V/F synchronization failure detection and

control with auto phase changer in power grid

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of
degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Submitted By:

Name 1 Roll No
Name 1 Roll No
Name 1 Roll No
Name 1 Roll No

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Babu Banarasi Das University

SUBMITTED TO: …………………………
Contents
Objective ....................................................................................................................................................... 3
Block Diagram ............................................................................................................................................... 6
Working......................................................................................................................................................... 6
Experiences: .................................................................................................................................................. 7
Hardware Used: ............................................................................................................................................ 8
Programming Languages Considered ........................................................................................................... 8
LCD Display (Liquid-crystal display) 16X2 ..................................................................................................... 8
12V Relay .................................................................................................................................................... 10
Step Down Transformer .............................................................................................................................. 11
Power Supply .............................................................................................................................................. 12
Applications.................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Reference: ................................................................................................................................................... 25
ABSTRACT

The project is designed to develop a system to detect the synchronization failure of any
external supply source to the power grid on sensing the abnormalities in frequency and voltage.

There are several power generation units connected to the grid such as hydel, thermal,
solar etc to supply power to the load. These generating units need to supply power according to
the rules of the grid. These rules involve maintaining a voltage variation within limits and also
the frequency. If any deviation from the acceptable limit of the grid it is mandatory that the same
feeder should automatically get disconnected from the grid which by effect is termed as
islanding. This prevents in large scale brown out or black out of the grid power. So it is
preferable to have a system which can warn the grid in advance so that alternate arrangements
are kept on standby to avoid complete grid failure.

This system is based on a microcontroller of AVR family. The microcontroller monitors

the under/over voltage being derived from a set of comparators. As the frequency of the mains
supply cannot be changed, the project uses a variable frequency generator (555-timer) for
changing the frequency, while a standard variac is used to vary the input voltage to test the
functioning of the project. A lamp load (indicating a predictable blackout, brownout) being
driven from the microcontroller in case of voltage/frequency going out of acceptable range

Further the project can be enhanced by using power electronic devices to isolate the grid
from the erring supply source by sensing cycle by cycle deviation for more sophisticated means
of detection.

INTRODUCTION

This project presents the development of a microcontroller based islanding detection for
grid connected inverter with under/over voltage and under/over frequency islanding detection.
The system is based on a microcontroller from Atmel 8051 family. The microcontroller monitors
the under/over voltage derived from a set of comparators and under/over frequency from by the
interrupt program for the utility grid and the processed value of voltage and frequency for
turning ON/OFF the relay between a grid connected inverter and the utility grid. The project
would alternatively use a variable frequency generator representing the inverter using 555-timer
for changing the frequency while a standard variac shall be used to vary the input voltage for
achieving the test conditions by a lamp load being driven from the microcontroller output as
stated above. The microcontroller used in the project is of 8051 family which is of 8 bit. The
power supply consists of a step down transformer 230/12V, which steps down the voltage to 12V
AC. This is converted to DC using a Bridge rectifier. The ripples are removed using a capacitive
filter and it is then regulated to +5V using a voltage regulator 7805 which is required for the
operation of the microcontroller and other components.

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

2.1 What is embedded system?

An Embedded System is a combination of computer hardware and software, and perhaps
additional mechanical or other parts, designed to perform a specific function. An embedded
system is a microcontroller-based, software driven, reliable, real-time control system,
autonomous, or human or network interactive, operating on diverse physical variables and in
diverse environments and sold into a competitive and cost conscious market.
An embedded system is not a computer system that is used primarily for processing, not a
software system on PC or UNIX, not a traditional business or scientific application. High-end
embedded & lower end embedded systems. High-end embedded system - Generally 32, 64 Bit
Controllers used with OS. Examples Personal Digital Assistant and Mobile phones etc .Lower
end embedded systems - Generally 8,16 Bit Controllers used with an minimal operating systems
and hardware layout designed for the specific purpose.

2.2 Characteristics of Embedded System:

• An embedded system is any computer system hidden inside a product other than a
computer.
 • They will encounter a number of difficulties when writing embedded system software in
addition to those we encounter when we write applications.
– Throughput – Our system may need to handle a lot of data in a short period of
time.
– Response–Our system may need to react to events quickly.
– Testability–Setting up equipment to test embedded software can be difficult.
– Debugability–Without a screen or a keyboard, finding out what the software is
doing wrong (other than not working) is a troublesome problem.
– Reliability – embedded systems must be able to handle any situation without
human intervention.
– Memory space – Memory is limited on embedded systems, and you must make
the software and the data fit into whatever memory exists.
– Program installation – you will need special tools to get your software into
embedded systems.
– Power consumption – Portable systems must run on battery power, and the
software in these systems must conserve power.
– Processor hogs – computing that requires large amounts of CPU time can
complicate the response problem.
– Cost – Reducing the cost of the hardware is a concern in many embedded system
projects; software often operates on hardware that is barely adequate for the job.
• Embedded systems have a microprocessor/ microcontroller and a memory. Some have a
serial port or a network connection. They usually do not have keyboards, screens or disk
drives.

Objective
 Objective of this project is to make a system that can detect and control the
power grid voltage and frequency synchronization failure. This system
should also be capable of transferring the load of one grid to another grid
with interrupting the output load for small duration of time. System should
be feasible, cheap and safe.
Block Diagram

GRID LCD
Display
Microcontroller
Step down transformer Atmega16 Buzzer

Voltage Relay
measurement

Frequency
measurement

Working

 Figure-1 is showing the block diagram of whole system.

 Microcontroller will be used as a central controlling unit.

 LCD display will be used to display the message.

 Message shown on LCD will indicate which grid is currently working and
which one is fail.

 Same message will also be display on computer screen.

 Grid 1, 2 and 3 will be connected to a step down transformer.

  Step-down transformer will convert the grid voltage from 230V AC to
12VAC.

 A voltage divider circuit will convert this 12V in to 5V.

 This 5V signal will be given to microcontroller.

 5V is generating because microcontroller works on 5V.

 If grid will be in working condition then microcontroller will get this 5V

signal.

 When grid will fail then microcontroller will get 0V signal from grid.

 After detecting which grid is not working microcontroller will first transfer
its load on the second grid and show the message on LCD “Grid 1 fail” or
“Grid 2 fail”.

 When any grid will fail this system will send a SMS to the control room.

Experiences:

 Technical Experiences:

 Microcontroller ATmega16

 Relay

 LCD Display

 Power supply

 Transformer

 Personal Experiences:

 Time management

 Communication
  Accountability

Hardware Used:

 Microcontroller Atmega16

 LCD Display

 Power adaptor

 Voltage regulator

 Step Down Transformer

 GSM Module SIM900

Programming Languages Considered

 All the software developed for this project will be loaded into the memory
of the ATmega16 microcontroller.

 The language must be supported by the ATmega16 compiler

 The ATmega16 compiler supports C and Assembly

Reasons for Selection C Programming Language:

 Vast amount of online resources

 Ease of development

 Team members have experience of coding in C.

LCD Display (Liquid-crystal display) 16X2

A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat panel display, electronic visual display, or
video display that uses the light modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid
crystals do not emit light directly.
LCDs are available to display arbitrary images (as in a general-purpose computer
display) or fixed images with low information content which can be displayed or
hidden, such as preset words, digits, and 7-segment displays as in a digital clock.
They use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made up of
a large number of small pixels, while other displays have larger elements.
LCDs are used in a wide range of applications including computer monitors,
televisions, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and signage. They are
common in consumer devices such as DVD players, gaming devices, clocks,
watches, calculators, and telephones, and have replaced cathode ray tube (CRT)
displays in nearly all applications. They are available in a wider range of screen
sizes than CRT and plasma displays, and since they do not use phosphors, they do
not suffer image burn-in. LCDs are, however, susceptible to image persistence.

12V Relay

 A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet

to mechanically operate a switch, but other operating principles are also
used, such as solid-state relays. Relays are used where it is necessary to
control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation
between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be
controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance
telegraph circuits as amplifiers: they repeated the signal coming in from
one circuit and re-transmitted it on another circuit. Relays were used
extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical
operations.

 A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control
an electric motor or other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays
control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor
device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating
characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect
electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems
these functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protective
relays".
Step Down Transformer

 A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy

between two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction.
Commonly, transformers are used to increase or decrease the voltages of
alternating current in electric power applications.

 A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying

magnetic flux in the transformer core and a varying magnetic field
impinging on the transformer's secondary winding. This varying magnetic
field at the secondary winding induces a varying electromotive force (EMF)
or voltage in the secondary winding. Making use of Faraday's Law in
conjunction with high magnetic permeability core properties, transformers
can thus be designed to efficiently change AC voltages from one voltage
level to another within power networks.
  Since the invention of the first constant potential transformer in 1885,
transformers have become essential for the AC transmission, distribution,
and utilization of electrical energy.[3] A wide range of transformer designs
is encountered in electronic and electric power applications. Transformers
range in size from RF transformers less than a cubic centimeter in volume
to units interconnecting the power grid weighing hundreds of tons.

Power Supply

 A power supply is an electronic device that supplies electric energy to an

electrical load. The primary function of a power supply is to convert one
form of electrical energy to another and, as a result, power supplies are
sometimes referred to as electric power converters. Some power supplies
are discrete, stand-alone devices, whereas others are built into larger
devices along with their loads. Examples of the latter include power
supplies found in desktop computers and consumer electronics devices.
  Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as
any energy it consumes while performing that task, from an energy source.
Depending on its design, a power supply may obtain energy from various
types of energy sources, including electrical energy transmission systems,
energy storage devices such as a batteries and fuel cells, electromechanical
systems such as generators and alternators, solar power converters, or
another power supply.

 All power supplies have a power input, which receives energy from the
energy source, and a power output that delivers energy to the load. In most
power supplies the power input and output consist of electrical connectors
or hardwired circuit connections, though some power supplies employ
wireless energy transfer in lieu of galvanic connections for the power input
or output. Some power supplies have other types of inputs and outputs as
well, for functions such as external monitoring and control.

Power Supply Block:

4.1.1 Transformer:
 Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with a little loss of power.
Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most power
supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high voltage to a safer low
voltage. In this we are considering a 230/12V transformer.

Fig 4.1.1: A Typical Transformer

4.1.2 Voltage Regulator 7805:
The LM78XX/LM78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulators are available in the
TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a Wide
range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe
operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is
provided, they can deliver over 1A output Current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage
regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and
currents.

Fig 4.1.2: Voltage Regulator 7805

4.1.3 Rectifier:

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which

periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), current that flows in only one direction, a
process known as rectification. The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts
A.C. into pulsating D.C. The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project,
a bridge rectifier is used because of its merits like good stability and full wave rectification.

Fig 4.1.3: Full Bridge Rectifier

4.1.4 Filter:

Fig 4.1.4: Capacitive Filter

Capacitive filter removes the ripples from the output of rectifier and smoothens the D.C.
Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and load is maintained
constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this point changes.
Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage. This filter is also used in circuits where the
power-supply ripple frequency is not critical and can be relatively high.
4.3 Liquid Crystal Display:
Liquid crystal display (LCD) has material which combines the properties of both liquid
and crystals. They have a temperature range within which the molecules are almost as mobile as
they would be in a liquid, but are grouped together in an order form similar to a crystal.

Fig 4.3: LCD Display

For an 8-bit data bus, the display requires a +5V supply plus 11 I/O lines. For a 4-bit data
bus it only requires the supply lines plus seven extra lines. When the LCD display is not enabled,
data lines are tri-state which means they are in a state of high impedance (as though they are
disconnected) and this means they do not interfere with the operation of the microcontroller
when the display is not being addressed.

4.4 555 Timer:

The 555 Timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) implementing a variety of timer and
multi vibrator applications. The IC was designed by Hans R. Camenzind in 1970 and brought to
market in 1971 by Signetics (later acquired by Philips). The original name was the SE555 (metal
can)/NE555 (plastic DIP) and the part was described as "The IC Time Machine".

Fig 4.4(a): 555 Timer IC

  Usage
The connection of the pins is as follows:
Pin Name Purpose
1 GND Ground, low level (0 V)
2 TRIG OUT rises, and interval starts, when this input falls below 1/3 VCC.
3 OUT This output is driven to +VCC or GND.
4 RESET A timing interval may be interrupted by driving this input to GND.
5 CTRL "Control" access to the internal voltage divider (by default, 2/3 VCC).
6 THR The interval ends when the voltage at THR is greater than at CTRL.
7 DIS Open collector output; may discharge a capacitor between intervals.
8 V+, VCC Positive supply voltage is usually between 3 and 15 V.

Fig 4.4(b): 555 Timer Pin Diagram

 555 Basics
The 555 timer IC is a simple 8 pin DIL package IC. It can:
 be used as a monostable
 be used as an astable
 source or sink 100mA
 use supply voltages of 5v to 15v disrupt the power supply - use a decoupling capacitor!

4.5 LM358 (Dual Operational Amplifier):

The LM358 series consists of two independent, high gain; internally frequency
compensated operational amplifiers which were designed specifically to operate from a single
power supply over a wide range of voltages. Operation from split power supplies is also possible
and the low power supply current drain is independent of the magnitude of the power supply
voltage.

4.6 LM339:
These comparators are designed for use in level detection, low level sensing and memory
applications in consumer automotive and industrial electronic applications.

Fig 4.6: LM 339

The LM339 consists of four independent precision voltage comparators, with an offset

voltage Specification as low as 20㎷ max for each comparator, which were designed specifically

to operate from a single power supply over a wide range of voltages. Operation from split power
supplies is also possible and the low power supply current drain is independent of the magnitude
of the power supply voltage. These comparators also have a unique characteristic in that the
input common-mode voltage range includes ground, even though they are operated from a single
power supply voltage.

4.7 Relay:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a
switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used
where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation
between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one
signal.
 Fig 4.7: Relay

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay
creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts

4.8 Push Buttons:

Fig 4.8: Push Buttons

A push-button (also spelled pushbutton) or simply button is a simple switch mechanism

for controlling some aspect of a machine or a process. Buttons are typically made out of hard
material, usually plastic or metal. The surface is usually flat or shaped to accommodate the
human finger or hand, so as to be easily depressed or pushed.
4.9 BC547:

The BC547 transistor is an NPN Epitaxial Silicon Transistor. The BC547 transistor is a
general-purpose transistor in small plastic packages. It is used in general-purpose switching and
amplification BC847/BC547 series 45 V, 100 mA NPN general-purpose transistors.

Fig 4.9: BC 547 Transistor

4.10 LED:
 A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator
lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. When a light-emitting diode is
forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with holes within the device,
releasing energy in the form of photons.

Fig 4.10: symbol of LED

4.11 1N4007 (Diode):

Diodes are used to convert AC into DC these are used as half wave rectifier or full wave
rectifier. Three points must he kept in mind while using any type of diode.
1. Maximum forward current capacity
2. Maximum reverse voltage capacity
3. Maximum forward voltage capacity

Fig 4.11: 1N4007 diodes

4.12 Resistors:
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component designed to oppose an electric
current by producing a voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the current i.e, in
accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR
 Fig 4.12: Resistors
A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a current I
will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage.

4.13 Capacitors:
A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of
conductors separated by a dielectric. When a voltage potential difference exists between the
conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a
mechanical force between the plates. The effect is greatest between wide, flat, parallel, narrowly
separated conductors.
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The
forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by a
non-conductor. Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils
separated by a layer of insulating film.

Fig 4.13: Capacitors

OPERATIONAL EXPLANATION

Synchronization failure of an alternate supply source connected to the grid is detected by

this system. The failure can be either under/over voltage or under/over frequency. The project
uses a 8051 family microcontroller to perform this operation. This mechanism is popularly
known as islanding of grid connected source.

5.1 Connections:
The output of power supply which is 5v is connected to the 40th pin. Pin 0.0, pin 0.2 of
port 0 of microcontroller are connected to 1st LM339, 2nd LM339 & Relay. Pin 2.0 to pin 2.7 of
port 2 of microcontroller are connected to data lines of LCD. Read, Write & Enable pins of LCD
are given to pin 3.5, pin 3.6, pin 3.7 of port 3 of microcontroller. Pin 3.4 of port 3 of
microcontroller is connected to side switch.

5.2 Voltage Sensing Part:

The microcontroller is connected to the zero voltage sensing circuit to ensure the
frequency of the supply is at normal frequency of 50Hz. A VARIAC is used to get variable
voltage.

Initially both the presets are adjusted such that both the output pins of the OP-AMP IC
are at normal low and normal high level. The VARIAC is adjusted so as to get the input AC
voltage more than the normal value. Now the normally high pin of the OPAMP IC will go low,
giving an interruption pulse to the pin of the microcontroller. The microcontroller accordingly
sends a high logic pulse to switch on the relay driver, which in turn energizes the relay and the
lamp glows as it gets the AC power supply. Similarly when the VARIAC is adjusted so as to get
input AC voltage less than the normal value, at some point, the normally low pin of the OPAMP
IC goes high and the microcontroller on receiving this interruption, sends a high logic signal to
the relay driver to switch on the relay and hence the lamp which starts glowing.

5.3 Frequency Sensing Part:

 The VARIAC is adjusted such that the AC input voltage is at its normal value. The
microcontroller pin is connected to the output of the timer through a PNP transistor. The timer
works in astable mode to produce signals at frequencies which can be adjusted using the variable
frequency. This output is connected to the internal timer of the microcontroller which
accordingly calculates the frequency of the pulses and when the frequency of the pulses goes
beyond the normal frequency or less than the normal frequency, the relay driver is triggered,
which in turn energizes the relay and the AC supply is given to the lamp which starts to glow.

5.4 Working:
Islanding of grid is basically to manage two parameters. One parameter is voltage and
other parameter is frequency. Since we cannot change the frequency we have taken a 555 timer
in a free running astable mode, the frequency of which can be varied by R. We know that by the
R & C combination, the multi-vibrator mode of the 555 timer output can be generated at
different frequencies. This output is given to the MC pin 3.0 of port 3 of MC which has the
provision of changing the frequency 46Hz – 54Hz by varying R as explained above through
selector slide switch. So, the MC will get the changed frequency at pin 3.0 of port 3. We also
have provision of feeding the direct frequency at pin 3.0 of port 3 by the selector slide switch
since we are not sure of the direct frequency and it could be somewhere always near 50Hz it is
difficult to test it. This is the reason why we use a 555 timer for giving precisely 52Hz or 50 KHz
or 49 KHz which has to be tested by the program. In the program it is so written that if the
output from 555 timer which is fed to the MC goes to below 48 Hz or above 52Hz the
corresponding outputs of MC will go high , which will result in switching “ON or OFF” a load to
indicate that the islanding has taken place. (Frequency related).
As far as the voltage is concerned we have taken 2 comparators. Both the comparators are
given to i.e., one for inverting input and other for non-inverting input which are given at a
particular voltage. Initially they are so set that the output of these two comparators going to MC
pin 0.1 and pin 0.2 of port 2 remain high for low voltage and for the high voltage it is held low.
So, when the input voltage changes at R8 which is a rectified voltage which is coming from the
DC voltage, when the input voltage changes i.e., if it goes high, (it given a high command) and if
it goes low (it gives a low command) to the microcontroller. That is how the low-high, high-low
commands are handled by microcontroller then the program takes ones.

CONCLUSION

The project is designed to develop a system to detect the synchronization failure of any
external supply source to the power grid on sensing the abnormalities in frequency and voltage.

There are several power generation units connected to the grid such as hydel, thermal,
solar etc to supply power to the load. These generating units need to supply power according to
the rules of the grid. These rules involve maintaining a voltage variation within limits and also
the frequency. If any deviation from the acceptable limit of the grid it is mandatory that the same
feeder should automatically get disconnected from the grid which by effect is termed as
islanding. This prevents in large scale brown out or black out of the grid power. So it is
preferable to have a system which can warn the grid in advance so that alternate arrangements
are kept on standby to avoid complete grid failure.

APPLICATIONS:
1) Military and aerospace embedded software applications
2) C om m u ni c at i o n Ap p l i c at i on s
3) In d us t ri al aut om at i o n and p ro c es s co nt r ol s o ft w a r e
4) Mastering the complexity of applications.
5) Reduction of product design time.
6) Real time processing of ever increasing amounts of data.
7) Intelligent, autonomous sensors.

This system will help us to get uninterrupted power supply.

This system will be helpful for industrial areas where continuous electricity is
needed.

This system can also be apply on small power house to provide uninterrupted
power supply in homes.
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