SP368 19 Full

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Glaciogenic reservoirs and hydrocarbon systems: an introduction

M. HUUSE1*, D. P. LE HERON2, R. DIXON3, J. REDFERN1,
A. MOSCARIELLO4 & J. CRAIG5
1
The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
2
Royal Holloway University of London, London, UK
3
BP Exploration Operation Company Ltd, Sunbury on Thames, UK
4
University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
5
Eni Exploration & Production, Milan, Italy
*Corresponding author (e-mail: mads.huuse@manchester.ac.uk)
Abstract: Glaciogenic reservoirs host important hydrocarbon and groundwater resources across
the globe. Their complexity and importance for exploration and palaeoclimate reconstruction
have made glaciogenic successions popular subjects for study. In this paper we provide an over-
view of the palaeoclimatic and tectonic setting for Earth glaciation and a chronological account
of glaciogenic deposits since c. 750 Ma, with particular emphasis on their reservoir potential
and associated hydrocarbon systems. Hydrocarbon accumulations within glaciogenic reservoirs
occur principally in Palaeozoic (Late Ordovician and Permo-Carboniferous) sandstones in South
America, Australia, North Africa and the Middle East, with relatively minor occurrences of
shallow gas hosted in Pleistocene deposits in the North Sea and Canada. Groundwater reserves
occur within glaciogenic sandstones across the northern European lowland and in North
America. The main glaciogenic environments range from subglacial to glacier front to proglacial
and deglacial. Rapidly changing environments, hydrodynamic regimes and glacier-front and sub-
glacial deformation often result in very complex glaciogenic sequences with significant challenges
for reconstruction of their origin and resource importance, which this volume seeks to address.
Glaciogenic deposits constitute reservoirs for hydro- lake and continental shelf areas, as well as adjacent
carbons in sedimentary basins across the globe, with continental slopes where large trough mouth fans
reservoir ages ranging from Neoproterozoic to constitute volumetrically important deposits from
Pleistocene (Fig. 1; Table 1). Onshore, Pleistocene Pleistocene glaciations (Sejrup et al. 2003; Ottesen
glacial deposits are important reservoirs for ground- et al. 2012). In deep ocean settings, ice-rafted debris
water in NW Europe and in North America, while provides the most important physical record of the
offshore glacial deposits constitute potential drilling Pleistocene shelf glaciations (Hemming 2004).
hazards and pose problems for deeper seismic The term ‘glaciogenic hydrocarbon systems’ can
imaging due to their often anomalous infill litholo- be applied to any hydrocarbon system where at
gies and pore fluids (in particular methane). Major least one part of that system is linked to glaciation.
glaciations through Earth history appear on regular For example, we recognize glaciogenic reservoirs,
300 –350 Myr cycles, with the Late Ordovician deglacial source rocks, glaciogenic seals, glacio-
glaciation breaking this trend (Fig. 2; Page et al. genic deformation (glaciotectonics and glacial load-
2007). Important controls on glaciation include ing/unloading cycles), glacial sculpting of reservoir
plate tectonic configuration (Fig. 3), ocean circula- rocks or cold climate conditions leading to gas
tion and atmospheric CO2 pressure (Fig. 2; Craig hydrate formation. Source rock deposition linked
et al. 2009). Growth of continental ice sheets leads with glaciation tends to be favoured by remnant topo-
to global sea-level fall (Zachos et al. 2001; Miller graphic relief linked with glacial sculpting and
et al. 2005), thus affecting depositional patterns transgressive and high sea-level stands causing con-
worldwide, and also causes flexing of the litho- densed organic-rich sediment accumulation (Lüning
sphere within tens to a hundred kilometres from et al. 2000; Craig et al. 2009; Moreau 2011; Le
the ice sheet margin and isostatic depression under Heron & Craig 2012). A common glaciogenic res-
the ice sheet itself (e.g. Lambeck et al. 1998). ervoir and source rock system is deposited follow-
Glaciogenic deposits are largely preserved in for- ing a glacial advance (lowstand), with subsequent
merly glaciated lowland areas, including land, deposition of thick clastic reservoir systems during
From: Huuse, M., Redfern, J., Le Heron, D. P., Dixon, R. J., Moscariello, A. & Craig, J. (eds) 2012. Glaciogenic
Reservoirs and Hydrocarbon Systems. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 368,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP368.19 # The Geological Society of London 2012. Publishing disclaimer:
www.geolsoc.org.uk/pub_ethics
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M. HUUSE ET AL.
Fig. 1. Global distribution of glaciogenic reservoir and hydrocarbon system case studies (this volume). Cryogenian
(c. 690 Ma): 1, Le Heron & Craig (2012). Ordovician (c. 444 Ma): 2, Hirst (2012); 3, Lang et al. (2012a, b); 4, Girard
et al. (2012); 5, Douillet et al. (2012). Permo– Carboniferous: 6, Bache et al. (2012); 7, Martin et al. (2012).
Oligo-Miocene: 8, Fielding et al. (2012). Pleistocene: 9– 18. Key to case study numbers provided in Table 1.
the ice retreat phase. Later during the deglacial structures formed by high-velocity jet-like water
transgression, the glaciogenic reservoirs are often flows, not commonly observed with deposition
enhanced by transgressive reworking, and sub- under non-glacial hydrological conditions. In many
sequently overlain by sealing mudrocks, which, dur- cases, associated larger-scale morphological fea-
ing the later stages of glaciation may be organic-rich tures (observed at outcrop or in seismic data in the
source rocks. When more than one glacial cycle subsurface), such as cross-shelf troughs, tunnel
exists, intra-formational seals and possible source valleys, megascale glacial lineations (MSGLs),
rock strata may also be found interbedded with the drumlins, iceberg scours, striations, moraines and
reservoirs. The largest recorded transgression asso- glaciotectonics structures, allude to a likely glacio-
ciated with rich post-glacial source rocks are found genic origin.
in the early Silurian, following the Late Ordovician The specific origin of some glaciogenic features
glacial interval (Fig. 2; Page et al. 2007). During the (e.g. cross shelf troughs, iceberg ploughmarks, drop-
Pleistocene, numerous transgressive intervals are stones and moraines) is well documented, whereas
recognized between glacial cycles (Zachos et al. others are being vigorously debated (e.g. tunnel val-
2001; Miller et al. 2005). leys, MSGLs, drumlins). Tunnel valleys, in particu-
Glaciogenic sediments with reservoir potential lar, have been studied and debated for over a century
may be deposited in a range of environments includ- (Ussing 1903; Ehlers et al. 1984; O’Cofaigh 1996;
ing subaerial, subglacial, proglacial, lacustrine, shal- Huuse & Lykke-Andersen 2000a; van der Vegt
low marine and deep offshore (Fig. 4). While some et al. 2012). Tunnel valleys can be hundreds of
glaciogenic sediments may be difficult to distinguish metres deep, kilometres wide and many tens of kilo-
from deposits not associated with glaciation, others metres long, incising lowland glacial and preglacial
contain distinctive outsize clasts, large boulders substrates. They therefore represent huge reposi-
and pebbles, sometimes striated, which are typical tories of glaciogenic (glacial, deglacial) and inter-
of glacial environments. Glacial deposits are also glacial deposits in otherwise low-accommodation
often associated with sandstone intrusions and other settings (e.g. Cummings et al. 2012). For this rea-
soft-sediment deformation structures, produced son, an understanding of tunnel valley fill lithologies
due to ice sheet loading, push or fluctuating water and facies variations would be a useful tool for reser-
tables (Brodzikowski & van Loon 1991; Pedersen voir prediction. Unfortunately, to date, a consistent
2012). Glaciogenic sandstones often contain model linking tunnel valley formation and infill
Table 1. Summary of studies in this volume

Authors* Region Area Age Case study/review Data & methods Significance
Andersen et al. (9) NW Europe Denmark (on- & Pleistocene Tunnel valley 2D & 3D Seismic & EM Groundwater reservoir
offshore) morphometrics
Bache et al. (6) South America Bolivia (onshore) Permo-Carboniferous Glaciogenic valleys and 2D Seismic & Wireline Hydrocarbon reservoir
fills logs
Buckley (10) NW Europe North Sea (UK) Pleistocene Grounded ice evidence 2D & 3D Seismic Hazards & chronology
Douillet et al. (5) North Africa Jordan (onshore) Ordovician Tunnel valley fill Outcrop Hydrocarbon reservoir
properties
GLACIOGENIC RESERVOIRS: INTRODUCTION

Fielding et al. (8) Antarctica McMurdo Sound Oligo-Miocene Glaciogenic Reservoir Subsurface Reservoir properties
(offshore) Properties
Girard et al. (2) North Africa Tassili N’Ajjer Ordovician Outwash channels Outcrop Hydrocarbon reservoir
(Algeria/Libya)
Hirst (3) North Africa Illizi Basin (Algeria) Ordovician Facies succession and Outcrop & Subsurface Hydrocarbon reservoir
origin
Kristensen & Huuse NW Europe North Sea (DK) Pleistocene Tunnel valley fills 3D & 2D seismic Hazards/imaging
(11)
Lang et al. (4) North Africa Illizi Basin (Algeria) Ordovician Sequence stratigraphy Core & wireline logs Hydrocarbon reservoir
and facies
Le Heron & Craig (1) Australia Centralian Superbasin Neo-Proterozoic De-glacial source rocks Outcrop & well data Source rock prediction
Martin et al. (7) Middle East Oman (onshore) Permo-Carboniferous Regional glaciation Sedimentology and Regional geology
evidence provenance (outcrop)
Moreau et al. (12) NW Europe North Sea (UK/NL) Pleistocene Tunnel valley 3D seismic megasurvey Hazards & analogue
occurrence
Muether et al. (13) NW Europe North Sea (Germany) Pleistocene Tunnel valleys and 3D seismic Analogue
de-glacial incision
Ottesen et al. (18) NW Europe Norwegian Sea Pleistocene Shelf progradation and 2D & 3D seismic, Hydrocarbon
reservoirs bathymetry reservoirs
Sandersen & Jørgensen NW Europe Denmark (onshore) Pleistocene Substrate controls Electromagnetic & 2D Groundwater
(14) seismic reservoirs
Schack Pedersen (15) NW Europe Denmark (onshore) Pleistocene Glaciodynamic Outcrop Concept & prediction
sequence
Stewart et al. (16) NW Europe North Sea (UK) Pleistocene Tunnel valley fill 3D seismic Reservoir analogue
architecture
van der Vegt et al. (17) Europe/North Europe/North Pleistocene Tunnel valley review Subsurface & outcrop Reservoirs &
Africa/ Africa/ Middle analogues
Middle East East
*Numbers in column 1 refer to numbered locations in Figures 1 and 3.

M. HUUSE ET AL.
Fig. 2. Record of Earth’s climate since c. 1 Ga. Key glacial episodes names and sea-level and CO2 pressure records and
occurrence of hydrocarbon source rocks shown for reference (from Craig et al. 2009).
has not been forthcoming. Although the backfill In common with any sedimentary system, the
model of Praeg (2003) has great promise for reser- reservoir properties of glaciogenic deposits depend
voir prediction (Kristensen et al. 2008), it does on provenance, transport, primary depositional char-
not account for presently unfilled valleys. Although acteristics and subsequent diagenetic and structural
the origin of tunnel valleys as ice-marginal melt- history. A unique aspect of glaciogenic reservoirs is
water conduits is generally accepted (Ussing 1903; the additional potential for glaciotectonic defor-
Ehlers et al. 1984; O’Cofaigh 1996; Huuse & mation, ranging from ice-bed shearing to large-scale
Lykke-Andersen 2000a; van der Vegt et al. 2012), bulldozing and deep-seated glaciotectonic defor-
there are opposing views (Lonergan et al. 2006; mation (van der Wateren 1995; Huuse & Lykke-
Stewart & Lonergan 2011), and it is still debated Andersen 2000b; Buckley 2012; Pedersen 2012).
how many, how frequent, how long and how vigor- Understanding the processes operating at
ous the meltwater flow events would have been modern-day ice sheet termini and examining the
to form specific tunnel valleys and tunnel valley evidence left by Pleistocene glaciations are essen-
families (Boulton & Hindmarsh 1987; Huuse & tial to the interpretation of the deep-time glacial
Lykke-Andersen 2000a; van der Vegt et al. 2012). record. For example, the glacial incisions of Late
As for any debated geological feature, it is unlikely Ordovician age in the rock record of the Sahara
that a single genetic model will fit all occurrences, (Fig. 5b), which have relatively low angle, curved
unless the model is sufficiently broad in terms of geometry and undulating thalweg, are interpreted
parameters such as flow modes and frequencies, as tunnel valleys cut by subglacial meltwater. Sim-
role of glacial occupation, and presence or absence ilar features are ubiquitous in the formerly glaciated
of foreland permafrost. lowland areas of NW Europe (Ehlers et al. 1984;
Huuse & Lykke-Andersen 2000a; van der Vegt et al. because there were probably large and compara-
2012). Equally, striated pavements in front of tively rapid variations in atmospheric CO2 concen-
receding glaciers and on rocky outcrops covered by tration during this time, possibly as a result of the
Pleistocene glaciations, MSGLs, cross-shelf troughs repeated cycles of ‘snowball’ or ‘slushball’ glacia-
and dropstones in Pleistocene glaciolacustrine and tions (Hoffman et al. 1998; Halverson et al. 2005).
marine deposits provide straightforward analogues
for similar erosional and depositional features in Neoproterozoic
the ancient rock record (e.g. Fig. 5).
The Neoproterozoic interval is divided into three
periods: the Tonian (1000–800 Ma), the aptly
named Cryogenian (800 –630 Ma) and the Edia-
Glaciations through geological time caran (630 –540 Ma). The Cryogenian interval con-
Overview tains a record of either two (the ‘Sturtian’ and
‘Marinoan’) or three synchronous glaciations (Mac-
Evidence of glaciation in the Earth’s sedimentary donald et al. 2010a) or, alternatively, of multiple
record extends from the Archaean (2.9 Ga: Young diachronous glaciations (Allen & Etienne 2008).
et al. 1998) to the present day. For the last billion These differing interpretations arise because of the
years at least, the Earth has experienced alternat- limited quantity, and often poor quality, of the avail-
ing periods of greenhouse and icehouse climate able absolute age constraints, and because of the
(Coppold & Powell 2000), with the greenhouse often conflicting results produced by the various
periods lasting about 250 million years and the ice- different dating methods (radiometric, isotopic,
house periods lasting around 100 million years. biostratigraphic) used to help correlate Neoprotero-
These cycles can themselves be grouped into three zoic glaciogenic successions. For example, emer-
longer supercycles, each lasting about 300 to 350 ging techniques such as Re –Os dating (Kendall
million years (Fig. 2; Craig et al. 2009). It is well et al. 2009) produce different results to Pb/Pb
recognized that these long-period cycles in global dating of authigenic monazite, although both tech-
climate are linked to plate tectonic processes, and niques are defended as being robust and accurate
to cycles in development and subsequent ‘break- (Kendall et al. 2006; Mahan et al. 2010).
up’ of supercontinents through time. In an ideal Glaciogenic sediments of Neoproterozoic
greenhouse world, the continental configuration is (1000– 542 Ma) age were, paradoxically, deposited
such that equatorial currents can encircle the globe predominantly at low to mid latitudes, in contrast
and there is exchange between tropical and polar to most of their Phanerozoic equivalents (Fig. 3;
waters. This combination leads to a global climate Evans 2003). Indeed, on the basis of global palaeo-
that is too warm for polar ice caps to develop. Con- magnetic data, there appears to be an almost com-
versely, in an ideal icehouse world, the continents plete absence of glacial sediments deposited (and
are generally grouped at equatorial latitudes and, preserved) between palaeolatitudes 608 and 908
perhaps, also at the poles (Fig. 2). In this config- (Evans & Raub 2011) during the Neoproterozoic.
uration, any currents encircling the globe tend to Neoproterozoic glaciation has been suggested to
be polar rather than equatorial. This limits heat reflect a long-term cooling of global climate, with
exchange between the tropics and the poles and a switch to warmer conditions occurring in tandem
therefore promotes the formation of polar ice caps with the Cambrian explosion and hence imply-
(e.g. Fensome & Williams 2001). ing a strong biospheric role in determining Earth’s
Comparison of the global climate record with the glacial –interglacial fluctuations on the longest
main periods of global glaciation (Crowell 1999) timescales.
and with the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere Kirschvink (1992) and Hoffman et al. (1998) pro-
(Royer et al. 2004) during the Phanerozoic (Fig. 2) posed that, during the Cryogenian, the Earth oscil-
shows that the Permo-Carboniferous and Cenozoic lated rather rapidly between almost total ice cover
glacial intervals correspond with periods of low with mean surface temperatures of 250 8C and
CO2 concentration (low greenhouse gas). Anom- ‘super-greenhouse’ conditions with temperatures
alously, the climax of the Late Ordovician glacia- of perhaps +50 8C, due to a combination of very
tion (Hirnantian Isotopic Curve Excursion, HICE: unusual continental configurations and atmospheric
Delabroye & Vecoli 2010) occurs during a period conditions.
of apparent greenhouse climate and at a time of high The Cryogenian glacial record is characterized
CO2 levels, about 14 to 16 times the level today by massive and stratified diamictites (Fig. 5c), sand-
(Crowley & Baum 1991), although there is a sub- stones, conglomerates and rare carbonates (Hoff-
stantial degree of uncertainty in this value. The rela- man et al. 1998). In South Australia, the older of
tionship between glaciation and atmospheric CO2 the two glacial intervals in the Cryogenian succes-
concentration is less clear during the Precambrian, sion includes the spectacular Sturt Tillite and its
M. HUUSE ET AL.
12 12
7
5
1 7
3 2 6
7 12 d 5
c
1 3
6
d
4 e
9 e 8
11 10
b a
Sedimentary environments
Glacial environments
1 glacial lake 7 ice sheet
a subglacial
2 fluvial system 8 tide-water glacier
b englacial
3 moraine 9 floating ice-shelf
c supraglacial
4 Gilbert-type delta 10 turbidite sheets
d proglacial
5 outwash plain (sandur) 11 subaqeous outwash fan
e glaciomarine
6 esker 12 tunnel valley
Fig. 4. Glaciogenic depositional environments (modified from Janszen 2012, re-drawn from Brodzikowski & van Loon
1991).
lateral correlatives (Fig. 5a). The sediment depocen- Despite the supposedly snowball Earth pretext,
tres in South Australia at this time correspond to most Neoproterozoic glacial successions compare
failed rift systems within the Adelaide Fold Belt closely in facies and stacking patterns to their Pha-
and, locally, these contain up to 5 km of glaciogenic nerozoic counterparts (Etienne et al. 2007).
sediment (see Le Heron 2012 for a review). The Most Neoproterozoic glaciogenic successions
‘Sturtian’ succession in South Australia is consid- contain ironstone accumulations and it is notable
ered to be the product of a global-scale, possibly that these do not occur to the same extent in either
snowball Earth, glaciation (Hoffman & Schrag younger or older glaciogenic sequences (Macdonald
2002). However, diamictite successions of possible et al. 2010b). It is probable that at least some of
age-equivalence in northern Namibia preserve clear this iron was derived from erosion of the uplifted
evidence of ice sheet advance and retreat, subgla- footwall areas of basin-bounding faults that were
cial shear zones produced by a locally grounded active during fragmentation of the Rodinia super-
tidewater ice margin, and non-glacial (probably continent (Eyles & Januszcak 2004). The close
interglacial) facies (Le Heron et al. 2012a, c). association with ironstone stromatolites in northern
Fig. 3. Plate tectonic context and extent of major glaciations in Earth history setting the scene for case studies in this
volume: (a) Pleistocene (Last Glacial Maximum, LGM, at 18 ka) Northern Hemisphere with location of key studies in
this volume (9– 18); (b) Oligocene (c. 30 Ma) of the Southern Hemisphere (Antarctica) with location of study by
Fielding et al. (2012); (c) Early Permian (Sakmarian c. 290 Ma) Southern Hemisphere view and locations of case studies
by Bache et al. (2012) and Martin et al. (2012); (d) Late Carboniferous (Moscovian, c. 310 Ma) Southern Hemisphere;
(e) Late Ordovician (Hirnantian c. 444 Ma) of the Southern Hemisphere and locations of case studies by Hirst (2012),
Lang et al. (2012a, b), Girard et al. (2012) and Douillet et al. (2012); (f) Cryogenian whole-globe view of evidence for
glaciation across the equator and case study of Le Heron & Craig (2012). Note the plate tectonic similarity between the
LGM Northern Hemisphere and the Permo–Carboniferous Southern Hemisphere with continents enclosing a polar sea
and between the LGM Southern Hemisphere and the Ordovician with continents at the south pole. See Table 1 for key to
case study numbers. Compiled from Scotese 2011 (Paleomap project).
M. HUUSE ET AL.
Fig. 5. Examples of Neoproterozoic to Pleistocene glacial features at outcrop. (a) Pleistocene fjord, cut by a valley
glacier, at Preikestolen, Stavanger region, Norway. Fjord walls in the background rise to 700 m above sea-level. (b) One
margin of an incision interpreted as a tunnel valley (van der Vegt et al. 2012) in the Late Ordovician record of the Sahara
(Iherir, Algeria). (c) Stratified muddy diamictite with large dolostone clasts: Chuos Formation of Cryogenian (Sturtian)
age in northern Namibia. (d) Large granitoid boulder in white clay, sitting above a Permian glacially striated pavement
at Glacier Rock, South Australia. (e) Soft-sediment striated pavement of Hirnantian age at Pakhuis Pass in the Western
Cape Province, South Africa. (f) Permian striated pavement in the Huqf area of Oman. (g) Large carbonate dropstone in
the Kingston Peak Formation (Sturtian age), Death Valley region, California. (h) Granite dropstone with spectacular
‘impact structure’ beneath the clast in the Bebedouro Formation (Sturtian age), Chapada Diamantina, Brazil. Photos
from D. P. Le Heron.
Namibia suggests that at least some of this iron was continued into the early Silurian in some parts of
microbially fixed, possibly by acidophile photo- Gondwana, notably in Peru, Bolivia and northern
synthetic biomats (Le Heron et al. 2012c). The pro- Argentina (Diaz-Martinez & Grahn 2007) and in
ducts of the Neoproterozoic glaciations are under- northern Chad (Klitzsch & Semtner 1993).
represented in this volume, but are covered in
detail elsewhere (Allen 2006; Etienne et al. 2007; Late Palaeozoic
Fairchild & Kennedy 2007; Arnaud et al. 2011).
The Late Palaeozoic Ice Age (LPIA) is recorded
Early Palaeozoic across all of the Gondwanan continents, and
initiated following plate collision and assembly of
The Cambrian Period appears to have been the supercontinent of Pangaea. Glaciation lasted
largely devoid of significant glaciations, whereas over 100 Myr, when the supercontinent was located
the Late Ordovician is characterized by widespread around the south pole (Fig. 3; Blakey 2008). The
occurrence of glaciogenic deposits, particularly triggers for glaciation are subject to debate, with
around the margins of the Gondwana supercontinent varying importance attached to plate tectonics,
(Fig. 3). The Late Ordovician glaciation was once mountain building and climate. The acme of Late
viewed as a short, sharp event (Brenchley et al. Palaeozoic glaciation was diachronous, commen-
2003), but an emerging view is that the latest Ordo- cing in western and central South America (Eyles
vician (Hirnantian) event is actually just the acme 1993), and becoming progressively younger to-
of a longer, sustained Early Palaeozoic icehouse wards South Africa (the Karoo Basin), Antarctic
event (Page et al. 2007). The Hirnantian glaciation and Australia (Fielding et al. 2008, and references
is clearly recorded in the stable isotope signature therein) (Fig. 5d). Rift shoulder uplift, particularly
of low-latitude carbonates (HICE: Delabroye & in the Precordillera, played an important role in the
Vecoli 2010). The glacial record of the Hirnantian formation of ice masses in upland areas (Gonzalez-
maximum is well expressed in parts of the Gond- Bonorino & Eyles 1995) and resulted in spectacular
wana supercontinent, particularly in North Africa, palaeo-fjord incisions (e.g. Dykstra et al. 2006). In
Arabia and South Africa, where extensive, laterally Bolivia, equally spectacular, stacked palaeovalleys
continuous outcrops in Saudi Arabia (Keller et al. of Devonian, probable Mississipian and probable
2011), Jordan (Douillet et al. 2012), Algeria (Girard Pennsylvanian age, occur in the subsurface of the
et al. 2012; Hirst 2012) and Libya (Moreau et al. Chaco Basin (Bache et al. 2012). Significantly, this
2005; Girard et al. 2012) allow detailed investi- suggests that, in Bolivia at least, pulses of glacia-
gation of the sedimentology and facies of the gla- tion continued into the early Permian. The palaeo-
cial succession. Boreholes drilled for petroleum valley fills commence with basal tillites, which are
exploration also provide high-quality subsurface overlain by prograding glaciodeltaic clastic wedges.
data sets in these areas (e.g. Lang et al. 2012b), Uppermost Pennsylvanian –early Permian (Sak-
which can be integrated with the outcrop data. Out- marian) glaciation is well documented in Antarctica,
crops of the Late Ordovician glaciogenic succession Australia, Oman, Saudi Arabia and South Africa
in North and South Africa are particularly renowned (Martin et al. 2008; Fielding et al. 2008 and refer-
for their well-preserved striated soft-sediment pave- ences therein; Le Heron et al. 2009 and references
ments (Fig. 5e; Beuf et al. 1971), produced by sub- therein). Glacial deposits recorded in both outcrop
glacial shearing of unconsolidated sediment. and subsurface data sets provide a record of exten-
In stark contrast to the record of the Neoprotero- sive continental-scale ice sheets that extended until
zoic glaciations, the Late Ordovician (Hirnantian) the end Sakmarian (Redfern & Williams 2002; Mar-
glacial succession is anomalously sandy (Fig. 5b). tin et al. 2012). A wide variety of glaciogenic facies
One simple explanation for this sand-rich character are recorded, including classic lacustrine varvites
might be that peneplanation of the mountain belts with dropstones, diamictites and extensive glacio-
formed during the amalgamation of the Gondwana fluvial and subaqueous outwash fans. Spectacular
supercontinent during the Pan African–Brasiliano striated pavements are recorded in Oman and Aus-
Orogeny (Craig et al. 2008) resulted in considerable tralia, and provide evidence for multiple phases of
reworking of sediments for up to 100 million years ice advance and retreat. In contrast to the Hirnantian
(Le Heron et al. 2010). Thus, the expanding Hirnan- glaciogenic succession, many Late Palaeozoic
tian ice sheets may simply have incorporated the glacial deposits rest on hard bedrock striated pave-
mature to super-mature clastic detritus deposited ments (Fig. 5f), although other localities such as
on the broad shallow shelf surrounding the Gond- the Canning Basin (Australia) do include softer sub-
wana supercontinent and then released these sand- strates. The styles of glaciation preserved in the Late
rich sediments during their decay, often in highly Palaeozoic rock record are closely comparable to
energized, subaqueous outburst flows (Hirst 2012). those in preserved in Cenozoic glacial sequences
Following the Hirnantian maximum, glaciation (e.g. Fielding et al. 2008).
M. HUUSE ET AL.
Mesozoic evidence in high latitude areas or areas of extreme

altitude prior to the onset of the Pleistocene gla-
The evidence for extensive glaciation during the ciations. Spectacular glacioterrestrial and glacio-
Mesozoic is generally less convincing than for the marine successions occur across northern Europe,
Neoproterozoic and Palaeozoic, although there is from the north European plains of Poland, Germany,
increasing isotopic and sequence stratigraphic evi- Denmark, the Netherlands and eastern England
dence for glaciation during the Cretaceous (e.g. (Ehlers et al. 2011), and along the Atlantic continen-
Miller et al. 1998; Bornemann et al. 2008). Alley tal margin (Dowdeswell et al. 2002; Ottesen et al.
& Frakes (2003) reported striated pebbles and com- 2008, 2012) through to the North Sea, where these
minuted, angular and scalloped sand-grains from glacial sequences are superbly imaged on high-
SEM analyses of the Cretaceous Livingston Tillite resolution 3D seismic data (e.g. Praeg 2003; Rise
Member of the Cadna-Owie Formation in the et al. 2004; Graham et al. 2010; Kristensen et al.
northern Flinders Ranges of Australia, which they 2007; Buckley 2012). These seismic data facilitate
interpreted as resulting from direct glacial action. the mapping of regional-scale, glaciogenic uncon-
These occur along with 80 cm wide lonestones, formities offshore (Moreau et al. 2012), while the
interpreted as glacial dropstones, ‘floating’ in fine- spectacular outcrops of well-preserved and well-
grained sediments (Alley & Frakes 2003). Whereas dated Pleistocene sediments onshore, in areas such
in Neoproterozoic glacial deposits dropstones (Fig. as in western Denmark (e.g. Pedersen 2012), allow
5g, h) are unequivocally produced by ice meltout sequence stratigraphic methodologies to be applied
(either icebergs, shorefast ice or sub-ice-shelf abla- and the complex sequence and styles of glaciotec-
tion), other processes, such as animal ingestion and/ tonic deformation to be determined in detail. Advan-
or rafting by buoyant plant detritus, can produce cing ice during the Pleistocene was, as in large
similar features in Mesozoic and Cenozoic succes- modern-day ice sheets, preferentially fluxed via ice
sions (Bennett et al. 1996). streams (Dowdeswell et al. 2002; Ottesen et al.
The existence of icehouse conditions at times 2008, 2012). The ‘footprint’ of one such palaeo-ice
during the Cretaceous is supported by the presence stream is clearly evident in the Norwegian Channel
of glendonite nodules (pseudomorphs of the low- (Ottesen et al. 2012), where a large volume of sedi-
temperature mineral ikiaiite) in several localities, ment was transported to the shelf break and depos-
including South Australia (Frakes & Francis 1988). ited as a trough-mouth fan (Sejrup et al. 2003;
This presence of this mineral indicates very low Ottesen et al. 2008).
marine water temperatures consistent with glaci- The retreat of Pleistocene ice sheets across north-
ation (Hay 2008) and, in conjunction with palaeo- ern Europe is clearly recorded in the cross-cutting
temperatures calculated from stable isotopic com- nature of subglacial tunnel valley systems, which are
positions on belemnites, suggest that water tempera- considered to have been cut by meltwater under
tures in the Svalbard area, for example, were in the enhanced hydrostatic pressure beneath, but near the
range of 4 –7 8C during the Valanginian (Price & margins of, the decaying ice sheets (van der Vegt
Nunn 2010). Isotopic analysis of Siberian belem- et al. 2012). Numerous examples are clearly imaged
nites (Price & Mutterlose 2004) also show a d18O on seismic reflection data from the North Sea
isotope excursion, which has been interpreted to be (Fig. 9; Praeg 2003; Buckley 2012; Andersen et al.
the result of sequestration of d16O by growing ice 2012; Kristensen & Huuse 2012; Moreau et al. 2012;
masses. These growing ice masses produced sub- Müther et al. 2012; Stewart et al. 2012). Some stud-
stantial glacial incision in many areas. It has been ies suggest that the tunnel valleys are incised pre-
estimated that the regional base level in Nebraska ferentially into low-permeability clays, because
fell by between 25 m and 50 m at the end of the high-transmissivity substrates such as sand and gra-
Early Cretaceous and beginning of the Late Cre- vel with high porosities and permeabilities would
taceous (Albian –Cenomanian), based on inter- retard the incision process (Huuse & Lykke-Ander-
pretations of the magnitude of glacio-eustatically sen 2000a; Janszen et al. 2012b; Sandersen & Jør-
driven incision (Koch & Brenner 2009). gensen 2012). This mechanism may also account
for observations from the Hirnantian glacial record of
Cenozoic Gondwana, where tunnel valleys are typically incised
into preglacial siltstones (Douillet et al. 2012).
The outstanding preserved global record of Ceno-
zoic glaciation includes both modern high-latitude
and high-altitude settings. The Antarctic marine Glaciogenic depositional environments
record shows extensive evidence for glaciation since and sediments
the Eocene/Oligocene transition (34 Ma) (Fielding
et al. 2012 and references therein). In contrast, the Glaciogenic facies and facies associations are typi-
northern hemisphere only shows scattered glacial cally complex (Fig. 6). This complexity reflects
Fig. 6. Synthetic log showing the typically complex facies associations in glaciogenic reservoir rocks of Late
Ordovician age, Algeria. Thicknesses are not to scale. From Lang et al. (2012b).
the large variety of sedimentary processes and depo- The natural fluctuations of ice sheets during gla-
sitional environments (Fig. 4), which can develop cial periods cause multiple phases of ice advance
associated with ice sheet or glacier expansion, and retreat of the margins of the ice sheets. These
stadial conditions or withdrawal (Fig. 7). fluctuations are often associated with significant
High-energy environments typically dominated erosion and reworking of previously deposited sedi-
by ultra-high-energy outburst events (jökulhlaups), ments interspersed with depositional phases, leading
catastrophic gravity flows or high-velocity water to often complex and spatially very heterogeneous
flows developed in both subaerial and/or subaqu- facies associations (Figs 6–8; e.g. Hirst 2012;
eous environments. High-energy depositional sett- Lang et al. 2012a, b; Martin et al. 2012; Pedersen
ings and deposits are commonly juxtaposed with 2012; van der Vegt et al. 2012).
low-energy depositional settings, such as proglacial A common trait of glaciogenic sediments, par-
lakes, where settling processes of fine particles pre- ticularly those deposited adjacent to a grounded
dominate. Additionally, glaciogenic deposits in the ice sheet, is that they exhibit a suite of soft-sediment
rock record are often associated with deposits deformation and glaciotectonic structures. These
formed during intervening interglacial periods, structures occur in both subglacial and ice-marginal
hence producing a complex succession recording locations, and the array of possible structures gener-
interstratification of both marine and continental ated is extremely complex. In the subglacial regime,
non-glaciogenic sediments. bedrock or substrate composition is important, as
M. HUUSE ET AL.
Fig. 7. Glaciogenic depositional environments through a glacial to deglacial cycle in the Late Ordovician of the In Amenas area, Algeria. Compiled from Hirst (2012: figs 16–19).
well as meltwater availability, in determining Glaciogenic deposits form thick accumulations

whether subglacial deformation is predominantly in incisions such as tunnel valleys (e.g. Moscariello
brittle or ductile (Boulton & Hindmarsh 1987). Sub- 1996; Ghienne & Deynoux 1998; Le Heron et al.
glacial shearing produces a suite of textural features, 2004; Dixon et al. 2007; Cummings et al. 2012;
including galaxy structures, dispersion tails and per- Kehew et al. 2012; Lang et al. 2012a, b). Typically,
vasive stratification, observable at the macroscale these have a higher preservation potential in the
(outcrop and core) and the microscale (thin section) rock record than deposits in inter-valley areas, and
(e.g. Phillips et al. 2011). Ice-marginal deforma- show a much higher degree of complexity and het-
tion produces thrust-and-fold belts with amplitudes erogeneity than unconfined glacial successions,
.100 m, such as the spectacular push moraines of which tend to form more homogeneous lithosomes
Nørre Lyngby in eastern Denmark (Pedersen 2012). (e.g. Le Heron et al. 2010). Accumulations of pro-
Ice-proximal, proglacial settings are character- glacial gravel and sand-rich reservoir deposits can
ized by accumulation of gravel and coarse to medium be found within deeply incised glacial valleys (e.g.
sands. In terrestrial settings, these are deposited by Ehlers et al. 1984; Ehlers & Linke 1989; Huuse
streams originating as sublacial to englacial con- et al. 2003; Janszen et al. 2012a; Kehew et al. 2012).
duits, debouching from the ice sheet at a sandur plain They typically accumulate at the ice margin during
or in a subaqueous environment. In the latter, both in ice-recessional phases, associated with punctuated
lacustrine and marine settings, proglacial deposits ice stagnation conditions. During rapid recession,
tend to form large fan-shaped accumulations with gravel and sand associated with subglacial melt-
considerable lateral extent and thickness (e.g. waters typically form thin deposits, which may be
Russell et al. 2003; Winsemann et al. 2009). more easily obliterated by subsequent advances of
(a)
Late Highstand Relative
Forced sea level
Regression
Regressive
System Transgressive
System
Lowstand System
Time
(b)
Glacial Maximum Interglacial Accumulation
of ice and
Ice accumulation
sediments
IRD addition
n
Glacio-marine
erocial
sio
sedimentation Marine
a
bgl
sedimentation
Su
l to
eria
Glacial
sedimentation
ba
Su
Time
Fig. 8. Glaciodynamic sequence stratigraphy: accumulation of ice and sediments in relation to eustatic changes. From
Pedersen (2012).
M. HUUSE ET AL.
the ice sheet or glacier. Further from the ice margin, employed with impressive results to locate ground-
the role of high-energy flows progressively dimin- water reserves hosted in tunnel valleys (Danielsen
ishes. In ice-distal settings, dilute underflows de- et al. 2003; Gabriel et al. 2003; Jørgensen & Sander-
rived from the ice margin may deposit turbidites in sen 2006; Kehew et al. 2012; Sandersen & Jørgensen
a glaciomarine or glaciolacustrine setting, interca- 2012). Potential field methods have also been used
lated with ice-rafted debris (dropstones). offshore where high-pass or gradient processed
Tills – and their consolidated variants, tillites – gravity and aero-magnetic data sets can yield specta-
are heterogeneous diamictite deposits of direct gla- cularly continuous images of near-surface tunnel
cial derivation. They are deposited by a range of valley systems (Olesen et al. 2010). However, off-
processes including lodgement, subglacial defor- shore, and in hydrocarbon-prospective intervals
mation and meltout, and are frequently resedimen- onshore, reflection seismic data remain by far the
ted by mass flow processes or meltout at the ice most prolific geophysical source of knowledge of
margin. Thus, ancient diamictites typically contain glaciogenic reservoir occurrence, architecture and
evidence for both direct glacial derivation and grav- properties. Three-dimensional (3D) seismic data, in
itational reworking at the ice margin (e.g. Le Heron particular, provide amazingly detailed images of
et al. 2012a, b). Their composition and texture erosional and depositional glacial imprints includ-
reflect their origin from an all-inclusive sediment ing cross shelf troughs, MSGLs, iceberg plough-
transport system. Matrix-supported tills typically marks, tunnel valleys, moraines and outwash
characterized by fine-grained matrix sediments (clay channels (Figs 9 & 10; Praeg 2003; Rise et al. 2004;
to silt) form strata that will have very low or no pri- Moreau 2005; Kristensen et al. 2007, 2008; Graham
mary porosity and permeability. However, in certain et al. 2010; Stewart & Lonergan 2011; Andersen
cases, when the matrix is characterized by medium et al. 2012; Buckley 2012; Kristensen & Huuse
to fine sand and coarse silt, they may form viable 2012; Müther et al. 2012; Ottesen et al. 2012;
reservoir rocks, such as in the Al Khlata Formation Stewart et al. 2012). The level of imaging is limited
(Late Palaeozoic) of Oman (Levell et al. 1988). In by the usual constraints on reflection seismic
many cases, glacially derived deposits are charac- imaging, including the size and lithological contrast
terized by lenticular, laterally discontinuous and of the original features, subsequent compaction and
vertically variable accumulations that make it very diagenetic effects, pore fluid variations, frequency
difficult to characterize and predict their occurrence content, interval velocity, velocity and density con-
and extension in the subsurface. trasts, signal-to-noise ratio, continuity of features,
and so on. Figure 11 provides a rough guide to the
imaging limitations of some common glaciogenic
Geophysical imaging of glaciogenic features in relation to their dimensions, interval vel-
reservoirs ocity, two-dimensional (2D) v. 3D imaging, and fre-
quency content of the seismic data.
Glaciogenic reservoirs have been imaged by every Specific imaging of the fluid content of glacio-
imaginable geophysical technique because of their genic reservoirs is conveniently achieved by using
vast range of ages, occurrences and content of pore electromagnetic techniques both on- and offshore,
fluid and/or aggregates. Hydrocarbon-bearing gla- as these are sensitive to salinity changes in aquifers
ciogenic deposits are most commonly imaged and hydrocarbon saturation in oil and gas reservoirs
using reflection seismic methods both onshore and (e.g. Danielsen et al. 2003; Petroleum Geo-Services
offshore, but refraction, shear-reflection and vel- 2010; Sandersen & Jørgensen 2012). Although
ocity modelling techniques have also been applied electromagnetic acquisition is efficient relative to
to unravel the fluid content and velocity effects of seismic acquisition onshore, the reverse is true off-
tunnel valleys (e.g. Armstrong et al. 2002; Pugin shore, where electromagnetic imaging is typically
et al. 2004; Eiriksson et al. 2006; Ahmad et al. 2009; only used for monitoring production or injection
Kristensen & Huuse 2012). Ground-penetrating of fluids or for derisking exploration well targets.
radar studies of eskers, push moraines and outwash The Pleistocene glacial successions offshore NW
deposits yield amazingly detailed images on an Europe often contain significant volumes of meth-
outcrop scale (Bakker & van der Meer 2003; Winse- ane that poses a risk to exploration drilling and an
mann et al. 2009). Because of the cost and impracti- impediment to seismic imaging (Armstrong et al.
calities of acquiring reflection seismic data in 2002; Eiriksson et al. 2006; Buckley 2012; Kristen-
populated onshore areas, and because of the ability sen & Huuse 2012). As the North Sea hydrocar-
of electromagnetic and electrical methods to image bon province is maturing, gas-bearing glaciogenic
resistivity changes between sands and clays and deposits are currently being viewed as potential
salinity changes in groundwater, potential field resources including, most notably, the giant Peon
and electromagnetic methods, in particular using gas reservoir hosted in glaciogenic outwash fan
airborne electromagnetic equipment, have been sandstones and sealed by diamicton (Fig. 10;
Fig. 9. Three generations of tunnel valleys and early Pleistocene iceberg scour marks seen in 3D seismic data from the UK Central North Sea. ‘Broadseis’ data courtesy of
CGGVeritas.
M. HUUSE ET AL.
Fig. 10. Top reservoir amplitude map of the c. 200 km2 Peon gas field hosted in a Pleistocene outwash fan capped
by diamicton within the distal part of the Norwegian channel cross shelf trough, northernmost North Sea. Top reservoir
is less than 200 m beneath the sea-floor. From Huuse & Huuse (2012). See Ottesen et al. 2012 (2012) and Huuse &
Huuse (2012) for seismic stratigraphic context. MegaSurvey 3D seismic data courtesy of Petroleum Geo-Services.
Petroleum Geo-Services 2010; Huuse & Huuse examples in which glacial or ‘snowball phase’ pet-
2012; Ottesen et al. 2012). In Pleistocene deposits, roleum systems are controlled by the deposition of
gas-bearing sands are easily seen as high-amplitude organic-rich shale source rocks during periods of
reflections from the interface between overlying post-glacial transgression between the Mid Cryo-
sealing rocks and the gas-bearing sands of low genian and the Early to Mid-Ediacaran (c. 750 Ma
acoustic velocity and density. In such reservoirs, to 600 Ma). There are strong similarities between
the fluid content can be readily modelled by observ- Neoproterozoic and Phanerozoic glacial systems
ing amplitude variations in both post-stack and pre- and so there are also likely to be strong similarities
stack seismic data. The converse is often true in between the nature and distribution of glaciogenic
glaciogenic reservoirs of Palaeozoic age where the reservoirs and post-glacial source rocks in these
fluid effect on the seismic amplitude response is systems. The deposition of hydrocarbon source
often minimal compared to the acoustic impedance rocks in these systems is, for example, intimately
contrast between the high-impedance reservoir and linked to climate and, in many cases, specifically
overlying sealing/source rocks. The top reservoir to periods of post-glacial marine transgression.
seismic reflection amplitude is thus often dominated Indeed, there are several areas of the world where
by thickness and concentration of organic carbon in organic-rich, Neoproterozoic black shales with
the overlying mudstones rather than fluid properties good hydrocarbon source rock characteristics are
within the reservoir. either interbedded with, and/or directly overlie,
Neoproterozoic glacial diamictites. For example, in
the Neoproterozoic ‘Sturtian’ glacial sequence in
Glaciogenic hydrocarbon systems the Saõ Francisco Basin in SE Brazil, black shales
Neoproterozoic interbedded with glacial diamictites within the
Vazante Group have a total organic carbon (TOC)
Precambrian petroleum systems, some containing content that is, locally, in excess of 3% (Olcott
giant and supergiant oil & gas fields, occur in et al. 2005, 2006; Hlebszevitsch et al. 2009). Simi-
many parts of the world, including Oman, India, larly, the melting of the Sturtian ice sheets in South
South China and SE Siberia (Craig et al. 2009; Australia resulted in deposition of an extensive
Bhat et al. 2012a). Among these, there are several blanket of shale (the Tindelipina Shale Member)
Fig. 11. Scales of glaciogenic features relative to the typical seismic resolution of Pleistocene and Palaeozoic rocks.
Assumed velocities of 1.7–2.1 km s21 for Pleistocene and 4 –6 km s21 for Palaeozoic rocks. Assumed 3D migration
and dominant frequencies c. 50 Hz for high-resolution seismic imaging of Pleistocene deposits and 20 Hz for
conventional seismic imaging of Palaeozoic rocks.
which is enriched in organic material and could North Africa (Algeria and Libya) and the Middle
form a potential source of hydrocarbons (Le Heron East (Jordan, Syria, Iraq and Saudi Arabia). The
& Craig 2012). In Namibia, where hydrocarbon extensive outcrop belt of Hirnantian strata across a
exploration is already proceeding in the intracra- 4000 km east– west swathe of North Africa has tra-
tonic Owambo Basin, foraminifera tests recovered ditionally made them amenable to outcrop-based
from the correlative Rasthof Formation also demon- studies, which have focused on the generation of
strate the presence of significant amounts of organic sedimentary models of ice sheet advance –retreat
matter within some deglacial shale successions behaviour (Le Heron & Craig 2008; Le Heron
(Bosak et al. 2012). et al. 2008, 2010). The source rocks in these areas
Three key conditions seem to be critical for include marine Ordovician black shales (e.g. the
the development of effective Neoproterozoic – Hiswa Shale of Llanvirn age in Jordan and the
Cambrian petroleum systems: (i) tectonic stability, Khabour Formation of Western Iraq; Al Ameri &
(ii) a relatively late phase of hydrocarbon generation Wicander 2008) and Early Silurian black shales
and (iii) the presence of an effective evaporite seal (e.g. the Tanzuft Shale of Libya; Lüning et al.
(Bhat et al. 2012b). These key elements are of less 2000) and the Quisaiba Shale of Saudi Arabia
importance for the development of ‘unconven- (Wender et al. 1998; Lüning et al. 2000). The Silur-
tional’ hydrocarbons, and the future prospectivity ian shales are by far the most extensive and gener-
in many Neoproterozoic petroleum systems may ally the richest of these source rocks. The Silurian
lie in the exploration for, and production of, shale shales also form the regional top-seal to the Ordovi-
gas and shale oil directly from the post-glacial ther- cian glaciogenic play. The Late Ordovician glacio-
mally mature, organic- rich source rocks. genic sandstones are charged by upward migration
from down-faulted Silurian Tannezuft shales, in
Late Ordovician some cases by downward migration from the Early
Silurian source and, possibly, also by the underly-
Late Ordovician (Hirnantian) glaciogenic sand- ing speculated Ordovician Hiswa source (Dixon
stones form important oil and gas reservoirs in et al. 2010). Giant oil and gas fields with
M. HUUSE ET AL.
Ordovician glaciogenic reservoirs include Tin published to date on the Algerian side since the
Fouye, Tabankort (Algeria), In Amenas (Algeria), landmark memoir of Beuf et al. (1971), with the
El Feel (Libya), Risha (Jordan) and Akkas (Iraq). exception of Eschard et al. (2005). Spectacular
Activities associated with exploration, appraisal, successions crop out in the Djanet –Illizi region,
development of and production from Ordovician where the Late Ordovician succession has been
glaciogenic reservoirs continue across the region. subject to some limited study (Hirst et al. 2002;
The Palaeozoic sedimentary basins of North Le Heron 2010b; Hirst 2012). Some 250 km to the
Africa and the Middle East are large, simple, rela- north, glaciogenic sequences of similar age pro-
tively unstructured intracratonic sag basins separ- duce gas and gas condensate from depths of
ated by broad, regional arches (Craig et al. 2008). 2500–3000 m in the subsurface at Tin Fouye,
Basin margins are much more complex, with abun- Tabankort (Galeazzi et al. 2010) and In Amenas
dant Neoproterozoic and intra-Palaeozoic unconfor- (Hirst 2002, 2012; Lang et al. 2012a, b). Analysis
mities (Le Heron et al. 2012b). The stratigraphic of core samples from the subsurface glaciogenic
architecture of the basin fills is also relatively sequences of the In Amenas area reveals some strik-
simple, with thick, laterally extensive, ‘sheet-like’ ing similarities with facies observed at outcrop in
Ordovician fluvial and shallow marine sandstone the Tassili N’Ajjer (Hirst 2012). The papers by
sequences, capped by the Hirnantian glaciogenic Hirst (2012) and Girard et al. (2012) both provide
sequence and separated by Early Silurian marine detailed photographic and descriptive records of
shales from thick, laterally extensive, fluvial and the Algerian Tassili N’Ajjer outcrops, which are
marine sandstone sequences of Late Silurian and remote, mostly inaccessible by road, and subject
Devonian age (Beuf et al. 1971). Significant uncon- to local security restrictions.
formities occur at several horizons on the flanks of The main value of the North African and Middle
intra-basinal ‘highs’ and at the margins of the Eastern glaciogenic outcrops to the geologists and
basinal areas, suggesting that the broad regional geophysicists working the subsurface lies in their
pattern of basins and arches established during the extremely large scale and almost complete lack of
Cambrian persisted throughout the Palaeozoic. vegetation. In this unique setting, the architecture
Palaeocurrent data suggest a regional northward of the glaciogenic system (the nature of the bound-
drainage, at least into the Late Devonian (Beuf et al. ing surfaces, detail of the internal units and the way
1971; Le Heron & Howard 2012) and this is also they vary laterally and vertically) can be mapped
the case for the Ordovician glaciogenic sequences, and logged. The outcrops provide a rich, 3D data
where a variety of palaeo-glaciological features set that is in great contrast to that available from
including striations, MSGLs and tunnel valley orien- the subsurface (typified by the data presented
tation help constrain flow directions and regional by Lang et al. (2012a, b). In the Illizi Basin of
palaeoslope (Moreau et al. 2005; Le Heron & Algeria, only the top of the Ordovician glaciogenic
Craig 2008). Important changes in the geometry of sequence can be mapped with confidence. Even
the North African basins began in the Late Devonian on the most recent, industry-standard 3D seismic
and Early Carboniferous as a result of ‘Hercynian’ data, picking the base of the glaciogenic sequence
compression and regional uplift (Dixon et al. is subjective. The base of the glaciogenic sequence
2010). In southeastern Algeria and southwestern is marked by deep valleys eroded into underlying
Libya, the Illizi Basin and southern Ghadames Cambro–Ordovician sandstones and shales (and
Basin were uplifted by 1–2 km and the northward- locally into granitic basement). These features are
tilted, Palaeozoic ‘basin fill’ was deeply eroded. The well illustrated by Hirst (2012) and Douillet et al.
eroded sediments were transported northwards by (2012). The fill of the glacial valleys varies laterally,
rivers into a large Triassic depocentre (the Berkine and probably also along their length, and the acous-
Basin in Algeria). South-facing escarpments of tic impedance contrast across the boundary varies
Lower Palaeozoic sandstone probably started to with it (of course the varying nature of the subcrop-
form at this time and persist to this day in the ping lithology is also important). The base of the
Tassili N’Ajjer of Algeria and Djebel Akakus of glacial sequence is therefore not a consistent seis-
Libya. mic pick and must be constrained by well data and
Late Ordovician glaciogenic sequences are by patterns of erosional truncation below it and by
spectacularly exposed in the Tassili N’Ajjer and onlap above it.
dip northwards at 1–28 beneath the Silurian black In the In Amenas gas field, drilling has demon-
shales. This region straddles southeastern Algeria strated that the glaciogenic sequence varies con-
and southwestern Libya. The Late Ordovician siderably in both a lateral and vertical sense (Figs
glaciogenic succession in the Libyan part of the 6 & 7). Core has proved to be the most useful data
Tassili N’Ajjer region has been studied in detail set in confirming the base of the glaciogenic
(Moreau et al. 2005; Le Heron et al. 2006; sequence and identifying its component facies, and
Moreau 2011), but comparatively little has been it is usual for the entire sequence to be completely
cored (typically between c. 100 m and 350 m per initially deemed uncommercial due to the complex
well). Core photographs are illustrated by Hirst reservoir characteristics, was subsequently devel-
(2012) and detailed sedimentological logs by both oped by Petroleum Development of Oman (PDO).
Hirst (2012) and Lang et al. (2012a, b) (Figs 6 & 7). Once the play had been proven, over 35 additional
Sedimentological analysis of the cores is the discoveries were made (such as the Nimr, Karim
key to linking the subsurface data sets with the West, Rima and Runib fields) extending into the
outcrop and this is very well illustrated by Hirst Gaba Salt Basin, with a range of oil gravities (up
(2012), who links the integrated facies analysis from to 42 API). The reservoirs are all clastic, and were
both cores and outcrops to the glaciogenic architec- deposited in a variety of depositional environ-
ture observed in the Tassili N’Ajjer. The outcrop ments, from glaciofluvial, glaciodeltaic, glaciola-
geometries may then be used with more confidence custrine turbidites, and subaqueous glaciomarine
as potential reservoir geometries for reservoir simu- fans (Levell et al. 1988, Martin et al. 2008, 2012).
lations and well planning. This theme is also dis- Several glacial advance and retreat packages can
cussed well by Douillet et al. (2012), who also be identified, and extensive diamictites provide
included a summary table presenting the typical pet- local seals. The main regional seal is within the
rophysical characteristics of the glaciogenic facies Permian Rahab Shales, the final post-glacial unit,
at outcrop. associated with eustatic rise following the ultimate
Finally, returning to the Tassili N’Ajjer, we dis- retreat of the ice sheets, or the unconformably over-
cuss the uppermost part of the glaciogenic sequence lying Cretaceous Nahr Shales. No source rocks have
and the enigmatic ‘cordon’ sandstones. First been found in the Al Khlata, or in any of the Palaeo-
described by Beuf et al. (1971), this unit comprises zoic glacial successions reported to date. These
several cross-cutting generations of sinuous chan- reservoirs have proved challenging to develop, due
nels in a finer-grained background lithology. The to the complex reservoir architecture and rapidly
finer matrix is typically deflated, leaving the more changing reservoir quality, a trait common in
resistant sandbodies standing out in bold relief glacial sediments. Traps are mainly provided by
(see satellite images in Hirst 2012; Girard et al. syndepositional salt movement (mobilization of
2012). Two alternative interpretations have been underlying Pre-Cambrian salt), producing classic
proposed for the ‘cordons’. Hirst (2002) interpreted ‘turtle structures’ related to salt dissolution and
them as channel-confined turbidites based on their withdrawal, which has also complicated the deposi-
sedimentological similarity with the underlying tional style and added a stratigraphic component to
Gres a Ride’-a sheet-like turbidite sequence and some traps. Similar salt dissolution features are also
the common occurrence of graptolites at this strati- seen in the Canning Basin of Australia, in the Grant
graphic level in the In Amenas gas field to the north Group. In Saudi Arabia, the main LPIA reservoir is
of the outcrops. New outcrop work and new core the Unayzah Formation (Melvin & Sprague 2006),
results from In Amenas that strengthen this inter- which is of comparable age to the Al Khlata.
pretation are presented by Hirst (2012). Girard et al. The main hydrocarbon-producing LPIA deposits
(2012) interpret the ‘cordons’ as fluvial channel in Australia are found in the Cooper Basin of South
plugs deposited on a subaerial outwash plain, sup- Australia. Significant gas production (in excess of
porting the original interpretation of Beuf et al. 10 Trillion Cubic Feet (TCF)) comes from the
(1971). We recommend that readers consider both Merrimelia glaciogenic succession, although most
authors’ arguments and make up their own mind reserves are housed in the overlying post-glacial
concerning the environmental setting of these fasci- fluvial sands of the Merrimelia and Tirrawara For-
nating sandbodies. mation (Williams et al. 1987). In addition to a
suite of typical glaciofluvial and glaciolacustrine
Late Palaeozoic (Permo – Carboniferous) facies, the Merimellia has notably recorded glacial
aeolianites (a facies also identified in the Unayzah
LPIA glacial sequences contain significant amounts Formation of Saudia Arabia). Most traps drilled to
of oil and gas, with proven hydrocarbon systems in date are structural features.
Australia, Bolivia, Oman, Saudi Arabia and South The fields in the Canning Basin, Western Austra-
America (Potter et al. 1995). By far the most prolific lia (such as Sundown, West Terrace, Lloyd, Blina),
hydrocarbon province is in Oman, where the Late discovered in the 1970s, are relatively small and
Carboniferous to Early Permian Al Khlata For- display a variety of characteristic glacial facies.
mation contains in excess of 4.5 billion barrels of This large intracratonic rift and sag basin contains
oil in place. Significant fields include the Marmul thick sequences of glaciofluvial and glaciodeltaic
Field, discovered in 1956, the first oil discovery in sandstones, together with subaqueous fans and
glacial facies. The Marmul reservoir in the South tunnel valley deposits, which form the main reser-
Oman Salt Basin contains heavy oil (18– 33 API voir facies (Redfern & Williams 2002; Mory et al.
(American Petroleum Institute) units), and although 2008). Traps are structural and stratigraphic, in
M. HUUSE ET AL.
some case developed by post-Permian inversion hydrocarbons found in the Unayzah reservoirs are
along pre-existing faults. The Grant Group itself believed to be sourced from the Silurian-aged
shows little or no fault control, and was developed Qusaiba Shales (a post-glacial source rock following
during the post-rift sag phase of the basin. Since the Ordovician glacial succession), and in Australia,
this initial flush of exploration success, disappoint- those in the glaciogenic reservoirs in the Canning
ing well results curtailed enthusiasm for the basin, Basin are probably sourced from the Ordovician/
and only limited exploration has been undertaken. Silurian mudstones. Major gas reserves in the Tirra-
Those wells that have been drilled on Grant Group warra sandstones of the Cooper basin are sourced
targets have either been poorly located or failed to from younger Permian coals of the Patchawarra
yield commercial hydrocarbons, most probably Formation.
due to charge or seal problems. The reservoirs are
commonly of good quality, although they may be
Late Cenozoic
heterogeneous depending on the dominant facies.
The Canning Basin has an area larger than that of Glaciogenic deposits are ubiquitous in the formerly
Texas, and has yet to yield significant volumes of glaciated lowlands and shelf areas of northern
oil or gas, but remains a tantalizing region with a Europe, Greenland, Russia and North America,
plethora of potential source, seal and reservoirs. where they often form prolific groundwater aquifers
Other basins targeted for potential LPIA glacial and aggregate resources (Ehlers & Linke 1989;
reservoirs in Australia include the offshore Bona- Huuse et al. 2003; Jørgensen & Sandersen 2006;
parte Basin, which has recorded shows but as yet Ahmad et al. 2009; Boulton et al. 2009; Cummings
no commercial fields. et al. 2012). When these deposits overlie active
In Brazil, drilling in the huge Parana Basin in the hydrocarbon basins, they may receive a hydro-
1980s discovered gas and condensate in the glacial carbon charge from deeper petroleum systems and,
sediments of the Itararae Group (Potter et al. when sealed, this charge may be retained within
1995). This suite of glacial rocks also extends into the glaciogenic succession. In offshore areas, shal-
Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina. In Brazil, the low gas accumulations have been known for as
Permo–Carboniferous Itarare Formation is up to long as petroleum exploration has been taking
1300 m thick and some small discoveries have place, and a buoyant shallow hazards sector has
been made, but most seemingly uncommercial. The been fuelled by the need to understand the risk they
facies recorded are glaciofluvial sandstones, shale pose to drilling operations (e.g. Buckley 2012),
seals and interbedded thick mud-rich diamictites. while seismic modelling efforts have been focused
Some of the sandstones are tight at depth, which on eliminating the often adverse effects of shal-
in the past reduced the prospectivity, but with low gas on deeper seismic imaging (Fig. 9; Arm-
modern drilling methods may prove to be more strong et al. 2002; Kristensen & Huuse 2012). In
attractive. Few wells have been drilled and the full mature basins, such as the North Sea, rising oil
potential remains to be tested. A number of discov- and gas prices have increasingly focused explora-
eries in Bolivia in the Sub-Andean and foothills tion towards previously uneconomical hydrocarbon
region and the Chaco-Beniana region (Potter et al. accumulations, including some that were previously
1995) produce gas from slightly older Carbonifer- considered shallow hazards, most notably the 1 TCF
ous glacial successions in quite complex structures. Peon gas field, which is hosted in a submarine gla-
Again, the reservoirs are composed mainly of sand- cial outwash fan of middle Pleistocene age (Fig.
stones, with interbedded mudstones, diamictites and 10; Petroleum Geo-Services 2010; Huuse & Huuse
shales. These discoveries, together with a number 2012; Ottesen et al. 2012). Similar shallow gas
of small fields in Argentina, are probably sourced occurrences in glaciogenic strata are currently
from Devonian and Silurian organic-rich shales. being studied for their hydrocarbon resource poten-
Other large Late Palaeozoic glacial basins that tial. Low pressures, low geotechnical integrity of
contain very thick glacial sedimentary suites, such seal and reservoir rocks, and poorly known reser-
as in the Dwyka Formation of South Africa, the voir properties are key problems for exploitation
LPIA in Antarctica or recorded in Indian and other of these accumulations.
basins in South America, are yet to provide any
discoveries.
The LPIA glacial reservoir plays mostly require Outcrop and subsurface analogues for
migration from older source rocks. There is no glaciogenic reservoirs
proven source rock in the glacial rocks, and the
thick Permo–Carboniferous glaciolacustrine and Exploring and producing subsurface hydrocarbon
glaciomarine mudstones are lean. In Oman, the iden- and/or groundwater reservoirs effectively is a chal-
tified source rocks are Precambrian marine algal lenging task as direct information about the targeted
source rocks, while in Saudi Arabia, the reservoirs is often very limited and generally
insufficient to fully represent the natural complexity Pleistocene deposits. Satellite imaging of North
of the reservoir succession. The difficulty in under- Africa further adds to the understanding of the
standing these reservoirs increases with increas- ancient glaciations in this area by showing plan-
ing level of geological heterogeneity, which, as form expressions of tunnel valleys and distributary
discussed earlier, is the key characteristic of glacio- channels, not readily observed in buried successions
genic deposits. The characterization and predic- except where high-quality 3D seismic data are
tability of any reservoirs in the subsurface, and available (Moreau 2005; Le Heron 2010a, b).
particularly those formed by glaciogenic processes,
can be assisted by the use of appropriate reservoir
analogues (Alexander 1993). Conclusions
Analogues for the reservoirs filling deeply buried
Ordovician tunnel valleys in North Africa and the † Glaciogenic deposits form prolific and geologi-
Middle East can be found in the coeval deposits cally complex reservoirs for hydrocarbons and
that crop out in the same regions (Moreau et al. groundwater and are potentially important on
2005; Douillet et al. 2012; Girard et al. 2012; all continents in rocks ranging from Neoprotero-
Hirst 2012). Studies of these outcrops aim to under- zoic to late Pleistocene.
stand the facies associations and stratigraphy, † Their occurrence in ancient successions has been
providing insight on the genetic and infill proces- key to plate tectonic reconstructions and for
ses associated with these glacial incisions (e.g. understanding the climatic evolution of the
Ghienne & Deynoux 1998; Le Heron et al. 2004; Earth through time. Pleistocene and Holocene
Moreau et al. 2005; Lang et al. 2012b). Detailed successions serve as important records of the
study of reservoir architecture from 3D seismic relatively recent past and may offer clues to the
data, large borehole data sets, integrated with out- future climatic evolution of Earth.
crop data for shallower Pleistocene tunnel valleys † Glaciogenic deposits have attracted attention
in NW Europe provide a valuable subsurface ana- from a vast community of researchers and ex-
logue for tunnel valley systems in the Palaeozoic plorers, and important lessons are being learned
(Moscariello et al. 2012; van der Vegt et al. 2012) from comparing notes and indeed from these
and aid the quantitative understanding of morpho- communities working together on problems
logical parameters, the lateral variability of the ranging from ancient and future climates to
nature of the sedimentary infill and its architecture resource exploitation.
(Cummings et al. 2012; Janszen et al. 2012a). † Glaciogenic hydrocarbon systems are often
Such studies can provide measurable parameters characterized by sand-rich glaciogenic sediments
that can be used by operators to direct their explo- deposited in both subglacial and proglacial
ration and development activities in glaciogenic environments overlain by deglacial transgres-
reservoirs. sive source and/or sealing rocks, providing
Analogues for other parts of the glaciogenic well-sealed traps for both hydrocarbons and
environments encountered in the Palaeozoic include groundwater.
over-deepened shelves, cross shelf troughs and † Prolific glaciogenic hydrocarbon systems are
trough mouth fans found along the Atlantic margin proven in the Late Ordovician/Early Silurian
of Norway (Dowdeswell et al. 2002; Sejrup et al. of North Africa and the Middle East, whereas
2003; Rise et al. 2004; Ottesen et al. 2008, 2012; Late Carboniferous –Early Permian systems are
Huuse & Huuse 2012). Controls of reservoir qual- known from the Middle East, Australia and
ity in these systems include sediment provenance, South America
sorting and depositional complexity (Fielding et al. † Glaciogenic deposits of Pleistocene age consti-
2012; van der Vegt et al. 2012) as well as syn- and tute both groundwater and hydrocarbon reser-
post-depositional deformation by glaciotectonic voirs, both on- and offshore, in Europe, Russia
processes, which can affect stratal depths up to and North America. Their significance ranges
300 m beneath the glacier bed and tens of kilometres from resources to drilling hazards and imaging
in front of the ice load (Huuse & Lykke-Andersen problems caused by gas content and anomalous
2000b; Andersen et al. 2005; Buckley 2012; Peder- geotechnical and acoustic properties.
sen 2012). † The combination of a vast research community,
Although using Pleistocene successions as ana- a multitude of economic interests and industrial
logues for ancient glaciogenic successions seems data sets constitutes a hitherto only sparsely
obvious, in some cases the detailed sedimentary exploited opportunity to enhance our under-
facies, structures and fabrics observed in indurated standing of glaciogenic processes and products
outcrops of the ancient successions can be used to through Earth history. This could be greatly
better understand the glaciogenic processes that enhanced by increased collaboration between
are hard to observe in poorly consolidated industry and academia to understand both the
M. HUUSE ET AL.
resource potential and the climatic and palaeo- for depth conversion. Geophysical Prospecting, 49,
environmental implications of glaciogenic 79–99.
successions. Arnaud, E., Halverson, G. P. & Shields-Zhou, G. A.
2011. The Geological Record of Neoproterozoic Gla-
ciations. Geological Society of London, London,
A. Moscariello and M. Huuse would like to thank the spon- Memoir, 36.
sors of the Glaciogenic Reservoir Analogue Studies Bache, F., Moreau, J., Rubino, J. L., Gorini, C. &
Project (GRASP) for their support. Co-workers who Van-Vliet Lanoë, B. 2012. The subsurface record
inspired some of the points raised herein include of the Late Palaeozoic glaciation in the Chaco Basin
J. Ehlers, P. Gibbard, H. Lykke-Andersen, J. Huuse, Bolivia. In: Huuse, M., Redfern, J., Le Heron, D.,
A. Janszen, J. Moreau and P. van der Vegt, among Dixon, R. J., Moscariello, A. & Craig, J. (eds)
others. BP and the Petroleum Group of the Geological Glaciogenic Reservoirs and Hydrocarbon Systems.
Society are thanked for supporting the reproduction of Geological Society, London, Special Publications,
colour figures in this volume. Petroleum Geo-Services 368, 257 –274. First published on May 2, 2012,
and CGGVeritas kindly provided seismic data and per- http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP368.11
mission to publish. Schlumberger Petrel licences to the Bakker, M. A. J. & van der Meer, J. J. M. 2003. Struc-
University of Manchester are gratefully acknowledged. ture of a Pleistocene push moraine revealed by
Finally, we would like to thank all the reviewers of individ- GPR; the Eastern Veluwe Ridge, the Netherlands.
ual papers in this volume and the Geological Society Pub- In: Bristow, C. S. & Jol, H. M. (eds) Ground Pene-
lishing House editorial and production team for their trating Radar in Sediments. Geological Society,
diligence and patience throughout the compilation of the London, Special Publications, 211, 143– 151.
volume. Bennett, M. R., Doyle, P. & Mather, A. E. 1996.
Dropstones: their origins and significance. Palaeogeo-
graphy, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 121,
331–339.
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Glaciogenic reservoirs and hydrocarbon systems: an introduction

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GLACIOGENIC RESERVOIRS: INTRODUCTION

*Numbers in column 1 refer to numbered locations in Figures 1 and 3.

GLACIOGENIC RESERVOIRS: INTRODUCTION

GLACIOGENIC RESERVOIRS: INTRODUCTION

GLACIOGENIC RESERVOIRS: INTRODUCTION

Mesozoic evidence in high latitude areas or areas of extreme

GLACIOGENIC RESERVOIRS: INTRODUCTION

GLACIOGENIC RESERVOIRS: INTRODUCTION

well as meltwater availability, in determining Glaciogenic deposits form thick accumulations

GLACIOGENIC RESERVOIRS: INTRODUCTION

GLACIOGENIC RESERVOIRS: INTRODUCTION

GLACIOGENIC RESERVOIRS: INTRODUCTION

GLACIOGENIC RESERVOIRS: INTRODUCTION

GLACIOGENIC RESERVOIRS: INTRODUCTION

GLACIOGENIC RESERVOIRS: INTRODUCTION

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