Zero endings: girls', boys'. The zего form is used: a) with regular plural
nouns: students', drivers', doctors'. b) Some diseases: measles, mumps. c) some games – billiards,
bowls, dominoes, draught. d) Some proper nouns: Athens, Marseilles, Brussels, Wales. e) nouns
ending in –ics: phonetics, physics, politics, statistics, gymnastics.

Sentence
A sentence is a unit of speech which grammatical structure conforms to the laws of the language
and which serves as the chief means of conveying a more or less complete thought. Structure of
simple S.: two-member (has two principal parts: a sub and pred. It can be complete-has a sub and
pred: the sun is shining; incomplete-one or both principal parts are missing: where were you
yesterday? At the cinema) one-member (has only one principal part which is neither the sub nor
the pred. It can be nominal-the principal part is expressed by a noun: Dusty water; verbal –
principal parts are expressed by verbals: living at the mercy of a woman) extended (she is a
student) and unexpended (Mary is always happy with you) semi-composite sentence: semi-
compound (has homogeneous sub or pred: a black and a white cat sat on the roof) and semi-
complex (complicated by predicative constructions: the breakfast being over, the children went to
school).

Subject
Is one of the main parts of two-member sentence denoting the thing on the broadest sense of the
word whose action, state, property are characterized by the pred. It is independent of any other
part of sentence: according to the structure simple, phrasal, complex; according to the way of
expressing notional, formal (by introductory it, there); according to the way of expressing and
grammatical meaning simple subs are personal (definite: The unbelievable happened; I shall do
the best I can; Nothing can be done about it; Seven cannot be divided into two; To understand is to
forgive; Talking mends no holes; His “How do you do» never sounds cordial enough. indefinite:
They say this is a terribly difficult place to work in. generalized: One has one’s dignity),
impersonal (it only). It as a sub: 1. Notional definite personal sub: He didn’t even hear the
doorbell till it had been ringing for some time. 2. Notional definite personal demonstrative sub:
Somebody knocked at the door. It was Tom. 3. Formal impersonal sub: Captain looked at his
watch, it was five to three. 4. Formal introductory: It must take a lot to annoy you. 5. Formal
emphatic: It was Joe Mennan who filled her mind. Complex sub: 1. The nominative with the
infinitive: Alice did not seem to have heard me. 2. Foe-to-infinitive construction: It is important
for you to know it. 3. Participial construction: The problem is considered solved. 4. Gerundial
construction: It is absurd our hardly knowing each other.
Object
Is the secondary part of sentence completing the meaning of the part of the sentence expressed by
a verb, an adjective or a stative: simple and complex: direct (denotes a direct receiver or product
of the action denoted by a transitive verb. If in a sentence there is only one non-prepositional
object it is always direct-I believe you); the indirect (denotes a person towards whom the action of
the verb is directed. it is always used with a direct or prepositional object ,it can be non-
prepositional when it follows the verb directly and precedes the direct object-Adrian handed him
his card; prepositional, when it follows the direct object-She handed the note to Bart; with
preposition for, to in the meaning of person for whose benefit the action is done-He found a seat
for George) the cognate ( follows an intransitive verb and of the same root as the verb-I want to
live an ordinary life) the prepositional (certain verbs and adjectives govern their objects by
means of prepositions-what do you want from me?) complex objects: infinitive construction (I
should like him to be free); for-to-infinitive construction (Emily waited for Jackson call on her);
participial construction (I will not have him worried); gerundial construction (he minded their
knowing); object+object predicative (I found him a bore)…. Formal object (expressed by it
correlating with a notional object-He found it impossible to utter the next word).

Adverbial clause
may classify the whole main clause, the verbal predicate, or any verbal part: of place or direction
(where, wherever, anywhere-he was standing where he always had stood); of time characterizes
the action in the clause from the temporal point of view (CONJ: as, as soon as, when, after, until,
since, before, PHRASEL CONJ: the time, next time, directly, once-whenever there was a pause,
he gently asked again.) of manner modifies the action (as, the way - I am sorry I talked the way I
did at lunch) of comparison (CONJ: as, like, as if, as though, than, as…as, so…as, as. as if - They
didn’t have long intervals like they do at other theatres.) condition - contains some condition,
either real or unreal which makes the action in the main clause possible (CONJ: unless, if, in case,
provided that, admitting, seeing - If anything troubles you you’d better tell me) of concession
(CONJ: ALTHOUGH, THOUGH, EVEN IF, THOUGH yet; CONJ.PRON/ADVERBS whoever,
whatever, whichever, whenever; CONJ. PHRASE: for all that, In spite of the fact…-Although the
weather was bad he went for a walk)of purpose contains a planed action which is to be achieved
by the action in the main clause(CONJ: that, so that, so as, in order that-I tell all this so that you
may understand me perfectly) of cause express the reason cause and motivation of the action in
the main clause (CONJ: as, because, seeing that, considering that; CONJ. PHRASES: for the
reason that, in view of the fact that, by reason of-Since there is no help let us try and bear it as best
we can) result(CONJ: so that, that-Light fell on her there so that Soams could see her face).
Verb
Is a word that characteristically is the grammatical center of a predicate and expresses an act,
occurrence, or mode of being. Tense is a distinction of form in a verb to express distinctions of
time or duration of the action or state it denotes. Mood is a distinction of verb to express whether
the action or state it denotes is conceived as fact command, possibility, or wish. 1. The Indicative
represents the denoted act or state as an objective fact. 2. The Imperative expresses the will to
influence the behavior of another. 3. The Subjunctive represents a denoted act or state not as fact
but as contingent or possible or viewed emotionally (as with doubt or desire). It is used mainly in
subordinate clauses. When used in main clauses, it expresses a slight command, insistence or
invitation. The voice indicates the relation of the subject of the verb to the action which the verb
expresses. 1. The Active voice asserts that the person or thing represented by the grammatical
subject performs the action represented by the verb; 2. The Passive voice asserts that the
grammatical subject of a verb is subjected to or affected by the action represented by that verb: 1.
The Infinitive performs some functions of a noun and at the same time displays some
characteristics of a verb like tense (present, future and perfect) and voice and may have an object.
2. The Participle) is a word having the characteristics of both adjective and verb. 3. The Gerund is
a verbal noun that expresses generalized or uncompleted action. It is a neuter verbal noun of II
declension, used in Singular only, without Nominative form.
Composite sentence.
It is a sentence consisting of two or more clauses. In its structure a clause is similar to a simpe
sentence, but unlike a s.s. it forms part of a bigger syntactical unit. The 2 main types of connection
of clauses in a composite sentence are subordination and coordination. By coordination clauses are
arranged as units of syntactically equal rank, i.e. equipotently. The leading clause and a sequential
clause (He came and we had coffee. We had coffee and he came). By subordination they are
arranged as units of unequal rank, one being categorically dominated by the other. Besides the
classical types of coordination and subordination of clauses , we find another case of construction
of a composite sentence. When the connection between the clauses combined in a polypredicative
unit is extremely loose, placing the sequential clause in a syntactically detached position. In this
loosely connected composite sentence the information expressed by the sequential clause is
presented as an afterthought, an idea that comes to the speaker’s mind after the completion of the
foregoing utterance. This kind of connection is called cumulation. Its formal sign is the tone of
completion. In writing it is a semifinal mark, such as a semicolon, a dash, sometimes a series of
periods. Continuative cumulation: He did his job in the office without any fuss; he answered
questions in the House: he made a couple of speeches. Parenthetical cumulation: Your story, you
know, showed such breadth and depth of thought.

Predicate Compound nominal.

Is the second primary part of the sentence that denotes an action, state or property of the thing in
the broadest sense expressed by the subject of the sentence. The compound nominal predicate
consists of a link-verb and a nominal element called predicative. The predicative expresses a state,
property or the class of thing denoted by the subject: It's so lovely here. Oh! Friendship is a great
thing. According to their meaning link-verbs are classified into: a) the link-verb of being', (the
"pure" link-verb "be"): I'm a student. b) of perception (feel, look, smell, taste): She looks happy.
The cake tastes delicious. c) of becoming (become, turn, grow, get, fall): It's getting late. He grew
old. d) of remaining (remain, stay, keep, continue). I stayed calm. He remained silent. e) of
seeming or appearing: (seem, appear) She seemed shy. He appeared a good listener. A particular
place is occupied by the link-verbs “prove” and “turn out”: The party turned out a success. The
simple predicative is expressed by: 1) nouns in both cases: The choice was hers. Friendship is a
great thing. 2) by adjectives: It’s so lovely here; 3) by pronouns: They were they and Marcus and I
were we. 4) by numerals: She was eighteen; 5) by statives: He was aware all the time of her
presence. But I'm afraid I can't keep the man. 6) by infinitives: To decide is to act. 7) by gerunds:
His aim was entering the University. 8) by participles I, which are generally adjectivized: It is
very destressing to me, sir, to give this information. 9) by Participles II: It was all gone. The
compound nominal double predicate combines the features of two different types of predicate. It
has the features of the simple verbal predicate and those of the compound nominal predicate. It
consists of two parts, both of which are notional. The first one is verbal and is expressed by a
notional verb denoting an action or process performed by the person/non-person expressed by the
subject. From this point of view it resembles the simple verbal predicate. But at the same time the
verbal part of this predicate performs a linking function, as it links its second part (which is a
predicative) to the subject. The second part of the compound nominal double predicate is ex-
pressed by a noun or an adjective which denotes the properties of the subject in the same way as
the predicative of the compound nominal predicate proper does. The moon was shining cold and
bright. The predicate here denotes two separate notions: 1) The moon was shining, and at the
same time 2) The moon was cold and bright. There are a number of verbs that most often occur in
this type of predicate, performing the double function of denoting a process and serving as link
verb at the same time. They are: to die, to leave, to lie, to marry, to return, to rise, to sit, to stand,
to shine.
NOMINAL CLAUSES
All nominal clauses have a function approximating to that of a noun or a nominal phrase. They
may fulfill the function of a basic part of the main clause: a subject clause functions as subject of
the main clause which has no subject of its own, a predicative clause functions as predicative to
the link verb within the main clause. An object clause refers to verbs in different forms and
functions, to adjectives, statives and occasionally to nouns, and may be obligatory or optional.
Another type of nominal clause — the appositive clause, refers to a noun with a very general
meaning and is therefore essential to the meaning of the sentence. Since nominal clauses function
as essential structural parts of the sentence, their relations to the main clause are confined to such
purely grammatical sentential relations as subjective, predicative, objective and appositive. A
subject clause may be introduced by conjunctions (that, if, whether, because, the way);
correlatives (either... or, whether... or) it there is more than one subject clause, or connectives. The
latter may be either conjunctive pronouns (who, whoever, what, whatever, which) or conjunctive
adverbs (where, wherever, when, whenever, how, why). Complex sentences with subject clauses
may be of two patterns: I. With a subject clause preceding the predicate of the main clause. What I
need is a piece of good advice. Whether I talked or not made little difference. How the book will
sell depends on its plot and the author. II. With a subject clause in final position, the usual place of
the subject being occupied by formal it. It seemed unfair to him that he should suffer more than
his wife. It is understood that modern science allows such experiments. A predicative clause may
be introduced by conjunctions (that, whether, as, as if, as though, because, lest, the way),
correlatives (either... or, whether... or), or connectives. The latter may be conjunctive pronouns
(who, whoever, what, whatever, which) or conjunctive adverbs (where, wherever, when, whenever,
how, why). The fact was that he had forgotten about it. The only reason for my coming is because
I hoped to see you again. That's what he wants you to think. An object clause may be introduced
by conjunctions (that if, whether, lest), correlatives (either... or, whether... or), or connectives. The
latter may be conjunctive pronouns (who, whoever, what, whatever which), or conjunctive adverbs
(where, wherever, when, whenever, why, how). I don't know why I tike you so much. He was
terrified that she would forget about it soon. Like objects in a simple sentence, object clauses may
vary in their relation to the principal clause and in the way they are attached to the word they refer
to or depend on. I. An object clause may directly follow the word it refers to (a non-prepositional
object clause). Jon wondered if he had offended her. I know when I am wasting time. II. An object
clause may be joined to the main clause by the prepositions after, about, before, beyond, for, near,
of, as to, except. If a preposition is very closely attached to the preceding verb or adjective (to
agree upon, to call for, to comment upon, to depend on, to hear of, to insist on) it generally
precedes the object clause. I am not certain of what he did. I want to be paid for what I do.

Appositive and attributive clauses.

An appositive clause may be introduced by conjunctions (that, if, whether, as if, as though),
conjunctive pronouns and adverbs (what, how). Unlike an apposition in a simple sentence, which
usually gives another name to the person or thing designated by the antecedent, appositive clause
discloses the meaning of a noun with a very general meaning: thing, reason, point, comment,
remark, probability, idea, fact, consequence, feature. The question whether it was he or his
enemy was hotly discussed. The question how and why those people got the information still
worried him. Attributive clauses function as modifiers to a word of nominal character, which is
generally called the antecedent. Usually an attributive clause immediately follows its antecedent,
although some types may occasionally be distant. An attributive clause may be introduced by
connectives – relative pronouns (who, whose, whom, what, which, that, as) or relative adverbs
(when, where, wherein). The choice of relative word depends on the categorical meaning of the
antecedent. a) If the antecedent denotes a living being the relative word who, whom, whose, or
that is used. A man whose voice seemed familiar to me gave commands. b) If the antecedent
denotes a thing or notion, the relative word which, whose or that is used. There was something in
his low, languid voice that was absolutely fascinating. Clyde bowed and then took the cool hand
that Myra extended to him. c) If the antecedent is expressed by all denoting a living being the
pronoun who or that is used; if it denotes a thing or notion only the pronoun that is generally
used. All that remained was to enter his name and send off the high entrance fees for the
examination. d) If the antecedent is expressed by everything, something, anything or nothing the
relative pronoun that is generally used. There was nothing in his face that spoke of his character.
Everything that you may want is in the wardrobe. e) If the antecedent is modified by the adjective
only, the pronoun any, or by an adjective in the superlative degree, the attributive clause is
introduced by the pronoun that. This is the only chance that we have. F) if the antecedent is
modified by the demonstrative pronoun such, the relative pronoun as is used. She was playing the
piano with such feeling as couldn’t be expected from a girl of her age.
Compound verbal predicate.
The predicate is the second principal (main) part of the sentence and its organizing centre, as the
object and nearly all adverbial modifiers are connected with and dependent on it. According to the
meaning of its components, the predicate may denote an action, a state, a quality, or an attitude to
some action or state ascribed to the subject. From the structural point of view there are two main
types of predicate: simple and compound. Both these types may be either nominal or verbal,
which gives four sub-groups: simple verbal, simple nominal, compound verbal, compound
nominal. Is of two kinds: modal and aspective. The Compound Verbal Modal. This kind of
predicate consists of a verb in one of its finite forms expressing a certain modal meaning and an
infinitive. The predicate may consist of the following components: 1. a modal verb and an
infinitive: I can’t read. She must go to him. The enemy shall not pass. 2. the verbs "be" and
"have" in modal meaning, also "have got" in the meaning of necessity and an infinitive: They
were to marry in the autumn. Why did he have to leave her? I've got to express my likes and
dislikes. 3. an equivalent of a modal verb "to be (un)able", "to be capable", "to be allowed", "to
be permitted", "to be obliged", "to be compelled", "to be willing", "to be anxious", "to be eager"
and an infinitive: He was only anxious to forget. And children were always willing to play cricket
with him. 4. a notional verb with a modal meaning and an infinitive. Here belong the verbs "to
hope", "to want", "to desire", "to wish", "to long”, to expect, to intend, to attempt, to try. I long to
see her. He almost expected to hear a price. 5. the combination "to be going to " denoting
intention and an infinitive: He is going to buy her some shoes. 6. the phraseological units "had
better (best)", "had rather", would rather (sooner) and an infinitive: Hadn't we better call him?
She said she would rather have a flowered summer frock. The compound verbal aspect(ive).
This kind of predicate consists of two components. The first is a finite verb denoting: a)
beginning, b) duration, c) repetition, d) cessation, or end of an action. The second component is
an infinitive or gerund. To the verbs of the four mentioned groups belong in particular: 1.
beginning of an action: begin, start, commence, which are followed by both an infinitive and a
gerund; come, grow, which are combined only with an infinitive: He began to sing. The Cubans
started talking in Spanish. 2. Duration of an action: keep (on), gо on, which are followed only by
a gerund: continue, which is followed by both an infinitive and a gerund: His mother continued to
sway. Daniel continued eating. 3. Repetition of an act ion: used to and would followed by an
infinitive only: Where did he use to hang out! Now and then the old man would correct her
pronunciation and she would repeat word. 4. cessation, or end of an action, stop, give up, leave
off, finish, which are followed only by a gerund, cease, which combines both with an infinitive
and a gerund: He ceased, however, to take out and replace the letter. She had given up calling him
sir. She hadn't stopped talking.
Attribute
Is a secondary part of the sentence which characterizes person or non-person expressed by the
headword ether qualitatively, quantitatively, or from the point of view of situation. They may
refer to nouns and other words of nominal nature, such as pronouns and substitute words: It was
a letter from his devoted friend. Attributes may be divided into non-detached (close) and
detached (loose). Non-detached attributes form one sense group with their headword. Attributes
with identical reference (crimson flowers, white flowers, and yellow flowers — crimson, white,
and yellow flowers) are usually interchangeable (yellow, white, and crimson flowers) and are set
off by commas (crimson, white, yellow flowers) or joined by a conjunction. Attributes may form
a string with different reference, that is, those of them which are closer to the noun form a
composite idea with subsequent words: her usual (good temper); a clever (young man) (compare
with crimson, white, yellow flowers)', a large black and white (hunting dog). In the word-group a
large black and white hunting dog the adjective large refers to black and white hunting dog,
black and white refers to hunting dog, and hunting refers to dog. This relation of attributes
embedded inside a string of them requires a fixed order and no comma is used to separate them.
A detached attribute is only loosely connected with its headword and is often optional from the
point of view of structure, although very important semantically. It forms a separate sense group
in speech and is accordingly separated by commas in writing. A detached attribute may be placed
in preposition, post-position, or at some distance from the headword. Unlike non-detached attrib-
utes, a detached attribute may modify personal and relative pronoun. Carrie looked about her,
very much disturbed and quite sure that she did not want to work here. A daughter of poor but
honest parents, I have no reason to be ashamed of my origins. Very often a detached attribute
refers not only to the headword, but also to another part of the sentence, thus forming a double
connection. And for a moment I hesitated, unable to start talking (as I was unable to start
talking). Familiar with these details, Michael paid them little attention (because he was familiar
with these details). Not in a hurry to get home, he dined in town (as he was not in a hurry to get
home).

Adverbial modifier.
Is a secondary part of the sentence which modifies another part of the sentence expressed either by
a verb ( in a (non)-finite form), an adjective, a stative or an adverb. Semantically adverbials denote
place (where, how far [here, there]), time (when, how often, how long), manner (how, in what way
[so, thus, like, that, like this]), cause-reason (why, for what reason [therefore]), purpose (what
for), result (too, enough, so…(as)), condition (in what case, on what condition [this/that case, but
for, except for, without]), concession (in spite of what [nevertheless, in spite of this/that, though,
with all]), attendant circumstances, comparison (than, as, as if, as though, like), degree (how
much), measure (length, time, weight, money, temperature), exception (but, except, apart from).
Structural: it can be simple, phrasal, complex, and clausal. We started early. We started at five in
the morning. John sat with his elbows on the table and his hands clasped. When the cat is away,
the mice will play.