Drilling Engineering Slides

PtrE 411
Drilling Engineering
Prof Vamegh Rasouli
Vamegh.Rasouli@engr.und.edu
Drilling Engineering Prepared by Dr Vamegh Rasouli 1
Chapter 1 – Introduction to Drilling
1
Drilling Objectives:
• Build the well according to purpose & safely
• Complete with minimum cost
Drilling Rig Types
COMPLIANT
4
Drilling Engineering Prepared by Dr Vamegh Rasouli
2
Jackknife
Most commonly used onshore rig. Rests on the stand & breaks apart
into 4 to 6 pieces & each part carried on a truck
5
Jacking up
Also an onshore rig, is a jacknife
6
3
Portable mast
•Much smaller than jacknife, for
20 m or less drilling with about
10m pipe
•It is retractable, so can be
moved on a truck
•Usually used for completion,
shallow holes
7
Barge rig
Barge is brought to the position, sunk by filling ballasting components. Mast

raised & drilling starts. Once finished, mast is put down, empty water &
move barge. Used for very shallow/flat water (less than 3m) like river or
lakes. Contains all equip. from land rig 8
4
Self-contained platform
•A big platform &
expensive contains all
required stuff
•Limited to medium
deep water (up to 400
m), as if deeper,
structure becomes
complicated, i.e. more
expensive & not
usable for ROV
(remote operative
vehicle)
•Used to support all
loads (wave, wind, …)
•Conventional mast is
used as it stays for a
long term. Up to about
30 holes drilled from
the mast 9
Tender platform
A very small platform, so due to not enough room, one or even two
barges or ships may towed to locate equipments such as separation
sys., pumps or restaurant & etc.
10
5
Submersible
A fixed bottom supported

big platform constructed
from concrete or steel. It
floats & moved to position.
Then compartments are ballasted by water. Conventional mast is used & stay for
aDrilling
long period. Mast can move to drill different wells. Limited to 100 m water depth 11
Engineering Prepared by Dr Vamegh Rasouli
Jack-up
•A bottom supported platform

with high mobility. Legs (3-4)
work (in/)dependently. Limited
to max 100 m water depth
•“cantilever”: one kind of jack-up platform, in which the mast can move to drill on
top of the platform 12
6
Semi-submersible
pontoons
•Can drill resting on bottom (platform

floats to position & ballasted to
lower) or in a floating position
(pontoons float & anchored in place)
•Preferred to be used for production well. Works in very deep water (3000 m)
•Tends to dampen the wave motion
13
Drillship
•Ship floats to position &
drilling starts! Not ballasted
•Ship is free to move at 6
degree of freedom. So
always facing incoming
waves to dampen wave
motion
•Very fast to move, less
stable & everything locates
above water level
•Used preferably in
exploratory wells. Can drill
deep water
•Anchor or dynamic
positioning system can be
employed (in latter case, it is
more costly than
semisubmersible rigs)
14
7
Tension legs platforms
For deep water (>350 ft) but kept in place using tendons (pipes) which are connected
to sea bottom. Tendons are in tension (i.e. forcing rig lowering water) but buoying force
applies upward so as a result the platform is stable 15
Spar-buoy (caisson)
•Huge hollow steel
cylinder shape (40
m diameter, 400 m
height!)
•floats horizontally
& brought into
position. Then
placed vertically &
anchored in place.
Rig assembled on
top
•Very stable but
expensive &
difficult to move it.
Limited to 1000 m
water depth. Few of
them in use
16
8
Compliant platforms
•Bottom supported
platform, where its
structure looks linearly.
Used in up to 1000 m water
depth. Platform complies
with wave motion
•It is the newest generation
of offshore platforms
•Tension legs & spar-buoy
platforms are also the new
generations of offshore
platforms
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Common type rigs used
18
9
Personnel at Rig Site:
• Rig site people employed by either operating company,

drilling contractor or service/supply company
• Operating company: Owner of lease/block needs to
acquire right from land owner to drill & produce
• Drilling Contractors invited to an auction to place their
bid. Contractor will drill the well according to specification
set by operator
• Besides contractor, operator employs service/supply
companies for logging, cementing, …
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Drilling crews:
• Company man: Operator representative at rig, in direct

charge of all company’s activities on the rig site (drilling
strategy, supplies & services, …)
• Tool Pusher: Leading man of contractor, supervise all
drilling operations, coordinate company & contractor
affairs, supervise & coordinate 2-3 crews operate 24/7
• Driller: Operates drilling machinery (rig floor brakes,
switches, levers) from his control console, most closely
involved in drilling processes, in case of a kick he moves
the bit off the bottom and closes BOP, overall supervisor
of all floormen, reports to tool pusher
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10
Drilling crews, cont’d:
• Derrick Man: works from monkeyboard (small platform

about 90 ft above the rotary table in derrick), handling &
guiding upper end of the pipe during connections
/tripping, maintains & repairs pumps & equips & keeping
tabs on drilling fluid during operation
• Floormen (rotary helper or roughnecks): During
tripping responsible for handling lower end of drill pipe,
operating tongs & wrenches to make or break up a
connection, during other time maintain equips, painting &
help wherever needed
• Mud Engineer, Mud Logger: Send by service company,
they are constantly responsible for logging the changes
in the hole & maintaining proper mud condition
21
Well classification by depth:
• Shallow well: < 2000m

• Conventional well: 2000m-3500m
• Deep well: 3500m-5000m
• Ultra Deep well: > 5000m
“ With Adv. Technologies Horizontal drains are drilled up to

10000+m”
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11
Chapter 2 – Rotary Drilling Rig Systems
Drilling Process:
•Rock is destroyed under rotation & axial force
applied to drill bit. Axial force applied by thick walled
tubes called drill collars. Rotation is made by rotating
whole drill string form surface
•Bottom Hole Assembly (BHA): lower part of drill
string composed of drill collars & specialised drilling
tools
•Choosing right bit (formation characteristics) & right
WOB & rotary speed are important in drilling planning
•Drilling fluid pumped continuously from surface to
the bottom through inside of hollow drill string and
forced through nozzles at the bit lifts cuttings through
annular space between drill string & borehole
•Important drilling fluid characteristics: carrying
capacity, prevent formation fluid enter to borehole,
wellbore stability
•At the surface cuttings are separated from drilling
fluid by several solid removal equips & after
necessary treatment drilling fluid pumped back down
hole
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12
Typical Rig Components
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Standpipe
26
13
Standpipe
27
Typical Rig Components
28
14
Connection Process
Connection:
The process of adding new joints to the top of drill string as
its length increases:
- A new joint picked from pipe rack, stabbed into
mousehole using rig lift equip.,
- Kelly pulled out of the hole & a pipe slip used to
transfer weight of drill string from hook to master
bushing,
- Connection at first tool joint broken, kelly is swang &
stabbed onto the joint in mousehole,
- New joint stabbed on & connected to the top of
drillstring,
- Drill string is picked up to remove the slips & then
lowered so kelly bushing fits the master bushing,
- Drilling is reinitiated.
30
15
Setting the slips
Tripping- Removing one stand of drillstring
fingers
16
• Round Trip: To replace dull bit by a new one, change
the BHA, drillstring is removed to run a casing string:
- Removing stands of two (doubles), three (thribbles) or even four
(fourbles) joints connected & stacking them upright in the rig,
- During trips, kelly & swivel is stabbed into the rathole,
- The process repeats until the whole drillstring is out of the hole,
- The reverse process is done to run drillstring into the hole.
33
Rotary Rig Systems (Requirements):

• Power system
• Hoisting systems
• Drilling fluid (mud) circulation systems
• Rotary systems
• Derrick & Substructure
• Well Control & Well monitoring systems
34
17
Power System
Diesel-powered internal combustion engines

35
Power System:
• Supply power to items mentioned+ pumps, rig light, air
compressor, …
• Largest power consumers are hoisting, circulation sys. &
rotary sys., which determine total power needed
• One engine can be used for hoisting & rotary sys, as they
don’t operate at the same time
• Power systems classified to direct drive and electric type.
Both use diesel fuelled engines as the energy source
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18
Power System, Cont’d:
Electric type:
- Various DC & AC engines use to generate electricity. DC motors are
powerful & work in wider range of power & torque
• Rig Power system performance: identified by output hp,

torque & fuel consumption for various engine speeds
“Power requirements for onshore rigs: 1000-3000 hp”

Much more for offshore rigs!
37

Energy consumed by engines comes from burning fuels, with different
heating values:
Fuel Type Heating Value Density
(BTU/lbm) (lbm/gal)
Diesel 19000 7.2
Gasoline 20000 6.6
Butane (liquid) 21000 4.7
Methane (gas) 24000 ---
1 BTU = 778:17 lbf / ft
1 cal = 4:1868 Joule = 4:1868 N m

Conversion factors:
1 BTU = 252 cal
A BTU is the amount of heat required to raise the temp. of one pound avoirdupois
(weight) of water by one degree F
19
Thermal efficiency: Ratio of the work
(W) generated to chemical energy (Q)
consumed.
P: Engine power (work/time)
Q : Chemical energy consumed/time
N: Engine speed
T: output torque of engine
(API: engine power reduces by 3%/1000ft of altitude and 1%/10°F from 85°F)
20
Hoisting Systems:
• derrick
• draw works
• fast line
• crown block
• travelling block
• dead line and anchor
• storage reel
• hook
41
Hoisting Systems – derrick & derrick floor:
• Called “mast” if jacked-up, & “Derrick”

if erected on the site
• provide height to raise/lower drillstring
and casing
• Rated by API (height, wind &
compressive load withstanding).
Higher derricks handle longer stand
(less tripping time)
• Designed to handle 2, 3 (most
common), or 4 joints/stand
• Derrick stands above derrick floor
(where surface drilling operations
occur)
42
21
Hoisting Systems – derrick & derrick floor, Cont’d:
• At derrick floor located: drawworks, driller console, driller

house (doghouse), rotary table, drilling fluid manifold, … to
operate drillstring
• “Substructure”: Space below derrick floor, its height should
be enough to place well control equips
• “Monkeyboard”: located at about ¾ of the height of derrick,
used to operate drillstring stands during trip operations
• During drillstring trips, the stands are kept stood in the
mast held by “fingers” in derrick rack near monkeyboard
43
Hoisting Systems –
derrick & derrick floor:
44
22
Hoisting Systems – drawworks:
• Provides hoisting & braking power to handle heavy equips

in the borehole
• Composed of wire rope drum, mechanical & hydraulic
brakes, transmission, cathead (small winches operate by hand
or remotely providing hoisting & pulling power to operate small loads &
tools in derrick area)
• Reeling-in powered by an electric motor/diesel engine.
Reeling-out powered by gravity and controlled by
mechanical/hydraulic/magnetic brakes
• Takes power from diesel engines/electrical motors, its
rotary speed controlled by various gears & clutches
• The drum surface has helical groove to accommodate
drilling line without excessive stress & strain and reeled in
neatly
45
46
23
47
Hoisting Systems – drawworks brake:
48
24
Hoisting Systems – drawworks gear-box:
49
Hoisting Systems - Block and Tackle:
• Drawworks cannot provide pull required to raise heavy

drillstring & hence it is done through a sys. of pulleys
“Block-tackle provides mechanical advantage to

drawwork by reducing total load applied to derrick”
• Block-tackle: assembly of fast line, crown block &

travelling block. No of lines (n) twice than travelling block
• Fast line (drilling line from drawworks)
• crown block (pulley sys. at top of derrick)
• Travelling block: another pulley sys. raises & lowers
along derrick moving the equips.
• Dead line: last line of tackle anchored to derrick floor
• Hook: below travelling block to hung equips.
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25
51
Mechanical advantage:
(A M )i deal = n
Ideally (frictionless sys.):
efficiency of one pulley:
Real Mech. Advantage (assuming

similar efficiency for all pulleys):
W: Load on the hook Ff: Tensile force on fast line

Fi & Fo: input & output tensile forces of rope in pulley
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efficiency of the system:
force at the fast line:
force at the dead line: Fd=Ff hn+1 <=(W/n)

n E E av e
6 0.869 0.874
8 0.836 0.841
typical values (h = 0.96): 10 0.804 0.810
12 0.775 0.770
16 0.746 0.740
Power: P=F V
draw work power: Pd = F f vf
hook power: Ph  W vh
Ideally: Ph = Pd or v f  n vh
Ph = E Pd
real case:
27
Load Applied to the Derrick:
28
FD = W + Ff + Fd
Total load:
Worst scenario for fast line is the real case:

W
Ff =
nE
Worst scenario (largest force) for dead line is the ideal case:
W
Fd =
n

Load for Each Leg:
W W n+4
Leg A :+ = W
4 n 4n
W
Leg B :
4
W W nE + 2
Legs C and D : + = W
4 2nE 4nE
Leg A is the most solicited (as long as h > 0.5) & first line
to fail in case of excessive load in hook
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Equivalent derrick Load (FDE): Defined as four times

the load in most loaded leg
n+4
FD E = W
n
Derrick efficiency factor (ED): Defined as the ratio of

total load applied to derrick to FDE
30
Drilling Fluid Circulation Systems
Purposes of drilling fluid (some):

• clean bottom hole & bring cuttings to surface
• prevent collapse of borehole (wellbore stability)
• Provide hydrostatic pressure, preventing formation fluid
flow into the well
• cool and lubricate the bit and drillstring
61
Drilling Fluid Circulation Systems,

Cont’d
Process:
62
31
Drilling Fluid Circulation Systems, Cont’d:
Components of the system:

• pits or tanks
• pumps
• flow line
• solids control equipment
• treatment & mixing equips.
• surface pipes & valves
• drillstring
63
Drilling Fluid Circulation Systems-Tanks:
• Tanks allow enough retaining time for much of

solids to be removed from fluid
• 3-4 settling tanks, mixing tanks, suction tanks
• Tanks are made of “steel”
• Contain safe excess of total volume of borehole (in
case of lost circulation)
• Number of acting pump depends on the current
depth of hole
64
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Drilling Fluid Circulation Systems- Mud Pumps:
• Mostly reciprocating PDP (positive displacement

pumps) are used, with the following adv over
centrifuge pumps:
– Able to pump high abrasive solids content & large
particles
– Easy to operate & maintain
– Sturdy & reliable
– Operate in a wide range of pressure & flow rate
• PDP has two major parts: Power end (receives
power from engines & transforms the rotating
movement into reciprocating movement) and Fluid
end (converts reciprocating power into pressure &
flow rate)
65
• Rigs normally have 2 or 3 PDPs. At shallower

depths (larger diameter) 2 pumps operate parallel
providing highest flow rate to clean borehole
• At deeper depth (less flow rate and higher pres
needed) 1 PDP is used
• Flow rate depends on:
– Stroke length, LS (fixed)
– Liner diameter, dL
– Rod diameter, dR (for duplex PDP)
– Pump speed (stroke/min), N
– Volumetric efficiency, EV (at fluid end & can be 100%)
Note: Em is the efficiency of the power end
66
33
Double Action Duplex Pump:
Pump factor (total vol. displaced/stroke)
67
Single Action Triplex Pump:

This pump is mostly used due to less bulky, less pres fluctuation,
cheaper to buy & maintain
Pump factor (total vol. displaced/stroke)
68
34
Pump flow rate: q = N Fp

1
Field units: q= N Fp
231
Pump power: PH = q D p
q¢p
Field units: PH =
1714:29
N: Strokes/min (spm) dL, dR, LS: in Fp: in3

q: gallon/min (gpm) PH: hp Dp : psi
69
Drilling Fluid Circulation Systems- Surge dampener:

•To decrease the pulsation
of output flow rate due to
reciprocating action of PDP
(caused by speed changing
of pistons as move along the
liners)
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Drilling Fluid Circulation Systems-Example:
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Solids Control Systems
Purpose: Reduce inert solids (and gases) in the

mud & composed of:
• shale shaker
• degasser
• desander
• desilter
• centrifuge
• mud cleaner
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36
Solids Control Systems
73
Solids Control Systems– shale shakers

• Constitutes of one or
more vibrating screens
(range of 10-150 mesh)
removes coarse solids
(cuttings)
• Located at the end of
flow line
74
37
Solids Control Systems– degasser
• Removes gas by creating a vacuum in vacuum chamber.
Fluid flows down an inclined flat surface as a thin layer &
vacuum enlarges & coalesce the bubbles. Degasser fluid
drawn from chamber by a fluid jet located at the discharge
line
75
Solids Control Systems– hydrocyclones

(Desanders & Desilters)
76
38
(Desanders & Desilters)
•Drilling fluid enters through a tangential opening impelled by a
centrifugal pump
•Solids are pushed towards the internal wall of inverted cone due
to whirling motion
•Moving downwards, rotating speed increases & diameter
decreases, so the free fluid squeezed out of flow & swirls upward
in a vertex motion leaving hydrocyclone from upper exit
•Solid discharges from the apex of the cone (underflow)
•Desanders is a set of two or three 8 or 10 in. hydrocyclone &
located after degasser. Desander cut point: 40-45 μm
•Desilter is a set of eight to twelve 4 or 5 in. hydrocyclone.
Desilter cut point: 10-20 μm
•Desander has less hydrocyclones with larger volumes than
desilter
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desander desilter
78
39
Solids Control Systems– Centrifuges
Consists of a rotating cone shape drum with a screw conveyor. Fluid
fed in hollow conveyor. High speed rotation of drum creates centrifugal
force & solids decant. Screw rotates in a same direction of drum but at
slower speed pushing solids toward discharge line. Colloidal
suspension exits drum as overflow.
A casing
covers
centrifuge,
not shown
here!
79
Solids Control Systems– size classification
80
40
Solids Control Systems– Mud Cleaners
•Inert solids in weighted fluid (fluid with weight material like barite, iron
oxide) has particle sizes within range of desanders & desilters, so cannot
separated only by hydrocyclone
•Mud cleaner is a desilter unit in which the underflow is further processed
by a fine vibration screen mounted under the cones
•It separates low density inert solids (undesirable) from high density
weighted particles
•Hydrocyclones separates light particles from heavy particles. So
bentonite (lighter than formation solid)+clean mud go to overflow & barite
(denser than formation solid)+formation solids go to underflow
•Underflow goes to fine screen where high density small particles, i.e.
barite (much more expensive than bentonite) is separated from low
density high particle size i.e. formation solids & treated to re-circulate
•Mud cleaners mainly used with oil-& Synth- base fluids
81
Solids Control Systems– Mud Cleaners
82
41
Solids Control Systems – mixing equips
Fluid
Mud agitator motion
in tank
Mud
hopper
Mud gun
83
Rotary Systems – swivel
84
42
Rotary Systems – swivel
•Swivel is suspended by hook and:
-allows drill string to rotate as drilling fluid is pumped,
-allows drilling fluid to be pumped downhole, &
-supports axial load of drillstring
•A flexible hose connects to gooseneck, hydraulically
coupled to top of swivel stem by a stuffing box
•The stem shoulder (rest on a large thrust tapered roller
bearing) transmits drillstring weight to swivel body & then to
bail
•The thread connector of swivel is cut left-hand so it wont
tend to disconnect when drillstring is rotated by kelly or top
drive
85
Rotary Systems – kelly & etc.
A kelly
valve
Squared &
Hexagonal
kelly
86
43
Rotary Systems – kelly & etc., Cont’d
•“Kelly”, is a square/hexagon steel bar with a hole through
middle for fluid path connected below swivel
•While allowing drillstring to be lowered or raised, kelly
transmits rotary motion & torque to drillstring (& then bit)
•Kelly moves up & down freely inside “kelly bushing” (similar
profile to kelly but larger) & can be gripped & turned by kelly
bushing/rotary table
•Overall length of kelly: 40-54 ft
•“Kelly valves”: at both ends (advised) of kelly is a ball valve
allows free passage of fluid without pres loss. Act as a safety
device that can be closed to prevent flow from drillstring
(such as when kicking). Also isolates drillstring from surface
equips & allows disconnecting kelly during critical operations
87
Rotary Systems – kelly & etc., Cont’d

•“Kelly saver sub”: short length pipe (male thread on one
side & female on the other) screwed onto the bottom of lower
kelly valve/top drive & onto the rest of drillstring
•When pipe added to drillstring (hole deepened) threads
unscrewed between kelly saver sub & rest of drillstring (as
opposed to between kelly valve/top drive & saver sub). This
means higher wear & tear in lower connection. Saver sub is
expandable and has low investment
•Both lower kelly valve & saver sub must be of similar
diameter of the drill pipe tool joints to allow stripping into the
hole during control operations
88
44
Rotary Systems – kelly bushing
89
Rotary Systems – rotary table
Kelly bushings
Master bushings Casing bushing

90
45
Rotary Systems – rotary table
Receives power from power sys (mechanical/electric). Several

combinations of torque & speed obtained by using a gearbox
91
Rotary Systems – pipe slips
Drill pipe slips Drill collar slips
Casing slips Safety collar

92
46
Rotary Systems – pipe slips
93
Rotary Systems – Rotary Table & Components

•Torque is transmitted to kelly by “kelly bushing”
•Kelly bushing fits in the “master bushing” by pins or
squared link
•Master bushing attached to rotary table & transmits torque
& rotation from rotary table to kelly bushing
•“Master Casing bushing” is used to handle casings
•Master bushing/master casing bushing has a tapered
internal hole in order to receive the “pipe slips” (either drill
pipe slips, drill collar slips (DC) or casing slips, which grips
the tubular & frees hook from its weight. “Safety clamp”
always used above DC slips, so if DC slides in the slips
(due to slick shape of most DCs) safety clamp forces the
slip to grip the DC
94
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Well Control Systems
• Detect, control & remove undesired entrance of fluid (i.e.
kick, due to high FP, low fluid density, swab, loss of
circulation, FF, …) into borehole. If fluid reaches the
surface it is called “blowout”, which is dangerous
specially gas blowouts
• Well Control System composed of:
– Sensors: flow rate, surface volume, annular & drillstring pres.
– “Chock Manifold”: circulating pres control,
– “Kill & Choke lines”,
– Blowout Preventer (BOP): set of pack-offs capable of shutting
annular space between surface casing & drillstring. Due to
diversity in annular shape different device type exist &
assembled together called “BOP stack”. It is located under rotary
table in land & fixed marine rigs & on the bottom of sea in
mobile/floating rigs
95
Well Control Systems - items
Annular BOP
Inside BOP
Blind & Pipe rams Shear rams 96

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Well Control Systems- BOP types
• Annular BOP: Is to shut the annular in front of any kind of
drillstring equip (except stabilizer) or even without
drillstring. The “elastomeric” ribbed donut squeezed
around drillstring by a hydraulic ram. It is located on top of
BOP stack. By controlling the pres applied to ram, it is
possible to strip the drillstring in/out while annular is
closed. This requires an “inside-BOP”
• Inside BOP: Connected immediately to drillstring, when
kick identified. Inside-BOP allows fluid be pumped down
the drillstring, but blocking back flow (like a check valve)
• blind rams: Usually one at the top of all other rams,
allows shutting the borehole with no drillstring element in
front of it. If applies to a drill pipe, will collapse with no
seal
97
Well Control Systems- BOP types, Cont’d

• pipe rams: Allows shutting the annular in front a
compatible drill pipe (not tool joints!). Normally 2 rams
used (with special “spool” between the two if kill & choke
line connected), which also allows “snub” drillstring during
well control operation
• Shear rams: Acts as the last resource when all other rams
& annular had failed. Normally one is used below the blind
or all other rams & can shear a drill pipe & provide seal.
Then circulation is lost & drillstring falls into borehole if
shear ram is the lower one
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49
Well Control Systems – BOP stack
Land BOP Stack Floating rig BOP Stack

99
Well Control Systems – accumulator
100
50
Well Control Systems – accumulator
•All BOP safety devices hydraulically operates by actuators &
accumulators, which can operate completely independent of
the rig power sys.
•Normally 2 control panels are used, one at rig floor & a
remote one away from risky area
•Accumulators are steel bottles lined with a elastomeric liner
forming two isolated compartments. One filled with oil &
powers the BOP, other filled with high pres air or nitrogen.
Pres of gas pressurize the oil across the elastomeric line
•Rig power during normal operation keeps gas in accmulators
under pres.
•Accumulators should be able to provide hydr. power to close
& open all BOP stack elements number of time without
external power
101
Prepared by Dr Vamegh Rasouli
Well Control Systems – choke manifold
102
51
Well Control Systems – choke manifold
•During kick control operation BOP stack devices close

the annular & divert the returning fluid to the “chocke line”
•Chocke line directs returning fluid to a manifold of valves
& chockes, “chocke manifold”, which allows to control the
flow pres at top of annular adjusting the flow area open to
flow
•Chocke manifold directs the flow to:
-a flare: if gas kick
-the pits: if mud
-special tanks: if oil
103
Well Monitoring Systems
Drilling Console
Weight indicator
Deadline anchor
104
52
Well Monitoring Systems
•Several sensors, gauges, meters, indicators & recorders
provide all data to control all operation safely, efficiently &
reliably. Amongst them are:
-WOB & hook load: for efficient control of ROP, bit life,
borehole cleaning, borehole direction. Weight indicator
works in conjunction with the “deadline anchor”. It
senses the tension in deadline & hydraulically actuates
the weight indicator. Most weight indicators have 2 hands
& 2 scales, the inner scale shows hook load, the outer
scale the WOB
-ROP, rotary speed, torque,
-Circulating (pump) pres, Flow rate (in/out),
-Drilling fluid gain/loss, mud temp/density,
-Total hydrocarbon gas in drilling fluid
105
Chapter 3 – Drillstring Tubulars & Equipment
53
Purposes of drillstring:
• transmit mechanical power (torque/rotation) to the bit,
• transmit hydraulic power (pres & flow rate) to the bit,
• transmit axial force to the bit &
• physical connection with the bit
Elements of the drillstring

• drill pipes
• heavy wall drill pipes
• drill collars
• several special tools
107
Drillstring Tubulars & Equipment - components
108
54
Drillstring Tubulars – drill pipes
the longer & upper portion of the drillstring, so must be
light & strong, about %50 of drillstring weight, used under
tension (cannot be used to apply WOB)
1. OD= 23/8- 65/8 in. ID=OD-2t
2. length range
• I – 18 to 22 ft
• II – 27 to 30 ft (most common)
• III – 38 to 45 ft
3. Nominal linear weight (2 or 3 per OD)
4. Wall upset (EU, IU, IEU): length of (Interna/External) extra thickness at both
ends for smooth transition between drill pipe & tool joints, reducing stress conc.
5. Tool joints OD, ID, & tonge length
6. API drill pipe steel grade (E-75, X-95, G-105, S-135) [i.e. Ysmin=135 ksi]
7. Connection size (23/8, 41/2 ,...) & type (IF, EF, FH, XH, SH, DS, NC)
109
Drill pipe – tool-joints

A: IU (internal upset) DP
with full hole shrink-grip
TJ (tool joint)
B: EU (external upset)
DP with internal-flush
shrink-grip TJ
C: EU DP with flush-weld
utilized TJ
D: EIU DP with Hydrill-
pressure welded TJ
•Size of EU is larger than IU

•Threaded joints (A,B) have
4 connections (2 joints
between 2 pipes), i.e. more
chance of leakage & larger
than welded one (C&D)
•Welded joints most
commonly used
110
55
Drillstring Tubulars – tool-joints
Pressure welded TJ:

•Joints are welded to
the pipe by friction &
rotation at high speed
to do the connection
(left side is fixed in the
figure)
•Used when end
surfaces of both joint &
pipe are flat. If not,
“flush welded” TJ
utilizes to connect the
two by welding
111
Drillstring Tubulars – tool-joints
112
56
Drill pipe
–
geom. data
–
(API RP7G)
113
Drill pipe – geom. properties
• Pipe capacity – internal cross section area expressed in

volume/length (usually gal/ft or bbl/ft)
• Pipe displacement – pipe (steel) cross section area expressed in

• Annular capacity (not a pipe property) – annular area expressed in

114
57
Drill pipe – geometry properties, Cont’d
• The formulas don’t consider tool joints (consult manufacture

Table)
• Above calculation for a typical 5in DP with 19.5 lb/ft
(ID=4.276, length=30 ft, with tool joints of OD=6in & ID=31/2,
comprising 21/2ft of total DP length) gives the adjusted linear
weight of DP plus joint equal to 21.72 lb/ft: i.e. the nominal
weight specifying a DP is just a nominal value (neither the
pipe body linear weigth or ave. linear weight)
• Used drill pipes classified as “class 1” or “premium” if min.
wall thickness is at least %80 of a new DP & as “class 2”
when at least %70
• Due to DP wear during operation, reduction of TJ OD & wall
thickness reduces tensile & torsion capacity of the element
115
Drillstring Tubulars – DP elevators

•Used to handle DP during tripping, while
swivel & kelly are set aside in rat hole
•Connects to bails (located on both sides
of the hook) by two links
•A hinge & latch allows opening & closing
the bi-parted collar around DP
•Operated by roughnecks at rotary table
level & derrickman at monkeyboard
116
58
Drillstring Tubulars – Drill Collars
•thick walled pipes, right above the bit, ave. length:34 ft
•provide axial load for the bit (as even heavy weight DP can’t)
•made of carbon steel (4115) or non-magnetic alloy
•Outside DC may be slick (small diam.) or spiral grooved (any
size) to reduce/avoid risk of diff. sticking against per. formation
•no tool-joint (connections made of threads box and pin)
•use special elevator similar to DP with diff. internal shape or
•“lift sub” (with shape of upper end of DP) connects to top of Lift sub
sections of DC during trip & so DP elevator is used (save time)
A slick
&
spiraled
DC
Spiraled DC,
A DC elevator
grooves depth>mud cake thickness
117
Drillstring Tubulars – Heavy Weight Drill Pipes

•HWDP, intermediary pipes between DP & DC, are:
- enough strong under compression for part of
WOB,
-flexible for directional drilling (less torque & drag
than DC) &
-allow gradual transition between DP (flex.) & DC
(stiff)-ie less stress conc. & mech. fatigue on the
threads
•Length=27-30 ft (range II of DPs), but longer TJ (for
re-threading)
•central external upset (3rd point of contact) increased
additional stiffness, reduces pipe section wearing in
high inclined wells
118
59
Drillstring Tubulars – special tools
•bumpers
•jars
•stabilizers
•reamers
•hole-openers
•etc
“Bumpers” shock DS upwards & “Jars” shock it downwards

in case of stuck pipe to release it.
119
Drillstring Tubulars – stabilizers

•Provides localised support in one or more points along
drillstring
•In vertical wells, it prevents low freq. vibration in drillstring
during rotation with the advantages being:
-reduce wear of drillstring and casing,
-reduce mechanical fatigue,
-reduce mechanical instability of the borehole wall,
-reduce borehole tortuous (crocked) hole.
•Used in directional drilling to control
•build angle, hold angle & drop angle
120
60
Drillstring Tubulars – stabilizers Types
mandrel Box
connection
Sleeve
(stabilizer)
Pin
connection
to DC
(a) Integral (b) Interchangeable (c) non-rotating (d) replaceable blades

Weaker than integral sleeve rotates Similar to integral one
Specific diameter
one. Sleeves with freely to reduce but is straight. Moving
different diameters torque parts can be replaced
can be replaced by larger ones after
when wear wearing. Moving parts
are always cause
121
Drilling Engineering difficulties!
Drillstring Tubulars – reamers
•Keep diameter of openhole in gauge (to bit)

•The openhole diameter may reduce as:
-formation swelling (hydrated shales,
moving salts) or
-bit diameter reduction (hard/abrasive
formations)
•It also functions as a stabilizer (rollers touch
borehole wall)
•Different reamers used for different
formations
A roller reamer
122
61
Drillstring Tubulars – Hole-openers
•Used to enlarge the diameter of a previously or
simultaneously drilled smaller hole:
-drill borehole section with smaller bit, later enlarge to
final size- “bull nose” is used in place of bit to guide hole
opener along the pre-drilled hole, even this needs longer
trip, but can be quicker by its impact on cutting control, …
-drill borehole section with smaller bit & simultaneously
enlarge to final diameter,
-enlarge a section below a casing (e.g. production
section) with diameter larger than casing ID. In this case,
“Underreamer” a special hole opener with hinged arms
actuated hydraulically is used (fluid pres actuates ram to
open the arms forcing cutters against borehole wall), or A fixed
-28” is the larger bit size. Hole-opener may be used to hole-opener
drill 36” hole
123
Drillstring Tubulars – tongs

•Manual tongs used for make-up/break-out the pipe
connection during normal operation & drillstring trips
•Tongs (very heavy) kept suspended 3-5 ft above rotary
table (balanced by counter-weights)
•Work in pairs, one turns left, the other to right
•Actuated mechanically/hydraulically by “cathead”
(rotating spool connected to drawworks)
•To make-up a connection:
-left tong grips upper TJ (box) of lower pipe, right tong grips
lower TJ (pin) of upper pipe,
-Left tong is connected to a fixed point in derrick by a steel rope,
& right tong is connected to cathead turns the upper pipe.
124
62
•To break a connection:
-left tong grips lower TJ (pin) of upper pipe, right tong grips
upper TJ (box) of lower pipe,
-right tong is connected to a fixed point in derrick by a steel
rope, & left tong is connected to cathead turns the upper pipe.
•To apply torque, angle between arms of tong should be

90o or 180o (ideally 0o but not practical)
•To make-up/break-out a connection,
drillstring must be resting on the master
bushing (using slips/slips+safety clamp)
Tongs grab the pipe joints at points 1,
not weak position 2 along box
125
Left tong: to breakout Right tong: to make-up
126
63
127
Drillstring Tubulars – spinners

Compressed air tongs used to speed-up operation (but the torque to
make-up/break-out connection is always done using manual tongs).
Break-out connection needs more torque and spinners may be useless
Note: “Kelly spinner” is a different

smaller piece of equipment locates in a
fixed position above the kelly & operates
by air, used to speed-up the process of
make-up/break-out connection. It is
employed to tighten a make-up
connection before tongs used to apply
high torque or to loosen a connection
after tongs used to break out the
connection by applying high torque
Kelly
spinner
128
64
Drillstring Tubulars – tongs position
Maximum height of TJ shoulder with respect to the master bushing
90° 180°
LT: tong’s arm length [ft]

 
Ymin=Min yield stress of pipe [psi]
I  Do4  Di4
Tmu: make-up torque [ft lbf] S= section modulus [in3] S  
c 32 Do 129
Drillstring Tubulars – tongs position
130
65
Drillstring
Tubulars
–
Make-up torque
Too little torque may

cause leakage &
connection failure
Too much torque may
cause mechanical failure
of threads in box/pin
131
Drillstring Tubulars –
Top Drive (or power swivel)
•Is an alternative way (in addition to kelly-
rotary table assembly) used to rotate the
bit. Torque is applied hydraulically /
electric motors
•Assembly slides along tracks &
suspended by hook. Reactive torque
transmitted to rig structure directly
through the tracks/or torque reaction
beam
•It makes possible to drill a full stand (3-4
drill pipes) without interruption (less
connection time)
•It makes possible to rotate drillstring
during trips, reducing drag to pull-
out/slack-off drillstring in hole for high
inclination drilling 132
66
Drillstring Tubulars – Downhole motors
•Special engines located above bit to rotate it. It converts
hydraulic power of drilling fluid into mech. (rotation) power
•“Turbins” use fluid momentum conversion on blades of
stator/rotor to generate rotation & torque. They operate in high
speed & has narrow range of operation. Torque reduces
steadily from Max at 0 rpm (stalled) to zero at Max speed
•“positive displacement motors”, PDM, use continuous disp. of
constant vol. compartment created between elastomer stator &
a steel rotor to generate rotation or torque. Rotation speed is
function of flow rate, torque is related to pres diff. across motor
•Bottom hole motors (with bent sub/bent housing) must be used
in directional drilling for better control of azimuth, allowing to
drill complex trajectories
133
Drillstring Tubulars – Downhole motors
A bottom hole turbine

Applies high speed & low
torque. So useful for hard
rocks drilling. Must be
perfectly straight & not
bended. There is no
vibration while working.
A bottom hole PDM

Applies low speed &
high torque. So useful
for soft-medium rocks
drilling. Alignment is not
critical. High vibration.
134
67
Chapter 4 – Introduction to Hydraulics
Hydrostatic state of stress:

A static fluid cannot sustain shear stress, so the normal
stresses inside a fluid are the same in any direction
Magnitude of stress called “pressure”
Hydrostatic pressure inside a homogeneous fluid=

pressure at surface+ weight of fluid above that point
3
Hydrostatic stress regime
2
1=2=3 1
136
68
From an infinitesimal volume of fluid
• static
• density r
• volume dv = dx × dy × dz
• equilibrium
D: depth
D1 r1
D2 r2
D3 r3
To integrate above equation we need to know if fluid is

“incompressible” (like almost all fluids) or “compressible”
(like liquid up to considerably high press, gases are in
general compressible) 137
Hydrostatic pres-Incompressible Fluids
r is constant, then
field units:
Pressure (psi), density (lbm/gal), depth (feet)
Pressure (psi), density (lbm/gal), depth (m)
138
69
Incompressible Fluids - examples
139
Incompressible Fluids – complex column

several segregated fluids
of various densities:
equivalent density:
140
70
Hydrostatic pres-Compressible Fluids
r is NOT constant, but depends

on pres & temp
(from equation of state for real gas )
z: compressibility factor (z=1 for ideal gas)

M: Mass of one lb-mole of gas
p & T: Absolute Pressure & Temperature
R: gas constant
141
Compressible Fluids
¹ = 10:732 psi ft3

R
lb{mole ± R
¹ = 1545:4 lbf ft
R
lb{mole ± R
¹ = 8:3145 kPa m3
R
kg{mole K
¹ = 8314:5 J
R
kg{mole K
Mg
 D2  D1 
p2  p1e zRT
142
71
Compressible Fluids – example
143
Buoyancy
Archimedes principle of buoyancy: buoyant force
exerted on a body fluid fully or partially immersed in a
fluid. This is equal in magnitude (and opposite in
direction) to the weight of displaced fluid
For homogeneous bodies (weight W in the air, volume V, density rb)

fully immersed in homogeneous fluid of density rf, the “net” or
“buoyed” weight of body is Wnet.
(for inhomogeneous bodies geometric center does not coincide with mass
centre, & an equivalent density can be used)
Buoyance factor
144
72
Buoyancy – examples
145
Buoyancy – examples
~
DP:
11740ft, ~
5”/4.276”
DC:
840ft,
7/3”
DC:
420ft,
8/3”
146
73
Buoyancy
–
examples
(don’t use these values for strength calculations!)

147
(cont’d)
Buoyancy
–
examples
DP:
11740ft,
5.087/
4.189
DC:
840ft,
7/3
DC:
420ft,
8/3
148
74
Chapter 5 – Drillstring Design
1. Designed to support (with a safety margin) all

the static and dynamic loadings occurring in
normal and special operations
2. Designed to support some extreme situations
like pipe sticking problems, curved holes, harsh
environment, etc.
3. Must be able to provide a suitable conduit for
the drilling fluid flow without causing excessive
frictional pressure drop both inside and outside
the pipe
150
75
Drillstring Design – neutral point
• (one) Purpose of Drillstring: apply WOB
• WOB obtained by slacking part of DS weight (compression)
• So, bottom part of DS in compression, upper part in tension
• DP cannot support compressive forces, as DP slenderness
factor (length/moment of inertia) is high, so:
• should keep neutral point within the range of DC or HWDP,
(slenderness of DC is low & compression allowed)
• Slenderness parameter used to determine mechanical
buckling resistance (caused by hydrostatic pressure)
• Sufficient DC length must be used so that neutral point lays
in DC (neutral point occur where axial stress is zero)
151

• Neutral point is defined as the
point where the average of v H
radial & tangential stresses is
equal to axial stress, i.e.
a=(r+q)/2, not the point at
which axial force (stress) is
zero! (unless air is used as
Tangential (hoop)
stress (qq)
h
Radial
drilling mud & torque required stress (rr)
to rotate the bit is low)
• In reality, the force created by
hyd. pres. does NOT
contribute to buckling (recall
Archimedess effect)
• Furthermore the resulting moment of hyd. pres. must be ZERO (if not,
the fluid would rotate about its centre of mass), so the hyd. pres.
acting on an immersed column CANNOT contribute to buckle it
• However, with wrong assumption that compressive force due to hyd.
pres of fluid contributes to buckle the drillstring, the neutral point is
calculated as below:
152
76
free body element of length x: force at x
FT: axial force acting at top section of element

W: weight of element of length x
p: pressure at depth D
Fb: reaction of force applied to at the bit
make FT =0 and solve for x
wc  r s gA: linear weight of DC 153

neutral
point
– example
154
77
neutral point of buckling
•It was seen that in previous assumption, even
when DS is off-bottom (i.e. Fb=0) the position of
neutral point is not zero!
•Considering that buoyed weight contributes to
buckling, the correct (& easiest) way to determine
the required length to apply WOB is to:
calculate the length of a column whose buoyed
weight is equal to the required WOB
155

Length of a column immersed in a fluid
required to provide a weight W
Above xn drillstring will not buckle, below xn, it may or may not
buckle (depend on WOB, polar moment of inertia of DC, …)
If different fluid density inside

& outside pipe
156
78
neutral
point of
buckling –
example
157

Stability Force: is defined as the effect of fluid pressure inside &
outside the pipe (pi & po) by
Fs = Ai pi-Ao po
Ai: cross sectional area computed using inside pipe diameter, di
Ao: cross sectional area computed using outside pipe diameter, do
Neutral point can be determined from the intersection of the axial

compression force & the stability force on a tension/compression
diagram
158
79
Drillstring Design – Max. Tensile Force
• Maximum tensile force occurs at the top of DS
• Usually the smaller cross section area is at the top
• Therefore the largest stress is at the top
• Various loads apply to DS such as: static load (buoyed weight of
DS), inertial effects (force to accelerate DS), friction effects
(between DS & borehole wall), viscous effect
• DS also must be able to support the “overpull” applied during pipe
freeing operation (stuck pipe)
• In practice 125% of static load (25% of overpull) used as the
design parameter
• To avoid plastic deformation of DP normally 90% of min yield
strength (called “tensile strength”) is allowed
• MOP (margin of overpull): defined as the excess of tensile load of
DS to the normal tensile load (in normal operation)
• Usually MOP = 25% of weight of DS and between 50 kpsi and
100 kpsi
• For premium DP, degrade OD (conservative) 159

Max Strength
P
y Yield Strength
Plastic
A 0.9y
Elastic region
Force
P

MOP=1.25×P displacement
To apply these in practice you need to multiply the DS weight by

MOP and divide it by 0.9
160
80
161
162
81
Axial Tensile in drill collar
Axial Tensile in drill pipe
p1 & p2 are hydrostatic pressures
163
164
82
Max. Tensile Force – example
lbf
165
Max. Tensile Force – example (cont’d)
166
83
Combines string – example
G-105
X-95
E-75
167
Combines string – example (cont’d)
G-105
X-95
E-75
168
84
Drillstring Design – Max. Torque
• Torque applied to DS is the reaction due to bit action &
also friction forces between DS elements & borehole wall
• In vertical wells most of the torque comes from BHA
• In directional wells, torque is distributed along borehole
trajectory below KOP
• In any case, torque accumulates along the drillstring &
maximum torque occurs at the top of DS
• Usually the smaller cross section area is at the top
• Therefore the largest shear stress is at the top
Ty: torsional yield strength J: polar moment of inertia of circular section

r: outside diameter of section
169
Max. Torque – example
maximum torque is reduced by axial load (von Mises)

torque should not pass make-up torque of the connection
170
85
Internal (Burst) & External (collapse) Pressure
Assuming thin-walled pipe & API min 87.5% nominal wall thickness, Burst
resistance (internal pres strength) for new pipes & casing is:
Assuming thick-wall & von

Misses-Hencky theory
In drill stem testing (DST) operation for example, DP may subject to external
pres higher than internal pres (lower end of DP section is the most critical
point). Net collapse pres (pext) defined by the depth of fluid inside pipe (d), depth
of lower end of DS section (D), density of fluid in annular (ro) & inside DP (ri):
Note: d=D if d>D, & safety factor of 1.125 is used for collapse pres
Min collapse pres given in Table D.3 & D.5 of API 171
API indicates that collapse pres of DP reduces due to tensile load by

fraction Y’s/Ys
Collapse resistance corrected for tension loading obtained using Von
Misses failure theory:
z: axial stress

Types of collapse (API): yield, plastic, transition, elastic
172
86
173
Drillstring Design – elongation

• drill string elongates due to its weight & elastic
characteristics of steel. Elongation occurs when DS is
suspended inside borehole
• drill string shortens due to hydrostatic pressure
• drill string shortens due to weight on bit
• all effects combine
(Total elongation of homogeneous

DS of length L suspended in air)
rs, E: density & Young modulus of DS
If DS submerged in a fluid
(density rf) a hydrostatic pres
will act upward, so:
In field unit:
r (lbm/gal), E (psi), L, DL (ft), A (in2)

174
87
elongation – examples
175
elongation
–
examples
176
88
Chapter 6 – Drilling Hydraulics
In drilling operations, the drilling fluid is circulating through

circulating sys & drillstring moving with respect to fluid. These
dynamic components cause pres. gradient & pres. losses
Parameters that must be determined, predicted, or controlled:
• pressure profile along the fluid system during circulation (ECD)

• pressure profile along the borehole during drillstring motion
(surge & swab)
• optimum circulation parameters & bit nozzle sizes
• cuttings transport capacity (hole cleaning)
• pressure profile during kick control
178
89
Drilling Hydraulics – conservation laws
Mass conservation:
“net flow rate of mass into a system = rate of mass increase in the system”
Special cases:
steady state (mass inside volume not change)
incompressible
closed, single system (flow rate at

any point of sys is constant)
179
180
90
Energy conservation:
“net flow of energy crossing boundaries in the system

= rate of internal energy increase in the system”
Bernoulli’s equation
“at any point of an ideal steady state incompressible flow system

the sum of the specific kinetic energy, the pressure, and the
specific potential energy and pressure is constant”
181
the value of the constant is irrelevant because

we can always choose a reference to the height
in terms of depth:
between points 1 and 2:
182
91
including a pressure drop due to friction (downstream):
including a pump (downstream):
for p2 in standard (field units):
Pres (psi), density (lb/gal), depth (ft), velocity (ft/s)

183
184
92
Drilling Hydraulics – flow through nozzles
185
flow through nozzles – pressure drop
• D2 – D1 (length of nozzle) too small (11/2 in)

• v1 << v2
• no pump
• no friction (for now) Inside bit
At jet
186
93
flow through nozzles – velocity
real case (friction in the nozzle, due to its shape, material, roughness)
Cd: discharge coef. (0.95-0.98)
in field units:
since pressure drop is the same for all nozzles, jet velocity is also the
same in all nozzles, and consequently
in field units:
187
flow through nozzles – hydraulic power
188
94
flow through nozzles – Jets impact force
“Jet impact force”: Force exerted by jet of fluid at bottom of hole. It is due to
change in jet momentum as hits the bottom
momentum of an infinitesimal volume of fluid
force (assuming momentum is fully transferred to wall)
Field units:
189
flow through nozzles – Jets impact force
Note: sizes of
nozzles measured in
1/32nd of inch (hole
diam.) & reported in
“thirty-seconds” of
size. Nozzles range
from 6/32 to 32/32
190
95
Drilling Hydraulics – required power
energy balance from tank to bottom (after bit) through drillstring:
energy balance from bottom to tank through annulus:
adding both expressions
where:
Pressure increase in pump= pres drop across bit + pres drop
power
Power delivered by pump to fluid=

power spent at bit (accelerate fluid)+power spent to overcome viscous friction
191
Drilling Hydraulics – bit hydraulics

• bit hydraulics (flow rate, nozzle sizes) should be selected for each bit run
(enough flow rate to remove cuttings is essential)
• optimizes a bit physical parameter (jet velocity, power, impact force, etc)
• best trade between energy spent at the bit and energy waste as friction
Frictional pressure drop or parasitic pressure loss (to be demonstrated later):
parameters c and m can be determined by simple flow test during drilling
192
96
bit hydraulics – example
193
bit hydraulics – example, Cont’d
194
97
bit hydraulics – nozzle selection criteria
•maximum power developed at the bit

• maximum jet impact force
195
bit hydraulics – max. power at the bit criterion
To obtain flow rate of max power
196
98
bit hydraulics – max. power at the bit criterion
flow rate of max power
Pres drop @ bit for max power
197
bit hydraulics – max. jet impact force criterion
198
99
bit hydraulics – max. jet impact force criterion
Flow rate for max jet impact force
Pres drop @ bit for max jet

impact force
199
bit hydraulics – Total Nozzle Area
pressure drop across the bit
using optimum values for a criterion:

qopt
find the total nozzle area:
In field units:
200
100
nozzle
selection
criteria
–
example
201
Graphical representation
202
101
Chapter 7 – Introduction to Drilling Fluids
Introduction to Drilling Fluids – functions
1. Transport the drilling cuttings from the bottom of the

hole to the surface
2. Create an overbalanced drilling condition (normally
100-200 psi) to control the formation pressure
3. Reduce chemical and physical interactions with
formation (avoid/reduce formation swelling/cave-in, …)
4. Produce an impermeable and thin seal (mud cake)
along the walls of permeable formations to reduce fluid
and filtrate loss to the formations, reducing the damage
potential of the fluid. ... (this is done by adding
bentonite & chemical treatment to enhance
deflocculation & solid distribution)
204
102
5. Cool and lubricate the drilling bit and drillstring to

minimize wear (add bentonite/emulsifying
agents/graphite)
6. Allow efficient solids control at the surface by using
appropriate solids control equipment
7. Hold drilling cuttings in suspension when circulation is
interrupted (otherwise stuck pipe may happen). The
thixotropic behaviour of fluid accounts for that
8. Produce buoyancy force to partly support the weight of
the drillstring and casing string (denser mud increases
buoyance results in smaller surface hoisting equipment
Needs)
205
9. The drilling fluid should not interfere with logging

measurements
10. Transmit hydraulic power to the bit and allow
maximum penetration rates
11. Minimize the torque and drag of the drillstring to
reduce wear and failure of drillstring
12. As a mean to transmit data between bottom hole
equipment and surface equipment
206
103
Introduction to Drilling Fluids - types
• Water-base fluids
– clear water
– native muds
– inhibitive fluids (calcium mud)
– non-dispersed (KCl, polymers)
– flocculated
– salty muds (brines, saturated, formates)
207
Water-base fluids
Contains:
• Water: create initial viscosity
• inert solids: low gravity solids (sand, chert, etc) & high
gravity solids (barite, iron oxide, etc)
• reactive solids: low gravity like bentonite, atapulgite
clays, cause additional viscosity & gel
• chemical additives:
– thinners (phosphate chrome,etc) & thickeners (lime, cement,
polymers, etc): create viscosity control, yield point, gel
strength, fluid loss, PH, filtration behaviour, etc
– caustic soda (NAOH): keep high PH to control corrosion,
hydrogen embitterment, soluability of Ca2+ & Mg2+
208
104
Water-base fluids
Clear water & native mud:

• Fresh water & saturated water can be used to drill
compact formation which are normally pressured (i.e.
PP grad. equal to brine density)
• Native mud=fresh water+clay/shale from cuttings
• Are cheapest mud system
• Are environmentally best accepted
Inhibitive (calcium) mud:
• Used for swelling & hydration situation in clay & shale
• Best for formation containing gypsum & hydrate
• Sub-classified as seawater, saturated saltwater, lime &
gypsum mud
209
Water-base fluids
Dispersed fluids:
• Used for
– high mud weight (larger than 14 ppg)
– moderate to high temperature
– low filtration loss
– tolerance to drilling solids
• Contains
– bentonite
– lignosulfonate
– caustic soda
– polymers
• May cause shale sloughing by dispersing clays in the
shale
• Compared to non-dispersed mud has better control of
viscosity, higher solid tolerance, better filtration control
210
105
Water-base fluids
Non-Dispersed fluids:
• Used to drill sloughing shales/water sensitive rocks
(like productive sands) prone to damage
• Usually associated with low mud weights & solid conc.
• Contains: KCl, viscosifier, CMC, caustic soda,
inhibiting polymers
• Advantages over conventional deflocculated mud:
– Higher penetration rate, hole stability, shear thinning ability,
hole cleaning with max hydraulic, lower ECD
• Disadvantages:
– Unstable at higher temp’s (above 250o F), high dilution, more
corrosive, irreversible absorption & need for adequate solids
removal equips
211
Water-base fluids
Flocculated fluids:
• Refers to mud thickening due to edge-to-edge & edge-
to-face association of clay particles
• Caused by high active solids conc., high electrolyte
conc., high temp’s
• used when increased filtration, viscosity & gel strength
is needed. Facilitate remove solids in suspension
• Deflocculants (thinners) prevents and reduce
flocculation
• Phosphate, tannin, lignin & lignosulfonate used to
reduce yield point & gel strength. In this case PH is
controlled by NaOH
212
106
Water-base fluids
Salt saturated fluids:

• Saturated with NaCl (190,000 mg/l)
• Used to drill through salt domes to prevent hole
enlargements & salt formations
• Swelling of bentonitic shales controlled by adding
polymer
• Attapulgite, CMC, starch, etc added to increase
viscosity for hole-cleaning properties & reduce fluid
loss
213

• Oil-base fluids:
– Oil-in-water emulsion (3-5% water content)
– Water-in-oil (inverse emulsion) (20-40% water content)
– Used to
• drill sensitive formations (production zones, shales)
• drill directional and slim holes (less torque and drag)
• drill depleted reservoirs (OBM has lower density than WBM, so
makes less damage to formation)
• drill salty formations, formations with H2S
• reduce pipe sticking risk (reduce friction, also in OBM there no mud
cake created or is very thin)
• HT formations (OBM is more stable, solids in WBM may not stable)
– Contain less colloidal particles, hence exhibits an increased spurt
fluid loss (i.e. instantaneous vol. of liquid passes through a filter medium prior to
deposition of a competent filter cake), so due to higher filtration rates,
monitoring drilling cond. & high pres/temp filtration to prevent of
becoming drilling prob. is important
214
107
• Synthetic fluids:
– Are in fact oil-based mud without environmental hazards. Can
be discharged offshore
– olefins, paraffins
– esters, ethers
• Aerated fluids:
– Dry air: injecting dry air or gas to remove cuttings
– Mists: injecting foaming agent into air stream, mixes with water
& coats the cuttings to prevent mud rings, allowing drill solids
to be removed
– Foam: uses surfactants & clay/polymer to form high carrying
capacity foam
– Aerated fluids: rely on mud with injected air (reduces
hydrostatic head) to remove solids
215
Laboratory Tests
API has standard procedure for field testing water/oil based mud
• Density
• Viscosity
– Marsh funnel (s) (gives empirical value for consistency of a fluid)
– Dynamic viscosity (rotational rheometer)
• Gel (initial, final)
• API fluid loss (filter press)
• HTHP filtration
• Filter cake
• Solids content
• Sand content
• Methylene blue (base exchange capacity)
• pH
• Titration (alkalinity, chloride, calcium, hardness, sulfate,
potassium, etc)
216
108
Laboratory Tests
A mud balance
A marsh funnel: Measures

fluid viscosity. When used
with a measurement cup,
gives an empirical value for
consistency of fluid
217
Laboratory Tests
A rotational viscometer
(rheometer):
•Gives apparent & plastic viscosity,
yield point & gel strengths (initial &
timed)
•Drilling fluid contained between outer
(rotor sleeve) & inner cylinder (bob)
sheared by rotation of outer cylinder
@ constant RPM. A torsion spring
restrains movement of bob, & a dial
indicates bob displacement
•Plastic viscosity & yield point
obtained using reading from rotor
sleeve speeds of 600 & 300 RPM
•A 6 speed model (600, 300, 200,
100, 6, 3 RPM) can fully characterize
a fluid
218
109
Laboratory Tests
A API filter press:
Determines filtration properties of mud &
cement slurries @ 100 psi pres. Filter area is
7.1 in2. Consists of a mud reserv., pres source,
filter, graduated cylinder & measuring filtrate
A HTHP filter press:

Similar to filter press (with half
filtration area) but up to 1200 psi &
500o F
219
Laboratory Tests
Sand content sieve:

Determines sand content by sieve
analysis. Vol. of sand including void
spaces between grains measured &
expressed as a percentage by vol. of
drilling fluid
Retort:
Used to determine solid contents
including dissolved ions
220
110
Laboratory Tests
A PH meter:
Used to determine the hydrogen ion
concentration in mud & in filtrate
Methyl blue capacity test kit:

Determines capacity of clay to
absorb cations from a solution,
based on clay’s “base exchange
capacity” (clay can exchange
some of their ions with ions of
certain chemicals. The number
of ions varies with clay types)
221
Laboratory Tests A permeameter kit:

Permeability plugging apparatus
(PPA) provides simulation &
measurement of downhole static
filtration & how a drilling fluid can
form a permeable filter cake to seal
off depleted/under pres intervals.
Can also simulate res. temp using
HTHP heating jacket
A titration kit:
Conducts various chemical analysis for
WBM such as: alkalinity, garrett gas train
(GGT) test for carbonate, Cl, calcium
qualitative, total hardness, hardness in dark
filtrate, sulfate, K+, nitrate ion
concentration, PHPA polymer concentration
& corrosion analysis such as: ZnO,
ZnCO3Zn(OH)2, iron sulfide scale, H2S,
phosphate, SO32- content, resistivity
222
111
Laboratory Tests
An aniline point kit:

Shows the likelihood of elastomers
damage when in contact with the
oil. At lowest temp, equal vol. of
aniline & oil form a single phase.
Low AP indicates higher aromatic
contents
Electrical stability tester:
Indicates the emulsion & oil-
wetting qualities of sample. ES
probe inserts into a mud cup
(48.9oC) & test button is
pushed, applying increasing
voltage (0 to 2000 v) across
electrode gap in probe. Min
voltage that mud will sustain
before conducting current
displayed as the “ES voltage”.
223
Fluid Density
Conversion factors
Typical densities
224
112
Fluid Density
Density calculations
assumptions:
• Ideal mixture: total volume of mixture is equal to the sum
of the volume of the components
• not valid for ionic components (salts)
225
Fluid Density
Density calculations
definition:
• density is the specific mass (an intensive property)
226
113
Fluid Density – example
227
Fluid Density – Treatment
•Density control is obtained by barite (BaSO4). SG of barite is 4.5 (pure),

ave. API 4.2 (35lbm/gal)
•Min gel strength of 3 lbf/100ft2 required to keep barite in suspension, which
obtained with water-bentonite fluid
Typical treatments
•Increased fluid density by adding barite (no volume limit)
•Increased fluid density by adding barite (volume limit)
•Increased fluid density by adding barite and water (no volume limit)
•Increased fluid density by adding barite and water (volume limit)
Note: Hydration water added to avoid increasing the viscosity
228
114
Increase Density -- No Volume Limit -- No Hydration Water
229

Increase Density -- Volume Limit -- No Hydration Water
230
115
Increase Density -- No Volume Limit -- Hydration Water
Volume of added hydration water is usually vh=2-3 gal per 100lbm of barite, so
The volume of water is:
231
vh=2-3 gal/100lbm
232
116
Fluid Treatment – example
233
Fluid Treatment – example
234
117
Fluid Viscosity
• Obtained by adding bentonite (montmorillonite clay)
• Low bentonite quality treated by adding sodium
carbonate, polymers, starch, CMC
(carboxymethylcellulose), …
• Clays, when ground to colloidal size (<2mm) & mixed
with water form a suspension causes increase in
viscosity & gel strength. Different clays produce different
level of viscosity
• “yield” of clay: volume (bbl) of mud with 15cP (at
300rpm) produced with 1 ton of clay
• High, medium & low yield clays produce 85, 30-50 & 15-
30 bbl/ton, respectively
• Bentonite can produce high viscosity with low densities
(see clay performance graph). Wide range of
viscosity/density can be obtained by selecting right clay
& additive
235
Fluid Viscosity – clay performance
236
118
clay performance – example
237
238
119
239
Chapter 8 – Rheology and Rheometry
120
Rheology: study the flow behaviour of fluids
Rheometery: processes to measure rheological parameters
Fluids are substances that flow under shear stress
Fluid Classification
• Newtonian fluids: shear stress proportional to shear rate
(like water, gases, thin oil)
m: dynamic viscosity
(changes with pres & temp)
• Non-Newtonian fluids: fluids that are not Newtonians

(like drilling mud, cement slurries, heavy oil, …)
drilling fluids are typically non-Newtonian fluids
241
Laminar flow in Newtonian fluid
242
121
To understand the nature of viscosity, consider a fluid
contained between two large parallel plates of area A, which
are separated by a small distance L. The upper plate
(initially at rest) is set in motion in x direction at a constant
velocity v. After sufficient time has passed for steady motion
to be achieved, a constant force F is required to keep the
upper plate moving at constant velocity. The magnitude of
force F was experimentally found as
F v
m
A L
F/A: shear stress v/L: shear rate (sec–1) m: viscosity
243
Rheology – Newtonian
dynamic viscosity (compare with kinematic viscosity)
Newtonian fluid
Units: Pa, P, cP g
1P=1
cm s
Ns
1 2 = 10 P = 1000 cP
m
1 lbf s
1 cP =
47880:259 ft2
244
122
Rheology – non-Newtonian
•Shear rate dependent fluids
Pseudoplastic: Dilatant:
their apparent viscosity their apparent viscosity
decreases with increasing increases with increasing
shear rate shear rate 245
Rheology – Bingham fluids
Linear model
Bingham model assumes under a given shear stress ( ty), yield point, viscosity is
infinite. Up to this value, viscosity remains constant & equal to plastic viscosity ( mp).
Other models are better for lower shear rate where viscosity varies strongly
246
123
Rheology – Ostwald (Power law)
K: consistency index (larger K, more viscous fluid)

Expressed in equivalent viscosity unit (not viscosity)
n: behaviour index (0-1), n=1 is Newtonian fluid
Non linear model with

no yield stress
247
Most common models describing non-Newtonian fluids behaviour
248
124
Cleaning can be decomposed in three successive steps:
1.Keep the teeth bit clean by removing formation debris
2.Remove the chips of rock from bottom hole
3.Transport (in annulus) the cuttings to surface as fast as possible
To fulfill functions 1 & 2 a low viscosity is requires whereas for
function 3 a higher viscosity is required. Newtonian fluid
which have a constant viscosity then cannot be used to play
three requests simultaneously. So usually Non-Newtonian
fluids (are shear rate dependant) are preferred. At low shear
rate they exhibit a high apparent viscosity (is the local secant
drawn from the origin) while at high shear rate the viscosity
decreases
Through the bit with high shear rate, viscosity is small
ensures both good bit & bottom hole cleanings. In annulus,
shear rate is small, viscosity will be much higher ensures a
good carrying of cuttings
249
Rheology – non-Newtonian
Bingham plastic & power-law, are most commonly
used rheological models to approximate pseudoplastic
behaviour of drilling fluids & cement slurries
250
125
Rheometry
Determine:
1. Fluid type (or suitable model)
2. Flow parameters
3. Gel parameters (time dependent parameters), …
Viscosity of Newtonian fluids:

Fan 35A (designed to facilitate measurements )
viscosity measured directly in the

dial in cP for N=300 RPM
A rotational viscometer (rheometer) 251

Rheometry
Bingham fluids:
needs two measurements
for N1=300rpm and N2=600rpm …
252
126
Rheometry
Power law (Ostwald) fluids:
needs two measurements
for N1=300rpm and N2=600rpm …
253
Rheometry – gel strength
• Gel is a solid-like behaviour of some fluids due to

quiescence. Requires a shear stress to break the gel
• Gel is usually time dependent
• Rheometer at very low speed (3rpm) can measure the
gel strength (lbf/100ft2)
• API standardize measurements at 10 seconds (initial
gel) and 10 minutes (final gel)
254
127
Chapter 9 – Flow in Pipes & Annuli
•Discuss fluid flow:

-both Newtonian & non-Newtonian,
-in pipes & concentric annuli,
-for laminar & turbulent regimes
•Assumption: flow is steady (time-independent)
•Calculate frictional pressure drop gradient as a
function of flow rate
•Formulas are valid for horizontal conduits, but can be
used for inclined & vertical conduit
•Sometimes it is advisable to approximate annulus
(with Di/Do>=30%) by an slot. In “open” slot, only upper
& lower surfaces are subjected to shear stresses
256
128
Flow in Pipes & Annuli
General fluid model (shear stress as a function of shear rate)
Newtonian
Ostwald
Bingham plastic
257
Field (equilibrium) Equations: Independently of rheological model,

this shows the relationship between the forces acting on fluid flow
associated directly with the geometry of conduit
Annulus
Pipe
Slot
t: Shear stress at any radial distance r (or distance y for slot) from conduit
(slot) axis c: constant to be determined
258
129
Shear rate defined
shear stress:
shear rate:
259

Shear rate (velocity profile) for pipes, annuli, and slots
axis
260
130
Flow rate and continuity
•Ave. velocity is representative

if just want to calculate kinetic
energy of fluid
Ave. velocity •Real fluid velocity varies with
profile
position across section
261

Flow rate and continuity
Pipe
Annulus
Slot
262
131
Fluid Flow- Laminar
Newtonian Non-Newtonian
Pipes (Poiseuille's Eq.) Annuli (Lamb's Eq.) Slot approximation (for annuli) Bingham Plastic Model Power-law model
Pipes Annuli Pipes Annuli
Fluid Flow-Turbulent
Newtonian Non-Newtonian
Pipes (Fanning Eq.) Annuli Slot approximation (for annuli) Bingham Plastic Model Power-law model
Hydraulic Radius, Pipes Annuli Pipes Annuli

Pipe analogy &
Slot annuli to pipe analogy
models
263
Flow of Newtonian fluids in pipes (laminar)

Poiseuille’s Eq.
Purpose: find the relationship between pressure drop (gradient) and flow rate
definition constitutive equation (Newtonian fluid) field equation
Combining constitutive & field equations produces a flow model
continuity
Filed units:
dpf /dL (psi), m (cP), u ft/s), D (in) 264
132
Flow of Newtonian fluids in annuli (laminar)
Lamb’s Eq.
definition constitutive equation field equation
velocity
265
Flow of Newtonian fluids in annuli (laminar)

Lamb’s Eq.
continuity
Field units:
266
133
Flow of Newtonian fluids – example
267
268
134
Flow of Newtonian fluids – slot approx.
t: Thickness of slot is equal to radial clearance

of annulus
Thickness & width of t=(Ro-Ri)

approximating slot w=(Ro+Ri) 269
Flow of Newtonian fluids – slot approx.

continuity
Field units:
270
135
271
Flow of non-Newtonian fluids (laminar)

Pressure Drop Gradient for Bingham-Plastic Fluids in Pipes
Filed units:
Pressure Drop Gradient for Bingham-Plastic Fluids in Annuli (Slot Approximation)
Filed units:
ty (lbf/100 ft2)
272
136
Flow of non-Newtonian fluids (laminar)
Pressure Drop Gradient for Power-Law Fluids in Pipes
Field units:
Pressure Drop Gradient for Power-Law Fluids in Annuli (Slot Approximation)
Field units:
K (in equivalent cP)
273
Flow of non-Newtonian fluids – example
274
137
Turbulent Flow in Pipes & Annuli
Laminar flow Turbulent flow

• particles move in orderly • particles follow irregular
layers (“laminae”), the paths, with large change
velocities may change in velocity & flow direction
between layers compared with other near
• continuous velocity profile particles
• no eddies or streamline • although steady state in
crosses average, local velocity
may change
• eddies and vortices may
occur
275
• Flow regimes:
– laminar
– Transition (flow is turbulent in central portion of flow
section, but may remain laminar close to boundaries)
– turbulent
• Factors that affect the flow regime:

– fluid velocity
– fluid density
– conduit size, shape, roughness, etc.
276
138
277

• boundaries between laminar and turbulent flow
• Reynolds (1883) extensive tests with water in glass
pipes
• boundaries related to a dimensionless group now called
Reynolds Number (Re)
in general the flow will be laminar if Re < 2000 and turbulent if Re>3000,
& transitional if in between
pipe diameter, D (cm), pipe diameter, D (in),

ave. velocity (cm/s), ave. velocity (ft/s),
density, r (g/cm3), density, r (lbm/gal),
dynamic viscosity, m (P) dynamic viscosity, m (cP)
278
139
Turbulent Flow – example
279
Turbulent Flow in Pipes (Newtonian Fluids)

Purpose: determine pressure drop gradient in pipes for turbulent flow (Newtonian fluids)
• Several (thousands!) of experimental results for

Newtonian fluids in pipes
• Colebrook, Moody, Fanning, Blasius, etc
• Friction factor: dimensionless group relating shear stress
in flow to specific kinetic energy:
280
140

Pipe cross Ap  D2
section area 4
Lateral area of Ac   D DL
fluid element
Fanning equation
Field units:
281
if friction factor can be determined, pressure drop gradient can be calculated
for laminar flow, we compare this expression with Poiseuile’s equation
Valid for laminar flow! Determined experimentally for turbulent flow
282
141
Fanning equation friction factor for laminar flow
if friction factor is related to Reynolds number for laminar flow, it is reasonable to

suggest that they should also be related for turbulent flow
283
/d: Pipe relative roughness

(usually < 0.0004),
: absolute roughness
friction factor can be read directly from the chart above (Stanton chart)
284
142
Colebrook obtained an implicit formulation to relate friction factor with

Reynolds number and the relative roughness of the surface
(hydraulically smooth)
285
Turbulent
Flow in Pipe
–
example
286
143
Alternative expressions for the friction factor
Blasius (2,100 < Re < 100,000 – hydraulically smooth)- covers most
drilling conditions
Using this expression in Fanning Equation:
Field units:
287
Swamee–Jaine (5,000 < Re < 108,000 – 10-6 < /D < 10-2)
288
144
Turbulent Flow in Pipes – example
289
290
145
291
Turbulent Flow in Pipes – criterion
•Calculate friction factor using

laminar relation & one of
turbulent factors (Colebrook, …),
•Use the larger to obtain
frictional pres. drop gradient
using Fanning formula
292
146
Turbulent Flow in Annuli (Newtonian Fluids)
Purpose: determine pressure drop gradient in annuli for turbulent flow (Newtonian fluids)
Several empirical procedures exist to apply results for pipes to other

geometries. This needs to determine an equivalent pipe diameter Deq,
of flow cross section geometry. Then use this to determine the
Reynolds number and to be used in the Fanning equation. Three of
these criteria are:
• Hydraulic radius
•Exact annulus to pipe analogy
•Slot annulus to pipe analogy
293
Turbulent Flow in Annuli – hydraulic radius

By definition, the hydraulic radius of a conduit is the ratio of
the area to the wet perimeter
circular pipe:
annulus:
assumption: cross sections with the same hydraulic radius are equivalent for the
calculation of the Reynolds number and to be used in the Fanning equation
equivalent diameter of an annulus:
294
147
Turbulent Flow in Annuli – exact analogy
Equivalence is obtained for annuli comparing the exact expressions
for pressure drop in pipes and in annuli (for laminar flow) & equating
them
circular pipe:
annulus:
assumption: equivalent cross sections give the same pressure drop gradient for
the same average velocity
295
Turbulent Flow in Annuli – slot analogy

Equivalence is obtained for annuli comparing the expressions for
pressure drop in pipes and in annuli (slot approx.) (for laminar flow)
circular pipe:
annulus:
assumption: equivalent cross sections give the same pressure drop gradient for
the same average velocity
296
148
Turbulent Flow in Annuli (Newtonian Fluids)
These criteria are used to calculate an equivalent diameter to determine

the Reynolds number and to be used in the Fanning equation, which
were derived for pipes only
using hydraulic radius:
using exact formulas:
using slot approximation:
297
Turbulent Flow in Annuli – example
298
149
Turbulent Flow in Annuli – example
299
Turbulent Flow for non-Newtonian fluids

How to determine the Reynolds number and the criterion for turbulence?
Reynolds number depends on the dynamic viscosity,

which is not defined for non-Newtonian fluids
Pressure Drop Gradient for Bingham-plastic Fluids in Pipes

parameters are the plastic viscosity mp and yield stress ty
an “apparent” viscosity (ma), which causes the same pres drop for
laminar flow can be obtained comparing the expressions for pressure
drop gradient in pipes (Newtonian & Bingham)
ma is used to determine Reynolds number, friction factor & pressure drop gradient
(Fanning eq.)
300
150
Pressure Drop Gradient for Bingham-plastic Fluids in Annuli
An “apparent” viscosity can be obtained comparing the expressions

for pressure drop gradient in annuli. Only slot approximation
formulation should be used
(equivalent diameter – slot approx.)
ma and Deq are used to determine Reynolds number, friction factor and pressure
drop gradient
301
non-Newtonian fluids – example
302
151
303

Pressure Drop Gradient for Power-law Fluids in Pipes
Parameters are the consistency index K and behavior index n

An “apparent” viscosity can be obtained comparing the expressions for
pressure drop gradient in pipes
ma is used to determine Reynolds number, however the following formula is needed to

determine the friction factor (Colebrook & … don’t provide accurate calculation)
Dodge & Metzner -

formula
304
152
Pressure Drop Gradient for Power-law Fluids in Annuli
an “apparent” viscosity can be obtained comparing the expressions for

pressure drop gradient in annuli
(equivalent diameter – slot approx.)
ma and Deq are used to determine Reynolds number, friction factor gradient using the
Dodge-Metzner formula, and pressure drop using the Fanning equation
305
306
153
307
308
154
Chapter 10 – Drilling Bits
• Drill bit selection is a complicated process & has a major

impact on total cost
• Ave. life of bits can be as short as hours & cost tens of
thousands $s
• Large variety of bit types/models made currently, each
one suitable to one/more kinds of rocks/drilling condition
Formation rocks classification (drilling)
Soft / medium / hard formations

Abrasive
plastic
310
155
Drilling Bits- Roller cone bit (tricone-bit)
311
Drilling Bits- Roller cone bit (tricone-bit)

• Invented by Howard Hughes, has conical cutters/cones
with spike teeth around them
•Bit cones roll bottom hole as DS rotates & crush the rock.
The tooth then lift off bottom (cone rolls) & high-velocity
fluid jet strikes crushed rock chips to remove from bottom
hole & up the annulus. This process continues with next bit
•Roller cone bit types:
-steel milled-tooth bits
-carbide insert bits
•Basic elements:
-bit body
-bearings
-cutting cones
312
156
Drilling Bits – tricone bit cut
313
Tricone bit- Bit body

•It is composed of:
-Connection pin
-Bit legs
-Fluid channels: they end in the nozzles
•Most bits have 3 nozzles (each between two cones),

some have 4, with the fourth one centered with the bit
located above the cones
•Bit body may also contain a lubricant reservoir
314
157
Tricone bit- Bearings
•Bearing types:
-roller
-non-sealed
-sealed
-journal (sealed)
•Type of bearing & sealing determines range of WOB,

rotary speed, life & bit price
•All 3 types have a ball bearing to support axial load &
mainly to keep the cone connected to bearing pin &
prevent it from falling
•Roller bearing bits normally operate in medium load &
medium to high speed ranges
315
Tricone bit– Bearings

Non-sealed roller bearing bit •Simplest & cheapest of all bits
•Is manufactured normally with
steel teeth
•A channel connects outside of bit
leg to inside the bearing
•Drilling fluid:
-penetrates in roller compartment,
helping to cool down the parts,
-but also causes wear due to its
solids content, &
-lubricates bearing parts.
316
158
Sealed roller:
•Has a seal between internal side of cone (bearings) & outside
•Drilling fluid cannot penetrate in the bearing
•A lubricant sys. (a reservoir holding lubricant located in upper
flank of each bit leg) lubricates bearing through a passage in
the bit body extends from reservoir to bearing
•A diaphragm at reserv. provides pres. compensation between
lubricant & drilling fluid in annulus between bit & wellbore
•Intermediate range of price (mainly because of life
expectancy) comparing to non-sealed
•Roller bearings (both sealed & non-sealed) support radial
force of cones & so the axial force to bit. As rollers wear, part of
radial load transferred to ball bearing, & if balls wear out the
cone may fall out from bit
317
A sealed bearing bit A roller bearing cone

318
159
A journal bearing cone •The internal surface of cones
maintains direct contact with
bearing pin of bit legs (no roller)
•Special metallurgical treatment
& permanent lubrication is
required
•A silver alloy is deposited in
internal surface of cone (high
priced) increasing radial capacity
of bearing
•Expensive but longer life
comparing to roller bearing bits
•More compact than rollers bit,
so more room exist to increase
cone wall thickness & pin diam.
(larger WOB rating) 319
Tricone bit– Cutting Cones
Type of cone determined by:

•Cutting structure (i.e. steel teeth
or tungsten carbide inserts)
•Cone offset (geometry)
320
160
steel (milled) teeth bits:
•Teeth are machined in the cone & receive heat & surface
treatment
•Are robust & tolerate severe drilling conditions
•Wear out quickly, so not well suited for deeper wells (large
tripping time)
•Soft-medium hard formations: large teeth
•Hard formations: smaller & more robust teeth (shorter &
wider base) teeth
•Teeth are distributed circularly in cones in an intermeshing
fashion, but without interference (for better teeth cleaning
action)
321

Tungsten Carbide insert bits (WC or W2C):
•WC is a chemical compound containing tungsten & carbon
•“WC insert” is a powder metallurgy tech. (fine powder of WC crystal
cemented together using tough cobalt as agglutinate in “sintering” process)
•This bit designed to drill soft formations with large & chisel shaped chips
•Those for hard formations have small & round shaped inserts
•Inserts are mounted in the steel cones by pressing the compacts in
precisely bored holes on cone surface
•Do not tolerate shock loading, but can drill long sections before worn out
•Generally, insert bits of same bit size are more expensive than milled tooth
•Its lifetime can be improved (2-5 times) if inserts are coated by a thin layer
(5mm) of titanium carbide made by chemical vapour deposition (CVD)
322
161
Cone Geometry:
Affects selectivity & action of bit. Important cone parameters are:
1-cone angle (angles) 2-offset angle 3-offset distance
323

Cone Geometry:
•“Shape” of cone determined by one (usually 2) angle
•“Crown profile” of bit defined by cone angles & pin angle
•Pin angle (relative to hole bottom) reduced for softer bits. This
alters cone profile, in turn affects tooth action on hole bottom &
gage cutter on the wall of hole
•Softer bits have more highly profiled cones than harder bits,
which increases scraping action of bottom hole & gage teeth.
In abrasive formation, scraping action accelerates tooth/gage
wear, so it is minimised on hard formation bits
•Bit profile affects direction of drilling (straight or directional).
Concave crown profiles tend to keep drilling straight, more
flatten crown profiles favor to direction change 324
162
Cone Geometry, Cont’d:
•During operation cones subjected to two rotations: about its
own axis & due to rotation of cone axis about the bit axis as bit
rotates
•“cone offset”: is a measure of distance of cone apexes to bit
center & determines action of teeth on formations
•If offset=0, cones roll as bit rotates & teeth crushes the
formation (suitable to hard formation)
•If an offset exists, in addition to roll, cones tend to scrap the
formation (suitable to soft-medium hard formations)
•“offset distance”: distance of cone centerline to bit centerline.
It increases the scrap action of teeth
325
Drilling Bits – Air Drilling Bits

•Specially design, appropriated
for hard-very hard formations
•Zero cone offset & round
tungsten carbide inserts & non-
sealed bearings
•A sys. of channels conducts
part of drilling gas (air, N2 or
natural gas) through bearings
•Flowing gas cools moving part
& keeps bearings clean from
small abrasive particles
•A screen in the entrance of
channels filters gas from large
particles (can damage bearings)
326
163
Drilling Bits – Fixed Cutter Bits (Drag bits)
•Initially all bits were of drag type
•Cutters are made of hardened steel
•Have an integral cutting element & no moving parts
•With no moving parts, possibility of leaving junks in
borehole reduces
•Cut formations plowing the rock by blades under
axial force & rotation
•“steel blade”, “diamond” & “PDC” bits exist
327

Steel blade:
•Good for soft formations
•High wear rate in medium &
hard formations (not suitable
for deep drilling)
•With the advent of roller cone
bits steel blade bits become
obsolete & banned for O&G
drilling (except diamond bits)
until recently introduced PDC
bits
328
164
Diamond bits:
•Till early 70,s, used for hard/abrasive
formations & for coring
•Diamond gives extreme hardness,
compressive strength & thermal conductivity
•Nowadays, with advanced technology it is
used to drill medium hard formations
•The bit body made from sintering powdered
tungsten carbide. A hollow rod in center is the
pass for fluid
•In proper operation, only diamonds contact
formation, letting a narrow space between bit
body & formation
329
Diamond bits, Cont’d:

•Bit characteristics: Number, size
& distribution of diamonds in bit
•Medium hard formations: fewer &
larger stones (0.75-2 carats) than
hard form. (0.07-0.125 carats)
•Crown profile (shape of cutting
face) is concave for straight holes,
& long taper to build & drop angle
in directional drilling
•Some grooves conduct fluid from
inside bit to borehole, & others
collect & drive ground rock from
below bit
330
165
Diamond bits, Cont’d:

•Diamond bits have no nozzle
•Typically, ideal hydraulic parameters should be 2 to 2.5
HP/in2 & pres. drop 500 to 1000 psi across bit face for
proper cooling & cleaning the diamonds
•Pres. drop (Dpb) determined by the difference between the
pres when bit is off the bottom & when WOB applied
331
Drilling Bits – example
332
166
PDC (Polycrystalline Diamond Compact) bits:
•Used with success since late 70s
•PDC cutter made of a thin layer of synthetic
diamond particles, bonded in a sintered
tungsten carbide chip
•PDC chips properties: abrasion & impact
resistance. Large sized chips more resistant to
impact forces, small ones more resistant to
abrasive wear
•Steel base PDC bits: chips are inserted
under pressure in hole bore in bit body
•Tungsten carbide bits: chips are welded in
steel support in bit body (as temp. of sintering
process is too high & may cause
destabilization of diamond layer)
•PDC bits have no moving parts, which is the
main advantage over tricone bits
333
PDC (Polycrystalline Diamond Compact) bits, Cont’d:

•All steel base & most carbide base PDC bits
have interchangeable nozzles. For these,
hydraulic optimisation criteria are similar to
roller cone bits
•Some carbide base PDC bits have groove
structure similar to those in natural diamond
bits, for which similar optim. criteria (hp/in2) &
pressure drop apply
•Other important performance aspects:
number, size, position (back rake & side
rake angles), chips shape & bit body shape
•More aggressive back angle used for soft to
medium formation
•Chips located outside bit body act as a
reamer 334
167
PDC bits:
Side view Top view

335
Drilling Bit-Classification-Roller Cone Bits

•Published in 1987 & revised in 1992 for roller cone bits by IADC (Int. Ass.
of Drilling Contractors) to provide a convenient method for categorizing
rock bits according to their design features & intended application
•1992 IADC defines 4-character design related code:
-1st character: Cutting structure series (1 to 8)- series 1-3 refer to steel
(milled) tooth bits & 4-8 to insert (tungsten carbide) bit. As series
numbers increase, formation become harder & more abrasive
-2nd character: Cutting structure types (1 to 4)- 4 degree of hardness in
each series exist, ranging from softest (1) to hardest (4) formation
-3rd character: Bearing/gage: 7 categories (8 & 9 are for future use)
-4th character: Features available (optional): 16 alphabetic characters
(includes special cutting structures, bearings, hydraulic config. & body
gage protection), if a bit has multi features, list most significant one
•224 spaces in total in chart with 64 spaces reserved for future use
336
168
337
338
169
•Each bit has a distinct code in the chart, but effectively can drill in both
softer & harder formations
•Examples:
-code 111: a steel tooth bit equipped with standard non-sealed roller
bearings & cutting structure designed to drill very softest formations
-code 847: an insert bit equipped with sealed friction bearings &
gage protection, designed for the very hardest abrasive formations
-code 124E: a soft formation, sealed roller bearing steel tooth bit
with extended jets
-code 437X: a soft formation, sealed friction bearing insert bit, with
gage protection & chisel-shaped teeth
339
Drill Bit selection & evaluation

• “Best bit” cannot be selected (as each well drilled only once & each
penetrates formation at different location with diff. drilling parameters)
• To find “optimum bit”, compare bit performances when they run under
similar conditions. Then “cost per foot” of each bit application can be
calculated
• “specific energy” is another way of bit evaluation, where cutting
performance of various bits compared (e is related to drilled rock volume):
Ah (hole cross sectional area), N (rotary speed), T (torque at bit)
The selected bit may not be the most economic one

• To evaluate previously applied bits, “bit records” studied. It includes
various information (bit size, type, manufacture, nozzle used, rotation time,
applied WOB & RPM, …)
340
170
Tooth Wear:
•Reduction of tooth height is graded after a bit was run
•Grading reported in nearest eight (T-4: a bit whose teeth worn out to half)
•Reported wear is an average based on most severely worn teeth (tooth
wear is not even distributed & some may break, BT: broken teeth)
•Teeth wear reporting is possible if teeth measured before & after it was run
•In general, tooth wear has no direct relationship with drilling rate
•For insert bits, tooth wear occurs due to teeth hardness in form of breaking
/losing them (so a T-4 graded insert bit may have half of its teeth broken or
lost)
Tooth wear diagram-Milled tooth bits

341

Bearing Wear:
•Bearing wear evaluation in field is difficult, as the bit needs to be
disassembled. So, it is done if bearings are intact or failed (i.e. cones are
stuck & no rotation or worn out & bearings are exposed)
•Same classification to tool wear, using a “B” instead of “T” (B-7: a bit with
bearings worn to 7)
•Often reported based on total bit running hours. When 40 hours rotation
time is expected, but only 10 hours rotated on bottom, bearing wear is B-2
Gauge Wear:
•If gauge diam. of bit is worn, drilled hole will be undergauged & tapered &
may lead to damage of next bit & stuck
•Caliper & ruler is used for gauge wear measurement. Loss of diam. in
eighth of inches reported denoting letter “O” (out of gauge). A bit whose
diam. reduced by 0.5 in, is reported as G-O-4. Letter “I” used for “in gauge”
342
171
Drilling Bits – Factors affecting ROP
• Bit Type
• Formation (drillability and threshold)
• Drilling fluid
• Operational conditions
-bit hydraulics
-WOB
-speed
-overbalance
-wear
-etc.
343

Bit Type:
• Roller cutting bits: if with long teeth, they exhibit
highest ROP. Only applicable at soft formation
• PDC bits: for hard formation. ROP is a function of
size & amount of cutters & optimum combination of
drilling parameters
344
172
Formation Characteristics:
•Elastic limit & ultimate rock strength
are important factors:
“Threshold force” or “bit weight” (W/db)
needs to be overcome to initiate drilling,
which is found if plotting drilling rates as
a function of bit weight per diam. &
extrapolate it to zero drilling rate
•Permeability:
In high perm. rock drilling mud filtrates
into rock ahead of bottom hole &
reduces differential pres.
•Other properties with indirect affect:
Abrasiveness & gummy clay mineral
content, influence drilling bit (wear, …) 345

Important Mud properties:
1. Density •In general, ROP reduces with
2. Rheological properties increasing fluid density,
3. Filtration characteristics viscosity & solid content, but
4. Solids content & distribution increases with increasing
5. Chemical composition filtration rate (due to reduction
in differential pres.)
•Viscosity controls frictional
pres. losses along DS & thus
reducing available hydraulic
energy at bit
•Solid particles in colloid (<1
mm) tend to plug off the rock
porous & hence affect ROP
dramatically
346
173
•It was seen that ROP is largely
dependent on differential pres.. It
reduces ROP due to “chip hold-down
effect” & “increase in confining pres.”,
which increases rock strength
•If ROP is plotted versus differential
pres. in a semi-log paper, a linear
relation is seen in the form of:
R: ROP at particular overbalance

R0: ROP for zero overbalance
m: slope of regressed line
Pbh: bottom hole pres.
Pf: formation PP at bottom hole depth
347

Operational conditions:
•Above a given value, linear response not exist between “Floundering behaviour”
WOB & ROP & even ROP reduces
•Floundering behaviour affected by:
-reduction in hole cleaning capacity due to ROP increase
-complete imbedding of cutters (teeth/inserts) into
formation
WOB vs ROP
•“drill rate” & “drill off” tests used to determine onset of
floundering region. Drill test is a comparative process
(experimenting various WOB & RPM settings)
•In drill off test, high WOB applied to prevent top of string
from advancing while continuing circulating & rotating
string. Now, string elongated & WOB declined. WOB vs
ROP calculated & point at which ROP stops responding
linearly with increasing WOB defined
Rotary speed vs ROP
348
174
Operational conditions, Cont’d:
Bit wear:
ROP reduces as bit is worn. This reduction is less severe for insert bits
than for milled tooth bits
Bit hydraulics:
•Enhanced jetting action promotes better cleaning of teeth & bottom hole
•To improve cleaning capacity, “bit extended nozzles” often used where
the discharge nozzle ends are closer to bottom hole. They usually require
a 4th central nozzle
•When low WOB applied & drilling rates are low, the required hydraulics
for efficient hole cleaning is small
349
175

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PtrE 411

Drilling Engineering Prepared by Dr Vamegh Rasouli 1

Chapter 1 – Introduction to Drilling

Drilling Engineering Prepared by Dr Vamegh Rasouli 2

Drilling Engineering Prepared by Dr Vamegh Rasouli 3

Drilling Rig Types

Also an onshore rig, is a jacknife

Barge is brought to the position, sunk by filling ballasting components. Mast

A fixed bottom supported

•A bottom supported platform

•Can drill resting on bottom (platform

Common type rigs used

• Rig site people employed by either operating company,

• Company man: Operator representative at rig, in direct

• Derrick Man: works from monkeyboard (small platform

Well classification by depth:

• Shallow well: < 2000m

“ With Adv. Technologies Horizontal drains are drilled up to

Drilling Engineering Prepared by Dr Vamegh Rasouli 23

Typical Rig Components

Drilling Engineering Prepared by Dr Vamegh Rasouli 29

Drilling Engineering Prepared by Dr Vamegh Rasouli 31

Tripping- Removing one stand of drillstring

Drilling Engineering Prepared by Dr Vamegh Rasouli 32

Rotary Rig Systems (Requirements):

Diesel-powered internal combustion engines

• Rig Power system performance: identified by output hp,

“Power requirements for onshore rigs: 1000-3000 hp”

Power System, Cont’d:

1 BTU = 778:17 lbf / ft

1 cal = 4:1868 Joule = 4:1868 N m

Drilling Engineering Prepared by Dr Vamegh Rasouli 39

Power System, Cont’d:

Drilling Engineering Prepared by Dr Vamegh Rasouli 40

Hoisting Systems – derrick & derrick floor:

• Called “mast” if jacked-up, & “Derrick”

• At derrick floor located: drawworks, driller console, driller

• Provides hoisting & braking power to handle heavy equips

Hoisting Systems – drawworks:

Hoisting Systems – drawworks brake:

Hoisting Systems - Block and Tackle:

• Drawworks cannot provide pull required to raise heavy

“Block-tackle provides mechanical advantage to

• Block-tackle: assembly of fast line, crown block &

Hoisting Systems - Block and Tackle:

efficiency of one pulley:

Real Mech. Advantage (assuming

W: Load on the hook Ff: Tensile force on fast line

efficiency of the system:

force at the fast line:

force at the dead line: Fd=Ff hn+1 <=(W/n)

Hoisting Systems - Block and Tackle:

draw work power: Pd = F f vf

Drilling Engineering Prepared by Dr Vamegh Rasouli 54

Drilling Engineering Prepared by Dr Vamegh Rasouli 55

Load Applied to the Derrick:

Drilling Engineering Prepared by Dr Vamegh Rasouli 56

Worst scenario for fast line is the real case:

Drilling Engineering Prepared by Dr Vamegh Rasouli 57

Load Applied to the Derrick:

Drilling Engineering Prepared by Dr Vamegh Rasouli 58

Equivalent derrick Load (FDE): Defined as four times

Derrick efficiency factor (ED): Defined as the ratio of

Drilling Engineering Prepared by Dr Vamegh Rasouli 59