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ry and secondary schools.” The IMC was created as an afterthought. The name
BSEd 4D1 | Midterm first appeared in 1983 in the General Appropriations Act, when the Textbook Council created
by Executive Order (EO) No. 806 in 1982 was listed as an Instructional Materials Council.
What are instructional materials?
In 1985, the DepEd (then named Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports or MECS) tried
Every teacher needs resources in order to have a successful classroom. Instructional to justify the renaming of the Textbook Council through MECS Order No. 64.
materials are tools used in educational lessons, which includes active learning and assessment.
• It refers to the human and non-human materials and facilities that can be used to ease, Until 1987, the government directly managed and supervised the production and
encourage, improved and promote teaching and learning activities. distribution of textbooks and manuals through the Instructional Materials Development
• They are whatever materials used in the process of instruction. Council (IMDC). However, this responsibility was transferred to private publishers with the
passage of the Book Publishing Industry Development Act (RA 8047). This Act also provided
• They are a broad range of resource which can be used to facilitate effective instruction.
for the adoption of multiple rather than single textbooks. (Morales, 2016)
• They are human and non-human material that a teacher uses to pass information to the
learner in his/her class. DepEd Order 35, s. 1988 – utilization of Instructional Materials and Accountability.
• Instructional materials are defined as resources that organize and support instruction, In order to avoid fear of loss of instructional materials, school administrators are enjoined to
such as textbooks, tasks, and supplementary resources (adapted from Remillard & discuss the contents of the enclosed procedures for securing belief of property accountability
Heck, 2014). with school officials, teachers and other personnel concerned.
Brief Background of Preparation and Evaluation of Instructional Materials in Philippine On 30 September 1993, then President Fidel Ramos finally issued EO 127, which
Context “revitalized the Instructional Materials Council by redefining its functions” and made it legal.
This EO listed the members of the IMC, namely, the Education Secretary, the Administrator
During the early years, the teaching-learning process revolved around the teacher of the Instructional Materials Development Center (now the National Book Development
manipulating the discussion while the learners were just listening to the lecture. Aside from the Board), the Director of Elementary Education, the Director of Secondary Education, and “two
teacher talk, the materials they used were limited to chalk, chalkboard and textbooks if they are (2) other members to be appointed by the President.” The IMC was given several powers, the
available. This is what we refer to as Traditional Teaching. However, in the 1950s and ‘60s, most curious of which is to “approve textbooks for use in private elementary and secondary
schools.” The most important function of IMC is to “select and prescribe textbook and
development in communications theory and systems concepts led to studies of the educational
supplementary and reference books for use in public elementary and secondary schools.”
process, its elements (i.e., teacher, teaching methods, materials used, students and their
responses), and their interrelationship. Hence, the field of audio-visuals shifted their emphasis According to Cruz (2015), the IMCS has been the center of various controversies about
on the actual teaching-learning process. This field what we now call Audiovisual errors in textbooks and corruption in procurement. The problem lies not only in the persons
Communications and Education Technology; through this, audio-visual materials are viewed that staff the IMCS. One can reasonably argue that IMCS is understaffed, that it does not have
as integral part of the education system. a budget proportionate to its importance in the country’s educational system.
There is a body in the Department of Education called the Instructional Materials Currently, learning materials and textbooks developed by the private sector are submitted
Council Secretariat (IMCS). Stated in its website, it “provides technical assistance to the for evaluation to the Instructional Materials Council Secretariat (IMCS)—an agency attached
Instructional Materials Council in the formulation and adoption of policies and guidelines, in to DECS. Approved textbooks are listed in a catalogue from which school-teachers and
the development, evaluation, and procurement of textbooks and other instructional materials.” principals select those that are to be purchased for their respective schools. Other
Its mission is “to ensure that good quality and reasonably priced instructional materials are teaching/learning support materials available in the schools include guides or manuals, teacher
made available or provided to all public elementary and secondary schools when and where support/, workbooks for students, apparatus for science and technology, and home economics,
they are needed.” Its vision is that there are “quality instructional materials for students in video and cassette tapes, educational computer software, charts, maps and models. All of these
must also be submitted for evaluation at the national level before they can be released for × Scope of the Policy for Selection of Instructional Materials
purchased for school level use. (Ditapat, n.d.) What do we mean by “instructional materials”? In the past, the answer might have
been simply textbooks and workbooks. Today, however, the range has broadened
The DepEd recently issued a textbook call for learning resources for the K to 12 curriculum. considerably, including young adult and graphic novels, informational text, websites, and
Philippine publishers are now urging DepEd to lift a moratorium on the procurement of ever-changing technology. The focus of this, is not on selection in the narrow sense of
supplementary materials. (Cruz, 2015) textbook adoption, but on curriculum and program planning that entails selection of a wide
range of materials, both print and digital, that can be used in whole-class study, small-
DepEd Order 18, s. 2012 – Guidelines on the Allocation, Delivery, and Distribution of group work, and by individual students in extensive study.
Instructional Materials to Support the K-12 Curriculum
As schools clarify the scope of the policy, they should consider not only purchased
Procured the following: materials, but also materials that are provided online as well as those generated by the
• Learning Activity Packages (LAPs), modules, to support the initial implementation of the teacher and even the students (e.g., student writings discussed in class or small groups).
K-12 curriculum. These include kindergarten workbooks, worksheets, learning modules Also, the scope of the policy should not unwittingly stifle spontaneity and creativity in
for pupils, teaching guides, and manipulative materials across all subject areas. teachers by requiring a formal selection process for all materials used for instructional
• Modules and reading materials written in the Mother Tongue (MT) will also be provided purposes. Sometimes the most effective learning experiences are those that make use of
to support the Mother-Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) pursuant to DO unanticipated instructional materials: a letter to the editor, a blog or tweet, for instance, or
no. 74, s. 2009 a newly released video version of a literary work read by the class.
• Teacher-Support Materials: (1) Modified in-school, off-school approach (MISOSA)
× Criteria
modules for teachers and pupils; (2) Multi-grade teaching learning packages; (3) Madrasah
Each school should develop its own criteria for selecting materials for inclusion in
materials; (4) Drop-out reduction program learning packages; (5) All Tech-Voc materials;
English language arts programs, but virtually all criteria relate to two general requirements
(6) Open High School Program materials. for selections: materials must (1) have a clear connection to established educational
objectives and (2) address the needs of the students for whom they are intended.
Prenscy (2012) said “Our students have changed radically and that, today’s students are no
longer the people our educational system was designed to teach.” Thus, nowadays technology × Connection to Educational Objectives
plays an essential role in the teaching-learning process. Furthermore, digital natives are said Instructional materials in the English language arts program should align with the
not to go backwards and so technology must be brought and utilized to the classroom general philosophy of the school or district, the curriculum goals and objectives of the
successfully by the teacher and the student. English language arts program, and the learning outcomes of the particular course or grade
level. For instance, some materials may be included because they reflect the school’s
Developing Clear Understanding of the Preparation of IM: Guidelines for Selection of philosophy of encouraging critical thinking in relation to controversial situations and points
Materials in English Language Arts Programs of view. Or materials may be included because they meet the curriculum objective of
presenting articulate voices from different eras or diverse cultures.
× Guidelines for Selection of Materials in English Language Arts Programs
Instructional materials are essential tools in the English language arts classroom. Policies should also reflect the understanding that an English language arts
They allow students to interact with words, images, and ideas in ways that develop their program is not one instructional resource, but many; not one curriculum objective, but
abilities in multiple literacies such as reading, listening, viewing, thinking, speaking, several. Therefore, English language arts policies should seek to build a collection of
writing, and technology. Because instructional materials are a primary resource for English instructional materials that as a whole create balance and emphasis in the curriculum.
language arts teachers, they must be selected wisely. Clearly, no single textbook or set of instructional materials will meet the curricular goals
of presenting various points of view, situations, and styles; addressing diverse ability
levels; and representing the contributions of people of diverse religions, ages, races, × Opportunity for Informal Selection
ethnicity, abilities, and cultures. Creative teachers take advantage of opportunities to use materials which do not
lend themselves to the formal selection process e.g., current online newscasts, websites,
× Relevance to Student Needs videos, blogs, e-books, articles, student writing samples, or materials for short-term
Materials should be examined for level of difficulty. They must be readable if they projects. Such supplemental materials may be selected by the appropriate instructor; but
are to be truly accessible to students. Because readability formulas tend to be simplistic again, they must meet the general selection criteria of educational relevance and ability to
measures, such formulas should be used cautiously, if at all. Teachers’ judgments about meet student needs.
the difficulty of a work are more soundly based on complexity of plot, organization,
abstractness of the language, familiarity of vocabulary, and clarity of syntax. Also, because The Roles of Instructional Materials in Teaching Language and Literature
the average classroom includes students reading at several levels of proficiency, materials
judged as inappropriate for whole-class instruction might be suitable for small-group use Teaching materials are very important in teaching and learning process. It provides
or for independent reading by more capable readers. the content of the lesson, the balance of skills taught, and the language practice of the student.
Material can support the teacher in teaching and the student in learning. For the teacher,
× Procedures for Selection of Instructional Materials material provides the primarily to supplement the teacher’s instruction. For the student,
Good schools, recognizing the importance of support from parents and the material provides the major source of the content that they need to learn.
community, operate within a framework for democratic decision making. Materials
selection and challenged materials policies are important parts of that framework. Well- The material can take many forms and the forms are: (a) printed materials such as
established procedures for selecting instructional material ensure public involvement and books, workbooks, worksheets, or readers; (b) non-printed materials such as cassette or radio
professional guidance. Therefore, it is essential that materials selection policies clearly materials, video, or computer-based materials; (c) materials that comprise both printed and
describe the steps involved in the selection process and the personnel responsible for each non-printed source such as self-access materials and materials on the internet. Besides
step. magazine, newspaper and TV material also play a role in curriculum even though it is not
design the instructional use.
× Responsibility for Selection
Selecting materials requires in-depth knowledge: not just of students’ backgrounds Cunningsworth (1995) summarizes the role of materials in language teaching as:
and learning experiences, but also of their abilities and interests; not just of educational
objectives, but of the best practices and range and quality of materials for meeting them; 1. A resource for presentation materials (spoken and written)
not just of the particular work being considered, but of its place within the medium, genre, 2. A source of activities for learner practice and communicative interaction
epoch, etc., it represents. In short, responsible selection demands not only the experience 3. A reference source for learner on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, etc.
and education needed to make sound choices but also the ability to defend the choices 4. A source of stimulation and ideas for classroom
made. 5. A syllabus (where they reflect learning objectives that have already been determined)
6. A support for less experienced teachers who have yet to gain in confidence
× Selection Procedures
Selection procedures may vary in terms of the size of the group, nonteacher
• A resource for presentation materials
participants, and schedules, but certain elements are important. In general, selection is most
appropriately done by the English language arts teachers who are closest to the students–
that is, by teachers at the building level. The group’s charge must be clearly specified and "Teaching materials" is a generic term used to describe the resources that teachers use
understood by all. The process should be part of the school’s annual schedule, and adequate to deliver instruction. In simple terms, instructional materials are used in presenting topics
time must be set aside for the work at hand. or lessons to the students.
• A source of activities for learner practice and communicative interaction students, IMs serves a language when, for example, a drawing is posted in front it can
Materials provide the learners activities and or opportunities to use the target easily stimulate students' creative and literary imagination. It also develops their
language to achieve communicative purposes. appreciation of literature as well as of the target language.
• A reference source for learner on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation etc.
The use of printed and non-printed materials such as textbooks, workbooks, audio • For motivation and stimulation
tapes, and videos can be a reference source for learner on grammar, vocabulary, and
Instructional materials are motivating and it catches the students’ attention or interest.
pronunciation.
If a student sees a visual in front, it somehow refreshes a student's mind and it helps him
• A source of stimulation and ideas for classroom to concentrate on the lesson further willingly as he thinks the visuals makes the lesson
Teaching materials capture students’ interest and can get students engaged in class interesting. Furthermore, it enhances the students' critical thinking. On the other hand,
discussion. It can also stimulate students’ creative and literary imagination. using literature as a springboard can also help since it holds high status in many cultures
• A syllabus and countries which makes it motivating. For this reason, students can feel a real sense of
It serves as a reference and a standard for the attainment of the entirety of the achievement at understanding a piece of highly respected literature. Lastly, literature
curriculum. educates the whole person. By examining values in literary texts, teachers encourage
• A support for less experienced teachers who have yet to gain confidence learners to develop attitudes towards them. These values and attitudes relate to the world
For less experienced teachers, materials may also serve as a form of teacher outside the classroom.
training – they provide ideas on how to plan and teach lessons.
• For reference
❖ Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) suggest that for teachers of ESP courses, materials serve
the following functions: It can also be a guide wherein you can reflect learning objectives for the attainment of
the entirety of the lesson. Course books introduce students to a variety of allusions for the
attainment of an educative experience and to add to students' knowledge of the world at
• As a source of language
large.
One example can be the use of literature as an instructional material. Literature is
authentic. It's good to expose learners to this source of language in the classroom because Collie and Slater (1990) stated there are four main reasons which lead a language
the skills that they will acquire in dealing with the target language can be used outside the teacher to use literature in the classroom. These are valuable authentic material, cultural
classroom. Literature also encourages interaction since literary texts are often rich with enrichment, language enrichment and personal involvement. In addition to these four main
multiple layers of meaning which can be effectively mined for discussions and sharing reasons, universality, non-triviality, personal relevance, variety, interest, economy and
feelings or opinions. In addition to that, it expands language awareness by asking the suggestive power and ambiguity are some other factors requiring the use of literature as a
learners to examine sophisticated or non-standard examples of language which can occur powerful resource in the classroom context.
in literary texts that will make them aware of the norms of language use (Widdowson, 1975
quoted by Lazar 1993). 1. Valuable Authentic Material
Most works of literature are not created for the primary purpose of teaching a
• As a learning support
language. Many authentic samples of language in real-life contexts (i.e. travel timetables,
Instructional materials are of prime importance for it serves as a guide and a support forms, pamphlets, cartoons, advertisements, newspaper or magazine articles) are included
for the learners as well as teachers. If, for example, a teacher is in a situation wherein she within recently developed course materials. Thus, in a classroom context, learners are
wants to make her students remember and understand a lesson further, she'll have to at least exposed to actual language samples of real life or real life like settings. Literature can act
have an IM. That will save her face to an awkward silence while she writes on the board as a beneficial complement to such materials, particularly when the first survival level has
and it'll be less time consuming if the teacher is prepared in advance. Regarding the been passed. In reading literary texts, because students have to cope up with language
intended for native speakers, they become familiar with many different linguistic forms, level of the students is evident. In this process, he can remove the identity crisis and develop
communicative functions and meanings. into an extrovert.
2. Cultural Enrichment Maley (1989) lists some of the reasons for regarding literature as a potent resource in the
language classroom as follows:
For many learners, the ideal wat to increase their understanding of verbal or
1. Universality
nonverbal aspects of communication in the country within which that language is
spoken—a visit or an extended say—is just not probable. For such learners, literary works, Because we are all human beings, the themes literature deals with are common to all
such as novels, plays, short stores, etc. facilitate understanding how communication takes cultures despite their different way of treatment - Death, Love, Separation, Belief, Nature
place in that country. Though the world of a novel, play or short story is imaginary, it ... the list is familiar. These experiences all happen to human beings.
presents a full and colorful setting in which the characters from many social or regional 2. Non-triviality
backgrounds can be described. A reader can discover the way the characters in such literary Many of the more familiar forms of language teaching inputs tend to trivialize texts
backgrounds can be described. A reader can discover the way the characters in such literary or experience. Literature does not trivialize or talk down. It is about things which mattered
works see the world outside (i.e. their thoughts, feelings, customs, traditions, possessions; to the author when he wrote them. It may offer genuine as well as merely “authentic”
what they buy, believe in, fear, enjoy; how they speak and behave in different settings. This inputs.
3. Personal Relevance
colorful created world can quickly help the foreign learner to feel for the codes and
Since it deals with ideas, things, sensations and events which either constitute part
preoccupations that shape a real society through visual literacy of semiotics. Literature is
of the reader’s experience or which they can enter into imaginatively, they are able to relate
perhaps best regarded as a complement to other materials used to develop the foreign
it to their own lives.
learner’s understanding into the country whose language is being learned. Also, literature
4. Variety
adds a lot to the cultural grammar of the learners.
Literature includes within it all possible varieties of subject matter. It is, in fact, a
3. Language Enrichment
battery of topics to use in ELT. Within literature, we can find the language of law and of
Literature provides learners with a wide range of individual lexical or syntactic mountaineering, of medicine and of bull-fighting, of church sermons and nursery talk.
items. Students become familiar with many features of the written language, reading a 5. Interest
substantial and contextualized body of text. They learn about the syntax and discourse Literature deals with themes and topics which are intrinsically interesting, because
functions of sentences, the variety of possible structures, the different ways of connecting part of the human experience, and treats them in ways designed to engaged the readers’
ideas, which develop and enrich their own writing skills. Students also become more attention.
productive and adventurous when they begin to perceive the richness and diversity of the 6. Economy and suggestive power
language they are trying to learn and begin to make use of some of that potential One of the great strengths of literature is its suggestive power. Even in its simplest
themselves. Thus, they improve their communicative and cultural competence in the forms, it invites us to go beyond what is said to what is implied. Since it suggests many
authentic richness, naturalness of the authentic texts. ideas with few words, literature is ideal for generating language discussion. Maximum
4. Personal Involvement output can often be derived from minimum input.
Literature can be useful in the language learning process owing to the personal 7. Ambiguity
involvement it fosters in the reader. Once the student reads a literary text, he begins to As it is highly suggestive and associative, literature speaks subtly different
inhabit the text. He is drawn into the text. Understanding the meanings of lexical items or meanings to different people. It is rare for two readers to react identically to any given text.
phrases becomes less significant than pursuing the development of the story. The student In teaching, this has two advantages. The first advantage is that each learner’s interpretation
becomes enthusiastic to find out what happens as events unfold via the climax; he feels has validity within limits. The second advantage is that an almost infinite fund of
close to certain characters and shares their emotional responses. This can have beneficial interactive discussion is guaranteed since each person’s perception is different. That no
effects upon the whole language learning process. At this juncture, the prominence of the two readers will have a completely convergent interpretation establishes the tension that is
selection of a literary text in relation to the needs, expectations, and interests, language necessary for a genuine exchange of ideas.
The Benefits of Instructional Materials in Teaching Language for Filipino Learners
7. Kochhar (2012)
One of the innovations in the educational system is the introduction of several new He supports that instructional materials are very significant learning and
teaching strategies at different levels of education. English language is a study connected with teaching tools. He adds that there is need for teachers to find necessary and relevant
all other subjects and all aspects of human life to enable people live a fulfilled, free interaction instructional materials to complement classroom interaction and textbooks in order to
and achievement in life. broaden and arouse students‟ interests in the subject.
Therefore, the importance of instructional materials cannot be underestimated in Types of Instructional Materials and Their Benefits
developing students‟ skills in English as a second language. Since instructional materials are
the devices developed to assist teachers in transmitting, organized knowledge and attitudes 1. Instructional Chart - a combination of pictorial, graphic, numerical materials which
toward learners within an instructional situation (Nwachukwu, 2006). presents a clear visual summary.
• Motivates the students
The Usefulness of Instructional Material in Language Teaching • Shows continuity in the process
1. Awotua-Efebo, 2001 • Shows relationships by means of facts, figures and statistics
Although teachers use different instructional materials to motivate learning by • Presents matter symbolically
using textbooks, charts, models, graphics, real objects as well as improvised materials. • Presents abstract ideas in visual form
• Summarizes information
2. Olaitan & Agusiobo, 1994
• Shows the development of structures
The success of achieving what they are met to achieve in an instructional
• Creates problems and stimulates thinking
situation depend on the suitability of the instructional materials, adequacy and effective
utilization of the materials. • Encourages utilization of other media of communication
3. Omabe (2006) 2. Posters - pictorial devices are designed to attract attention and communicate a story, a fact,
He asserts that instructional materials are central in the teaching and learning an idea, or an image rapidly and clearly.
of English language because they are used to compliment efficiency of a teacher, and • Convey a specific message
effectiveness in lesson delivery. • Team work and Brainstorming
4. Esu, Enukoha and Umoren (2004) • Make use of creativity
They affirmed that instructional materials facilitate learning of abstract
concepts by helping to concretize ideas and stimulate learners‟ imagination. 3. Flashcards - are small cards with a picture or symbol on them used both in teaching and in
development work.
5. Mathew (2012) • Associate the pictures and the words through various “look and say” activities.
The use of instructional materials make teaching effective as it enables learners • Repetition
to participate actively in classroom instruction.
6. Olumorin, Yusuf, Ajidagba and Jekayinfa (2010) 4. Slides and Film Strips - used for projecting pictures from a transparent slide on a wall or
Instructional materials help teachers to teach conveniently and the learners to screen.
learn easily without stress. They assert that instructional materials have The • Can enlarge small figures or illustrations
Importance of Instructional Materials in Teaching of English as A Second Language • Technology-mediated instruction
direct contact with all the sense organs of the students. • Convenient
Let us move on to the benefits of Instructional Materials in teaching literature on ESL
5. Work Sheet - lists questions or activities for students or trainees to work through. learners.
• Worksheets provide flexibility in the classroom as well as in the workshop, because they • Delivery vehicles for instructional lessons or in a constructivist way as partners in
can be used individually, in pairs, or in small groups to facilitate teamwork skills. the learning process.
Since English is our second language and not our mother tongue, we cannot expect our
6. Newsletter - is an informal printed report, which is distributed to members of a particular students to fully comprehend this command of language, let alone when they’re reading a
group in order to share information. literary piece that is filled with hifalutin words or words that are unfamiliar. You may define
• Promotes good public relations, offering evidence that the school, college or other these words or tell the story in a different way to make it simpler, but you still most students
organization is working hard to achieve its targets. won’t understand. Gladly, we have our Instructional Materials to help us reach them, and also
• Practices English fluency help them build their understanding easily.
• Source or reference for social-related lessons
• It helps the learner build more meaningful personal interpretations of life and
7. Cartoon - is a simple picture of an amusing situation; sometimes it is a satirical comment his/her world.
on a serious or topical issue. If the learner could see that these characters in these literary pieces are much like them,
• Makes use of vocabulary they become much more understandable. We can show raw materials about the piece that our
• Can be used in sequencing and ordering of lessons students may also use or have on their home thus making the character more relatable.
• Enables the students to discuss sensitive issues
• Makes the students discuss the cartoon based on what they perceive • Serves as a medium in representing what the learner knows and what he/she is
learning.
Benefits of Instructional Materials in Teaching Literature for Filipino Learners We can utilize Instructional materials to assess our learner’s knowledge. We can use
some pictures and have them explain the story themselves.
Within the course of our practice teaching we have encountered teaching a story or a Learning and teaching becomes a whole space for wonder and creativity. With the use
literary piece more than once. With the learners that we have, we sure do need a help, and that of instructional materials, either its modern or traditional, we can now connect with our students
help comes in the form of instructional materials. better, and teach them better by igniting their different senses in learning.
Just like a gardener with his shovel and watering can, a teacher also needs some tools Implications for The Use of IM in Teaching Language And Literature
to help her and her students meet an understanding. These tools are called “Instructional
Materials”. In teaching literature, it can come very handy. We have the most common printed In teaching language and literature, one cannot exclude the benefits and advantages of
materials that we use, such as books and print-out copies of the pieces we’re discussing. We utilizing instructional materials. It’s role in education is felt in any given time, situation, and
may also use some non-projected display materials. We can bring objects that are related to the topic. As stated by Cunningsworth, instructional materials give us a representation of what we
are learning and gives stimulation in order for our students to learn just no name a few.
story that will make our learners visualize better. For example, in the story of Aladdin and the
wonderful lamp, we may show a lamp to class while telling the story. The most commonly Now as we have discussed before, in choosing the IM that we will be utilizing there
used by us nowadays would be the still projected display materials, like Power point are several factors to consider. Generally, these guidelines help in making the IM more
presentations. Since most of our students are visual learners, creating a PowerPoint presentation effective and more user friendly to both teacher and learner.
filled with pictures and captions will surely boost their comprehension. We may also show
them a film about the story. With today’s technology, we can improve our lessons greatly Considering these, what are the possible implications of using instructional materials? To
without spending much time and money in making our instructional materials. name a few, they are:
Instructional materials streamline the teaching-learning process by providing maximum Verbal Symbols - principal medium of communication
learning progress. • This level bears no physical resemblance to the objects or ideas for which they stand.
They produce a more inducing learning environment, may be a word for concretion, idea, scientific principle, formula or philosophic aphorism
Provide concrete examples of abstracts and concepts,
Stimulate interest among learners,
Visual Symbols - chalkboard/whiteboard, flat maps, diagrams, charts
However; • Fits the tempo of presentation of idea, topic or situation. Very easy to procure and
Developing and producing IMs requires careful forethought and planning, prepare. Limitations: lack of ability to use the media size of visuals simplification of
Can often be inaccessible, visual materials leads to misconceptions
If done poorly can be distraction rather than a supplement to learning,
Certain IMs can be bothersome to maneuver and relocate. Recordings, Radio, Still Pictures - attention – getting, particularly projected views
• Concretize verbal abstraction.
*Cone of Experience (Edgar Dale)
• Limitations: size of pictures or illustrations expensiveness of projected materials and
The Cone of Experience by Edgar Dale is a visual model that is composed of eleven equipment timing difficulties between radio shows and classroom lessons
(11) stages starting from concrete experience at the bottom of the cone then it becomes more
and more abstract as it reaches the peak of the cone. Also, according to Dale, the arrangement Television and Motion Pictures - a solution to time and space constraints
• Provides “windows to the world”. An effective media for presenting movement,
in the cone is not based on its difficulty but rather based on abstraction and on the number of
continuity of ideas or events and substitute for dangerous direct learning experiences
senses involved. The more the senses that are involved in learning, the more and the better the
• Limitations: Expensive, viewing problems, timing with classroom lessons,
learning will be but it does not mean that concrete experience is the only effective experience
misconceptions about time, size, and ideas
that educators should use in transferring knowledge to the learners.
Exhibits - Present objects or processes otherwise impossible inside the classroom
The cone is based on the relationships of various educational experiences to reality
• Exposure to new ideas, discoveries, inventions.
(real life), and the bottom level of the cone, "direct purposeful experiences," represents reality
• Problems that may be encountered: too little space time – consuming maintenance
or the closest things to real, everyday life. The opportunity for a learner to use a variety or
several senses (sight, smell, hearing, touching, movement) is considered in the cone.
Demonstrations - visualized explanation of an important fact or idea or process. May require
Principles on the Cone of Experience: nothing more than observation or students may be asked to do what has just been shown how
to do.
Direct experience allows us to use all senses. Verbal symbols involve only hearing. Disadvantages: ideas or processes might not be interpreted or conceived very well
The more sensory channels possible in interacting with a resource, the better the chance that visibility to all learners
many students can learn from it. Each level of the cone above its base moves a learner a step
further away from real- life experiences, so experiences focusing only on the use of verbal Field Trips - undertaken primarily for the purpose of experiencing something that cannot be
symbols are the furthest removed from real life. encountered within the classroom. A rich experience in learning about objects, systems, and
situations.
Motion pictures (also television) is where it is on the cone because it is an observational Disadvantages: time-consuming expensive high exposure to danger /accidents
experience with little or no opportunity to participate or use senses other than seeing and inadequacy of the community’s resources
hearing. Contrived experiences are ones that are highly participatory and simulate real life
situations or activities. Dramatized experiences are defined as experiences in which the learner
acts out a role or activity.
Dramatized Experiences – it helps get closer to certain realities that are no longer available • Recordings
at first hand; stirring and attention getting. Participant learns to understand intimately the *Educational materials which could be heard from the radio
character he portrays and teaches cooperative work.
Disadvantages: time consuming without commensurate results participation is limited 2 Types of Recordings
to few individuals 1. Audio discs
2. Audiotapes
Contrived Experiences - an “editing” of reality. Substitutes for confusing or unmanageable
Come in 3 forms:
first – hand experiences and it is easier to handle, manipulate or operate.
Student passively listen to audio materials
Disadvantages: simplification leads to misconceptions, distorted views, and Students are provided self-monitors
incomplete pictures of reality no freedom to handle expensive or fragile models, mock Students are provided with a tape recorder, video monitor or computer
– ups, specimens, etc.
Advantages:
Direct, Purposeful Experiences - unabridged version of life itself; direct participation with 1. Can capture & store the original sound
responsibility for the outcome. The basis for the most effective and lasting learning. 2. Easily operated
Disadvantage: not all things can be learned through direct, first hand experiencing 3. Duplication of audiotapes is easy
4. Ideal for learning languages
Audio Media 5. Can be used for small or big groups
• Sounds transmitted, purchased or received through high fidelity waves which are
heard through audio equipment Disadvantages:
• Used in speech rehearsals, drama, musical & dance presentations, radio & TV 1. Recordings can be easily erased by accident
broadcasting etc. 2. Appeal only to the sense of hearing
3. Background noises may be included while recording
Types of Audio Media
Projected Media
• Radio & Broadcasts It refers to media formats in which visual and verbal images are projected or enlarged on a
*Educational materials which could be heard from the radio screen by passing strong light through a transparent material or through opaque materials.
*Can be done live or taped
*Can be school broadcast or general broadcast Types of Projected Media:
Authentic Materials Syllabus can be divided into two: Product-oriented and Process-oriented.
• Sometimes called “authentic” or “contextualized”, real-life materials are those that a • A product-oriented syllabus focuses on things learned at the end of the learning
student encounters in everyday life but that weren’t created for educational purposes.
process/ (outcomes) rather than the process itself.
They include newspapers, magazines, and Web sites, as well as driver’s manuals,
utility bills, pill bottles, and clothing labels. • Process-oriented syllabus focuses on the processes of learning.
• Authentic materials are print, video, and audio materials students encounter in their
daily lives, such as change-of-address forms, job applications, menus, voice mail What is in a basic syllabus?
messages, radio programs, and videos. A Syllabus usually contains the following components:
• Authentic materials are not created specifically to be used in the classroom, but they 1. Title Page
make excellent learning tools for students precisely because they are authentic. Course number and title, semester and year, number of credits, meeting times and location,
instructor information (name, office location, office hours, contact information).
Two Main Categories of Authentic Materials
1. Authentic Print Materials 2. Course Description
Examples: Utility Bills, Street Signs, Traffic Tickets, Greeting Cards, Calendars, A brief introduction to the course: scope, purpose and relevance of the material.
Report Cards, TV Guide, and such. 3. Vision, Mission, Goals, and Course Objectives
Skills and knowledge students will gain.
2. Authentic Auditory Materials 4. Course Organization
Examples: Phone messages, Radio broadcast, Mocies, Videos and DVDs, Television Explanation of the topical organization of the course.
programs, and such.
5. Materials
Created Materials Required (and/or optional) books (with authors, editions, and ISBNs), reserve readings,
• Created materials are made according to the needs of the students. course readers, software, and supplies with information about where they can be obtained.
6. Pre-Requisites and Co-Requisites The Instructor Benefits of a Learner-Centered Syllabus
Courses students need to have taken before this one (or at the same time); prerequisite skill 1. Helps you re-conceptualize your course, making it more effective and useful.
sets (e.g., programming languages, familiarity with software). 2. Prevents conflicts and misunderstandings between instructor and students.
7. Course Requirements 3. Ask how each and every component of your course can most effectively support student
What students will have to do in the course: assignments, exams, projects, performances, learning.
attendance, participation, etc. Includes the nature and format of assignments and the expected 4. Consider not just content but SKILLS learned (skills “stick” better over the long term).
length of written work, as well as due dates for assignments and dates for exams. 5. Contribute to developing students’ desire for and ability to pursue life-long independent
8. Evaluation and Grading Policy learning.
What the final grade will be based on. There is usually a breakdown of components and an
explanation of the instructor’s grading policies (e.g., weighting of grades, curves, extra-credit Planning Your Syllabus
options, the possibility of dropping the lowest grade). • What skills, knowledge and attitudes are most important?
9. Course Policies and Expectations • How can they be effectively built into your course?
Policies concerning attendance, participation, tardiness, academic integrity, missing • How can you assess whether or not students have acquired the skills, knowledge and
homework, missed exams, recording classroom activities, food in class, laptop use, etc. Also attitudes in question?
includes professor’s expectations for student behavior (e.g., respectful consideration of one • (Not just for grading or program assessment, but for improving teaching.)
another perspectives, open-mindedness, creative risk-taking).
10. Course Calendar Tools Students Need for Living and Working Effectively in Society
A day-to-day breakdown of topics and assignments (readings, homework, project due dates). 1. Assess and use resources effectively.
11. Advice 2. Work alone and collaborate with others.
How to use the syllabus. 3. Think and communicate effectively using appropriate means such as writing,
speaking, listening, and performance.
What makes a good syllabus? 4. Understand and respect differences.
A Learner-Centered Approach 5. Clarify personal values, goals, and purposes.
• Move away from the “instructor-centered” model.
• Attend to research on the psychology of learning: e.g., attention spans, memory and Types of Syllabus
retention, active learning.
• Attend to research on the characteristics of today’s students. Grammatical Syllabus
• Increases students’ perception of the relevance and interest of the course. A grammatical syllabus is based on the structures of a language. It can be compared to
other types of syllabi based around tasks, vocabulary, functions or topics. Learners learn
Basic Goals of a Learner-Centered Syllabus grammatical structures in a sequence that reflects their complexity, rather than their use in
1. Define students’ responsibilities. communication, leading to many artificial contexts for practice, and perhaps an inability to
2. Define instructor’s role and responsibility to students. transfer learning to real communication. The aim of this syllabus is to develop the knowledge
3. Provide a clear statement of intended goals and student outcomes. and skills which learners should gain as a result of instruction. Organizing learning around a
4. Establish standards and procedures for evaluation. grammatical syllabus has been criticized because of this, but it is still the most common type
5. Establish a pattern of communication between instructor and students. of syllabus in published materials, mostly because it is the easiest type of syllabus to sequence.
Let’s take a look of its advantages first.
• From simpler to more complex grammatical structures However, a functional-notional syllabus would teach language to use it rather than instructing
• Introduces the grammatical system more easily the use of its exclusive forms (Wilkins, 1976). Moreover, Harlow and Linda L. (1978) point
• Sequencing and selection of teaching items is not as difficult as it with other syllabi that by perceiving language as a real means of communication; learners would feel more
The following are the disadvantages of a grammatical syllabus: motivated to learn as they would feel what they were learning is useful. Language functions in
• It over-emphasizes language structure and neglects communicative competence a real-life setting would generate a special kind of excitement for learning and leads to
• It does not address the immediate communication needs of the learners productive learning. Therefore, as comparing to the structural syllabus where elements of
• It hampers the students’ creative sides because it confines him/her within the walls of language are learned in an isolated way from real life, students' communicative competence
some specific rules and confidence can be well developed, and teachers can revitalize teaching materials to meet
• The role of the student here is passive learning objectives in functional-notional approach study. Furthermore, the functional-notional
syllabus is superior to the situational syllabus because it can include both of the most important
Situational Syllabus grammatical forms and all kinds of language functions in it rather than concentrate those exist
A situational syllabus is often defined as one in which the contents are organized in specific situations typically (Wilkins, 1976).
according to situations in which certain language is likely to be employed. The aim of this This syllabus is extremely useful for ESP clauses in which the learners can learn part
of the language which they are badly in need without wasting their time and energy for detailed
syllabus is to prepare the learner for the future situation in which he/she might use the language.
the advantages of a situational syllabus are: study of the whole language system. Furthermore, the act of the communication in this syllabus
is intrinsically motivating. The language forms, its functions, and communicative skills they
• Refers to practical needs rather than abstract analysis
have learned can be used immediately in the communicative activities and in role plays, or even
• A learner-centered syllabus, since it takes account of the learner and his needs
in the real world. This direct effect of language use motivates the learners. They feel quite
• It enables the learner to act appropriately in various social content
satisfied and are eager to learn as much as possible according to their needs because they are
• It focuses on learners’’ speaking ability
not passive listeners but active participants. Every syllabus has its demerits, so does the
The said syllabus’ disadvantages are:
functional-notional syllabus. When putting it into practice, we will find that it presents some
• Grammar is dealt with incidentally problems.
• It does not provide with clearly defined criteria for the sequencing of teaching items • Dividing language into discrete units of functions may misrepresent the nature of
• It has limited potential for the language learner interested in acquiring global language language as a communication
proficiency • The selection, grading, and sequencing items for the syllabus are difficult
• What order should the grammar be taught in for the students to be able to apply it to
Functional-Notional Syllabus
functions?
The functional-notional syllabus is brought and influenced by both theories of
• Impossibility of defining functions with precision and clarity
language and language learning/acquisition. The focus of the said syllabus are the students and
their communicative purposes. And there are clear benefits connected with the functional- Skill-based Syllabus
notional syllabus associated with a communicative teaching approach and plenty of criticisms This syllabus is introduced by Nunan (1999), he believes that skill is explicit form into
exist when put it into practice as well. The advantages of the notional syllabus include that it implicit form by means of practice.
could consider the communicative facts of language from the beginning with concerning of This is organized around the language or academic skills that the students will most
grammatical and situational factors. So, it is superior to the grammatical syllabus possibly. In need in order to use and continue to learn the language.
the grammatical syllabus language elements are demonstrated more in complete possibilities The content of the language teaching involves a collection of particular skills that may
of the language than the use of it needed in conversation so learners would complain that play a role in using language.
foreign language learning is not practical and they have few opportunities to use out of it.
The linguistic competencies like pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and discourse Disadvantages:
are merged together into generalized types of behavior. • Frustrates language learners due to the fact that they may be denied to the language
The aim of this syllabus is to teach the specific language skills that may be useful or that makes him able to set the task
necessary in using language such as: • Is no more creative than the language-based model
x listening to spoken language for the main idea
x writing well-formed paragraphs Topical Syllabus
x delivering effective lectures This is designed according to topics.
This is similar to topical situational syllabus however it is organized by topics or
Advantages: themes, rather than situations.
• Appropriate when learners need to develop specific skills The topics are selected by the textbook author on the basis of his or her sense of the
• Focused on performance in relation to specific task that provides a practical importance of the topics or themes to the lives of the students for whom the tect is designed.
framework for designing courses and teaching materials.
Advantages:
Disadvantages: • Facilitates comprehension
• Inappropriate for general purpose or beginner level classes • Makes linguistic form more meaningful
• Focused on discrete aspects of performance rather than on developing more global • Addresses students' needs
and integrated communicative abilities. • Variety within learning