Notes for Lecture-2

MCA 206:Advanced Computer Networks

1.Layering

It is a structuring technique which lets us to view the network as a succession of layers.

Abstraction naturally leads to layering, especially in network systems. The general idea is that
you start with the services offered by the underlying hardware, and then add a sequence of
layers, each providing a higher (more abstract) level of service. The services provided at the high
layers are implemented in terms of the services provided by the low layers
1.1 Advantages
1. Handles heterogeneity
2. Software reuse
3. Modularity (i.e. Multiplicity of layers and independence among themselves)
4. Extensibility
5. New Technologies are allowed

1.2 What function in what layers?

When we design a system into layers built one on the top of other, we have to make a choice as
to what function will be performed in what layer. The End to End Design Principle is a guide to
determine what functionality should go in what layer/module in the system. e.g. TCP doesn't
perform well on wireless networks as it was designed basically for wired networks. To improve
performance a large number of optimizations have been done in the network layer.
Examples of layering:
a. Layering in an os kernel shell
Kernel
Device drivers
Hardware
b. Layering in a microprocessor
Compiler
Assembly language
Instruction set
Processor

1.3 Examples of End to End Principle: FILE TRANSFER APPLICATION

Assumptions –

1. File System reads the file with 100% reliability and copies it on the communication medium
accurately.
2. Communication Network provides 100% guarantee of conveying it as it is to the other end.
3. The writing and storage of the file by the file system is again perfect.
If this is the case then we can safely assume that the file transferred will be an exact replica of
the earlier one. But practically neither of the assumptions proves to be true.
Hence we have to trap some of the errors at the Application Level, so that we can ensure that the
file has been transferred correctly. So we can perform a checksum of the contents of file.

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The above example may not be a practical one presently owing to following
reasons:

1. The Disk System is pretty reliable nowadays. It performs Checksum on the data by itself.
2. The other softwares are also reliable.

Practical Example

Since the network can't guarantee the authenticity of what one communicates through them one
has to perform a checksum of a downloaded file, in order to ensure that it has the same data that
he intended to download.
E.g. Linux System Files

1.4 Possible threats without End to End Design

1. Gateway introduces an error

2. Gateway might crash and cannot preserve the state information (information in Gateway
Buffer)

1.5 When to partially implement a function at a lower layer?

1. When it is possible without much trouble.
2. When Performance improves by doing so.
3. The High Level Applications should have some use of the function.

Caveats in lower layer implementation

1. All applications have to use it even if they don't require it.( at least they have to pay for it)
2. Lower layer may not have enough information for efficient implementation.
2.Seven-layer Architecture
2.1 The OSI Model
The International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide
agreement on international standards. An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was introduced in the late
1970’s. An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to
communicate regardless of their underlying architecture. The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a
model for understanding and designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust, and
interoperable. The OSI model is a layered framework consists seven separate but related layers.
Each layer defines a part of the process of moving information across a network.
2.2 Functions of Layers in the OSI model
a. Physical Layer: It is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (node) to the
next. The physical layer is also concerned with – physical characteristics of interfaces and media,
representation of bits, data rate, and synchronization of bits, line configuration, physical topology
and transmission mode.
b. Data Link Layer: It is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next. The
other responsibilities of the data link layer are – framing, physical addressing, flow control, error
control and access control.

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c. Network Layer: This layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source
host to the destination host. The other responsibilities of network layer includes – logical
addressing and routing.
d. Transport Layer: The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one
process to another. This layer responsibilities includes – service-point addressing, segmentation
and reassembly, connection control, flow control and error control.
e. Session Layer: This layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.
f. Presentation Layer: This layer is responsible for translation, compression and encryption.
g. Application Layer: The application layer is responsible for providing services to the users.
Specific services provided by this layer are – network virtual terminal, file transfer, access and
management, mail services and directory services.