2.

Chemical Symbols
All Elements have been named by the scientists who had discovered them and do not have
any particular nomenclature. Quite a few have Latin names. Some have English names also.
Although the names are long, generally abbreviation of either first or first two letters
represents the element. This is done for convenience only. Some elements are known
commonly by their English names but the abbreviations followed are of their Latin names!!
The abbreviations are called symbols and all the elements are represented by different
symbols.

Table below gives some of the names of the elements and their symbols.

Common name of element Latin Name Symbol

Hydrogen - H
Carbon - C
Sodium Natrium Na
Chlorine - Cl
Iron Ferrum Fe
Silver Argentum Ag
Gold Aurum Au

It has to be borne in mind that for an element represented by two lettered symbol, the first one
is in capitals and second one is written as a lower case letter. This again is an adopted
convention by scientists and is completely accepted by all.

3. Chemical Formulae
Substances (either compounds or mixtures) can be written in combination of the symbols, but
have to be written in correct proportion of the elements that are the constituents. The written
representation of a molecule of a substance using symbols of constituent element is called
the molecular or chemical formula. For example, a molecule of potassium permanganate is
written as KMnO4; this means that one molecule of potassium permanganate contains one
atom of potassium (K), one atom of manganese (Mn) and four atoms of Oxygen (O). A
molecule of water is written as H2O; which means that there are 2 atoms of Hydrogen (H) and
one atom of Oxygen (O). In an ordinary table salt molecule, there is one atom of Sodium (Na)
and one atom of Chlorine (Cl) and hence its chemical symbol is NaCl. To be able to write a
chemical formula, we must first know the chemical reaction that precedes the formation of the
compound.

4. Valency
Our knowledge about the structure of atoms depends on the mathematical formulations
predicted by Neils Bohr. He suggested that electrons are distributed in orbits and the number
of electrons held in the orbit depends on the number of the orbit. The orbits are counted
outwards from the nucleus. Higher the orbit number, farther are the electrons in that orbit from
the nucleus. If the orbit number is “n”, then the maximum electrons held in the orbit is given as
2n2. The first orbit has n=1, and will hold maximum of 2 electrons, the second orbit has n=2
and is capable of holding a total of 8 electrons; similarly the third orbit will be able to contain
18 electrons and so on.

Electrons within an atom have definite energies[1]. The electrons closest to the nucleus
(n=1) are most tightly bound; the reason is because of stronger electrostatic attraction
with the nucleus. Electrons in the highest orbit are least tightly bound. Electrons in the
same orbit have same energies. The electron orbits are also called as electron energy
levels or shells. Electronic shells are known as K shell, L shell, M shell, N shell
corresponding to orbit number n=1,2,3 and 4 respectively. Higher number orbits are
assigned shell names in alphabetical order after N.

Graphic Showing S
The distribution of electrons in various orbits in an atom is known as the electronic
configuration of that atom. The electronic configuration gives each atom, and hence each
element in nature, its unique physical and chemical characteristics.

Table below gives electronic configuration of some elements.

Name of the Atomic number (Z) Total number of Electronic Configuration

element (symbol) electrons
K L M N
Hydrogen (H) 1 1 1
Carbon (C) 6 6 2 4
Oxygen (O) 8 8 2 6
Chlorine (Cl) 17 17 2 8 7

The number of electrons in the outermost orbit decides the chemical nature of the atom. An
atom tries to have its outermost orbit complete with generally 8 electrons. Helium is the only
stable element whose (first and the last) outermost orbit has 2 electrons[2]. If this situation is
not met, then the atom is unstable and reacts with other elements to either give or borrow
electrons. The tendency of atoms to donate or accept electrons to stabilize their outermost
orbits is known as the valency of the element. Valency is the measure of reactivity of the
element. For example, Sodium (Na) has Z=11, no of electrons =11. Its electronic
configuration will be K=2, L=8, M=1. The last M shell has vacancy for accommodating 7
electrons. But instead it is far easier for an Na atom to give up 1 electron from the M shell so
that its outermost orbit has L=8. Chlorine (Cl) has Z=17, no. of electrons = 17. Its electronic
configuration will be K=2, L=8, M=7. The last M shell needs to borrow 1 electron or give up 7
electrons. The chemical compound Sodium Chloride (NaCl) is very easily formed as both Na
and Cl complement each other’s need for stabilizing their outermost orbits. Both Na as well as
Cl are said to have valency 1. (Na valency is said to be +1, Cl valency is said to be –1)

We will discuss more about valency of atoms when we discuss how compounds are formed.
Also it has to be kept in mind that several elements show variable valency, that is their
combining capacity with other elements change with the condition of reaction.

[1] Other than n=1 that is K shell, all other shells have sub-shells. The sub-shells very slightly
differ in energy within each shell.

[2] In reality, the outermost orbit of an atom is stable when the electrons are paired.

Variable Valency

Quite a lot of transition metals and non-metals show variable valency. As mentioned
before, valency is a measure of reactivity of an element. Physically, valency means
how many electrons an element can donate or accept to make its outermost orbital
stable. A stable orbit may mean that there are no unpaired electrons left in the
outermost orbit. Generally it is observed that an atom tries to acquire electronic
configuration of its nearest noble gas atom.

Amongst transition metals, Iron, Nickel show variable valency. Amongst non-metals,
Oxygen and Nitrogen are good examples. These metals and non-metals combine to
give various compounds having different properties.

For example Fe2O3 is different from FeO. In Fe2O3, Fe shows valency +3 and O
shows valency –2. Fe2O3 is a magnetic compound. In FeO, Fe shows valency +2.
FeO is non magnetic.
Water (H2O) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) are compounds of hydrogen and
oxygen. In H2O, H shows a valence of +1 and O shows a valence of –1. In H2O2, H
has a valency of +2 but O has a valency of –1. Water is a neutral compound but
H2O2 is a highly acidic compound.