258 H

'1 :r"--<a"‘_ 5-’

i he significance of igneous activity may not be obvious at first glance. However, because
volcanoes extrude molten rock that formed at great depth, they provide the only windows
we have for direct observation of processes that occur many kilometers below Earth’s surface.
Furthermore, the atmosphere and oceans are thought to have evolved from gases emitted during
; volcanic eruptions. Either of these facts is reason enough for igneous activity to warrant our attention.

FOCUS om CONCEPTS
To assist you in learning the important concepts in this chapter, focus on the following questions:
® What primary factors determine the nature of volcanic eruptions? How do these factors affect a magma’s
viscosity?
l
é What materials are associated with a volcanic eruption?
e What are the eruptive patterns and basic characteristics of the three types of volcanoes generally recognized
by volcanologists?
® What destructive forces are associated with composite volcanoes?
® How do calderas form?
Q What is the source of magma for flood basalts?
. ® In what ways can magma be generated from solid rock?
§ What is meant by partial melting?
® What is the relation between volcanic activity and plate tectonics?
% What changes in a volcanic landscape can be monitored to detect the movement of magma?

Mount St. Helens carried around Earth by strong upper-air winds. Measurable
deposits were reported in Oklahoma and Minnesota, with crop
Versus Kilauea damage into central Montana. Meanwhile, ash fallout in the
immediate vicinity exceeded 2 meters in depth. The air over
On Sunday, May 18, 1980, the largest volcanic eruption to occur in
North America in historic times transformed a picturesque volcano
into a decapitated remnant On this date in south-
western Washington State, Mount St. Helens erupted with tremen-
dous force. The blast blew out the entire north flank of the volcano, Students Sometimes Ask. ..
leaving a gaping hole. In one brief moment, a prominent volcano After all the destruction during the eruption of Mount St.
whose summit had been more than 2,900 meters (9,500 feet) above
Helens, what does the area look like today?
sea level was lowered by more than 400 meters (1,350 feet).
The event devastated a wide swath of timber-rich land on The area continues to make forming inside the summit
the north side of the mountain Trees within a 400- a slow recovery. Surprisingly, crater, suggesting that the
square-kilometer area lay intertwined and flattened, stripped many organisms survived the mountain will build up again.
of their branches and appearing from the air like toothpicks blast, including animals that live Many volcanoes similar to
strewn about. The accompanying mudflows carried ash, trees, underground and plants (partic- Mount St. Helens exhibit this
and water-saturated rock debris 29 kilometers [18 miles) down ularly those protected by snow behavior: rapid destruction
the Toutle River. The eruption claimed 59 lives, some dying from or near streams, where erosion followed by slow rebuilding.
the intense heat and the suffocating cloud of ash and gases, oth- quickly removed the ash). More If you really want to see what
ers from being hurled by the blast, and still others from entrap- than 30 years after the blast, it looks like, go to the Mount
ment in the mudflows. plants have revegetated the St. Helens National Volcanic
The eruption ejected nearly a cubic kilometer of ash and area, first-growth forests are home page at http://www
rock debris. Following the devastating explosion, Mount St. beginning to be established, and .fs.fed.us/gpnf/mshnvm/,
Helens continued to emit great quantities of hot gases and ash. many animals have returned. where they have a “volcanoca1n"
The force of the blast was so strong that some ash was propelled The volcano itself is rebuild- with real-time images of the
more than 18,000 meters (over ll miles) into the stratosphere. ing, too. A large lava dome is mountain.
During the next few days, this very fine- grained material was
 The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions Z59

'T

_r§4 -
v_

I_t{<J
'
‘Z

FIGURE 9.1 Before-and-after photographs

show the transformation of Mount
St. Helens caused by the May 18, 1980,
eruption. (Photo courtesy of U.S. Geological
Survey)

Yakima, Washington (130 kilometers to the east), was so filled with

ash that residents experienced midnightlike darkness at noon.
Not all volcanic eruptions are as violent as the 1980 Mount St.
Helens event. Some volcanoes, such as Hawaii’s Kilauea volcano,
generate relatively quiet outpourings offluid lavas. These “gentle”
eruptions are not without some fiery displays; occasionally foun-
tains of incandescent lava spray hundreds of meters into the air.
Nevertheless, during Kilauea’s most recent active phase, which
began in 1983, more than 180 homes and a national park visitor
center were destroyed.
Testimony to the “quiet nature” of Kilauea’s eruptions is the
fact that the Hawaiian Volcanoes Observatory has operated on its
summit since 1912. This, despite the fact that Kilauea has had
more than 50 eruptive phases since record keeping began in 1823.
CONCEPT cnscrc 9.1
0 Briefly compare the May 18, 1980, eruption of Mount
St. Helens to a typical eruption of Hawaii's Kilauea volcano.
The Nature of Volcanic
Eruptions
Forces Within
> Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity
‘gm ->"Tm DI. IT!
Volcanic activity is commonly perceived as a process that pro-
duces a picturesque, cone-shaped structure that periodically
erupts in a violent manner, like Mount St. Helens. Although some
eruptions may be very explosive, many are not. What determines
whether a volcano extrudes magma violently or “gently”? The
primary factors include the magmas composition, its temperature,
and the amount of dissolved gases it contains. To varying degrees,
these factors affect the magma’s mobility, or viscosity
(uiscos = sticky). The more viscous the material, the greater its
resistance to flow. For example, compare syrup to water—syrup is
more viscous and thus, more resistant to flow, than water. Magma
associated with an explosive eruption may be five times more
viscous than magma that is extruded in a quiescent manner.
 A magma's viscosity is directly related to its sil-
ica content— the more silica in magma, the greater
its viscosity. Silica impedes the flow of magma
because silicate structures start to link together
into long chains early in the crystallization
"3. -.-

process. Consequently, rhyolitic(fe1sic) lavas are

very viscous and tend to form comparatively short,
thick flows. By contrast, basaltic lavas which con-
tain less silica are relatively fluid and have been
known to travel 150 kilometers (90 miles) or more
before congealing.
The amount ofvolatiles (the gaseous compo-
nents of magma, mainly water) contained in
magma also affects its mobility. Other factors
being equal, water dissolved in the magma tends
to increase fluidity because it reduces polymer-
ization (formation of long silicate chains) by
breaking silicon-oxygen bonds. It follows, there-
fore, that the loss of gases renders magma (lava)
more viscous.

Why Do Volcanoes Erupt?

IPEGURE 9.2 Douglas fir trees were snapped off or uprooted by the
lateral blast of Mount St. Helens on May 18, 1980. (Large photo by Lyn
Topinka/AP Photo/U.S. Geological Survey; inset photo by John M. Burnley/Photo
Researchers, Inc.)
Factors Affecting Viscosity
The effect of temperature on viscosity is easily seen. Just as heat-
ing syrup makes it more fluid (less viscous), the mobility of lava
is strongly influenced by temperature. As lava cools and begins
to congeal, its mobility decreases and eventually the flow halts.
Another significant factor influencing volcanic behavior is the
chemical composition of the magma. Recall that a major differ-
ence among various igneous rocks is their silica (SiO2) content
(Table 9.1). Magmas that produce mafic rocks such as basalt con-
tain about 50 percent silica, whereas magmas that produce felsic
rocks (granite and its extrusive equivalent, rhyolite) contain more
than '70 percent silica. Intermediate rock types—andesite and
diorite——contain about 60 percent silica.
Most magma is generated by partial melting in the
upper mantle to form molten material having a
basaltic composition. Once formed, the buoyant
molten rockwill rise toward the surface (Figure 9.3).
Because the density of crustal rocks decreases the closer they are to
the surface, ascending basaltic magma may reach a level where the
rocks above are less dense. Should this occur, the molten material
begins to collect or pond, forming a magma chamber. As the
magma body cools, minerals having high melting temperatures
crystallize first, leaving the remaining melt enriched in silica and
other less dense components. Some of this molten material may
ascend to the surface to produce a volcanic eruption. In most tec-
tonic settings, only a fraction of magma generated at depth ever
reaches the surface.
Triggering Hawaiian-Type Eruptions Eruptions that
involve very fluid basaltic magmas are often triggered by the
arrival of a new batch of melt into a near-surface magma reser-
voir. This can be detected because the summit of the volcano
begins to inflate months, or even years, before an eruption
begins. The injection of a fresh supply of melt causes the magma
chamber to swell and fracture the rock above. This, in turn, mobi-
lizes the magma, which quickly moves upward along the newly

TABLE 9.1 Magmas’ Different Compositions Cause Properties to Vary

Composition Silica Content Viscosity Gas Content Tendency to Form Pyroclastics Volcanic Landform
Basaltic (Mafic) Least (~ 50%) Least Least (1—2 %) Least Shield Volcanoes
Basalt Plateaus
ii Cinder Cones _A_
Andesitic (Intermediate) Intermediate (~6[)%) Intermediate Intermediate (3—4%) Intermediate Composite Cones
Rhyolitic (Felsic) Meet (~70%) Greatest Most (4-6 %) Greatest Pyroclastic Flows
Volcanic Domes

260
 The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions Z61

Atmosphere buoyant plumes called eruption columns that extend thousands

I .§__
Q ettr. .. _“_%m‘ .. -.-.-r ‘P-1-
Of meters into the atmosphere it Because of its high vis-
-O l 7* if t * '§ ' . ‘-i ‘.1; t" '
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cosity, a significant portion of the volatiles remain dissolved until
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;'_-.:_; "- ' '> -'.
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the magma reaches a shallow depth, where tiny bubbles begin to
- »_'~.~‘
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._ - . r . -’.-1 1-__ .. >,
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:?-1' _~_ 'i’,.-l-Z‘TT.__**T"'I“"J'-"
' " 7 ' -_ ‘-~-_ '.»_ 1 '. 71‘ §-~r:;:.'.T .-,"- ' _'._
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ration of gases from the melt and expansion ofbubbles as the con-
‘ _ - ;._ 71%-Y
*1.-Q0;
l chamber, . -i fining pressure drops. Should the pressure of the expanding
magma body exceed the strength of the overlying rock, fracturing
occurs. As magma moves up the fractures, a further drop in con-
. it . . fining pressure causes more gas bubbles to form and grow. This
it chain reaction may generate an explosive event in which magma
is literally blown into fragments (ash and pumice) that are carried
to great heights by the hot expanding gases. (As exemplified by the

iii:
-3.i/1 Fluid basaltic lava erupting from Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii.
(Photo by Douglas Peebles/Photolibrary)

9.3 Schematic drawing showing the movement of magma

from its source in the upper asthenosphere through the continental
crust. During its ascent, mantle-derived basaltic magma evolves
through the process of magmatic differentiation and by melting
and incorporating continental crust. Magmas that feed volcanoes
in a continental setting tend to be silica-rich (viscous) and have
a high gas content.

{*1

formed openings, often generating outpourings oflava for weeks,

months, or even years.

The Role of Volatiles in Explosive Eruptions All magmas

contain some water and other volatiles that are held in solution
by the immense pressure of the overlying rock. Volatiles tend to
be most abundant near the tops of magma reservoirs containing
silica-rich melts. When magma rises (or the rocks confining the
magma fail) a reduction in pressure occurs and the dissolved
gases begin to separate from the melt, forming tiny bubbles. This
is analogous to opening a warm soda and allowing the carbon
dioxide bubbles to escape.
When fluid basaltic magmas erupt, the pressurized gases
escape with relative ease. At temperatures of 1000° C and low
near-surface pressures, these gases can quickly expand to occupy
hundreds of times their original volumes. On some occasions,
these expanding gases propel incandescent lava hundreds of
meters into the air, producing lava fountains n.<>i).
Although spectacular, these fountains are mostly harmless and
not generally associated with major explosive events that cause
great loss of life and property.
At the other extreme, highly viscous, silica-rich magmas may
produce explosive clouds of hot ash and gases that evolve into
Z62 CHAPTER 9 Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity

1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, the collapse of a volcano’s

flank can also trigger an energetic explosive eruption.) -'29

When magma in the uppermost portion of the magma

chamber is forcefully ejected by the escaping gases, the con-
fining pressure on the molten rock directly below drops sud-
denly. Thus, rather than a single “bang,” volcanic eruptions are
really a series of explosions. This process might logically con-
tinue until the entire magma chamber is emptied, much like a
geyser empties itself of water (see Chapter 5). However, this is
generally not the case. It is typically only the magma in the
upper part of a magma chamber that has a sufficiently high
gas content to trigger a steam- and- ash explosion.
To surnmarize, the viscosity of magma, plus the quantity of
dissolved gases and the ease with which they can escape,
largely determine the nature of a volcanic eruption. In general,
hot basaltic magmas contain a smaller gaseous component
and permit these gases to escape with relative ease as com-
pared to more silica-rich magmas. This explains the contrast :1
V e _?=‘:=_-.-.-<

between “gentle” outflows of fluid basaltic lavas in Hawaii and

the explosive and sometimes catastrophic eruptions ofviscous
lavas from volcanoes such as Mount St. Helens (1980), Mount
Pinatubo in the Philippines (1991), and Soufriere Hills on the
island of Montserrat (1995). -p~

CONCEPT cnscrc 9.2

Q List three factors that determine the nature of a
volcanic eruption. What role does each play?
Q Generally, what triggers a Hawaiian-type
eruption?
Q The eruption of what type of magma may
produce an eruption column?
Q Why is a volcano fed by highly viscous magma
likely to be a greater threat to life and property are Steam and ash eruption column from Mount Augustine,
than a volcano supplied with very fluid COOK Inlet, Alaska. (Photo by Steve Kaufman/Peter Arnold, Inc.)
magma?

Hawaii, these lavas have been clocked at 30 kilometers (19 miles)

Materials Extruded During
an Eruption
Forces Within
> Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity
fie ->mmZ-1O1I11
Volcanoes extrude lava, large volumes of gas, and pyroclastic
materials (broken rock, lava “bombs,” fine ash, and dust). In this
section we examine each of these materials.
Lava Flows
The vast majority of lava on Earth, more than 90 percent of the
total volume, is estimated to be basaltic in composition. Andesites
and other lavas of intermediate composition account for most of
the rest, while rhyolitic (felsic) flows make up as little as 1 percent
of the total.
Hot basaltic lavas, which are usually very fluid, generally flow
in thin, broad sheets or streamlike ribbons. On the island of
per hour down steep slopes. However, flow rates of 10-300 meters
(30-1,000 feet) per hour are more common. By contrast, the move-
ment of silica-rich, rhyolitic lava may be too slow to perceive. Fur-
thermore, most rhyolitic lavas seldom travel more than a few
kilometers from their vents. As you might expect, andesitic lavas,
which are intermediate in composition, exhibit characteristics
that are between the extremes.
Aa and Pahoehoe Flows Two types of lava flows are known by
their Hawaiian names. The most common of these, aa (pro-
nounced ah-ah) flows, have surfaces of rough jagged blocks with
dangerously sharp edges and spiny projections (ifitttirs ti.ii.i-i).
Crossing an aa flow can be a trying and miserable experience. By
contrast, pahoehoe (pronounced pah-hoy-hoy) flows exhibit
smooth surfaces that often resemble the twisted braids of ropes
(Figure 9.6B). Pahoehoe means “on which one can walk.”
Aa and pahoehoe lavas can erupt from the same vent. How-
ever, pahoehoe lavas form at higher temperatures and are more
fluid than aa flows. In addition, a pahoehoe lava flow can change
 Materials Extruded During an Eruption Z63

&_

é A. B.

9.6 Lava flows A. A typical slow-moving, basaltic, aa flow. B. A typical fluid pahoehoe (ropy) lava. Both of these lava flows erupted
from a rift OI1 the flank Of Hawaii's Kilauea Volcano. (Photo A by J. D. Griggs, U.S. Geological Survey; photo B by Philip Rosenberg/Photolibrary)

into an aa lava flow, although the reverse (aa to pahoehoe) does The composition ofvolcanic gases is important because they
not occur. contribute significantly to our planet’s atmosphere. Analyses of
samples taken during Hawaiian eruptions indicate that the gas
Lava Tubes Hardened basaltic flows commonly contain component is about 70 percent water vapor, 15 percent carbon
cave-like tunnels called lava tubes that were once conduits car- dioxide, 5 percent nitrogen, and 5 percent sulfur dioxide, with
rying lava from the volcanic vent to the flow’s leading edge lesser amounts of chlorine, hydrogen, and argon. (The relative
(Figure av). These conduits develop in the interior of a flow proportion of each gas varies significantly from one volcanic
where temperatures remain high long after the
surface hardens. Lava tubes are important fea-
tures because they serve as insulated pathways ‘E’.-.t't}il=i.‘i 9.‘? Lava flows often develop a solid crust while the molten lava below
that facilitate the advance of lava great dis- continues to advance in conduits called lava tubes. View of an active lava tube as seen
through the collapsed IOOI. (Photo by G. Brad Lewis/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.)
tances from its source.

Gases
Magmas contain varying amounts of dissolved
gases (volatiles) held in the molten rock by con-
fining pressure, just as carbon dioxide is held in
cans and bottles of soft drinks. As with soft
drinks, as soon as the pressure is reduced, the
gases begin to escape. Obtaining gas samples
from an erupting volcano is difficult and dan-
gerous, so geologists usually must estimate the
amount of gas originally contained within the
magma.
The gaseous portion of most magmas makes
up from 1 to 6 percent of the total weight, with
most ofthis in the form ofwater vapor. Although
the percentage may be small, the actual quan-
tity of emitted gas can exceed thousands of tons
per day. Occasionally, eruptions emit colossal
amounts ofvolcanic gases that rise high into the
atmosphere, where they may reside for several
years. Some of these eruptions may have an
impact on Earth’s climate, a topic we consider
later in this chapter.
Z64 CHAPTER 9 Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity

region to another.) Sulfur compounds are easily recognized by

their pungent odor. Volcanoes are also natural sources of air
pollution—some emit large quantities of sulfur dioxide, which
readily combines with atmospheric gases to form sulfuric acid
and other sulfate compounds. i 0 so
‘

Pyroclastic Materials
1./Vhen volcanoes erupt energetically they eject pulverized rock,
lava, and glass fragments from the vent. The particles produced
are referred to as pyroclastic materials (pyro = fire, clast =
fragment). These fragments range in size from very fine dust and
sand-sized volcanic ash (less than 2 millimeters) to pieces that
weigh several tons
Ash and dust particles are produced when gas-rich viscous
magma erupts explosively (Figure 9.8A). As magma moves up in
the vent, the gases rapidly expand, generating a melt that resem-
bles the froth that flows from a bottle of champagne. As the hot
gases exp and explosively, the froth is blown into very fine glassy
fragments. Vtlhen the hot ash falls, the glassy shards often fuse to
form a rock called welded tuff Sheets of this material, as well as
ash deposits that later consolidate, cover vast portions of the
western United States. B.-. .
Somewhat larger pyroclasts that range in size from small ET? 7 'T:~I3_- --
-=1»
vii;-I‘,
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beads to walnuts are known as lapilli (“little stones”). These ejecta '|

are commonly called cinders (2-64 millimeters). Particles larger ;

3

than 64 millimeters (2.5 inches) in diameter are called blocks

when they are made of hardened lava and bombs when they are
ejected as incandescent lava (Figure 9.8B and C). Because bombs
are semimolten upon ejection, they often take on a streamlined
shape as they hurtle through the air 1;.Because of their
size, bombs and blocks usually fall near the vent; however, they
are occasionally propelled great distances. For instance, bombs
J
6 meters (20 feet) long and weighing about 200 tons were blown
600 meters (2,000 feet) from the vent during an eruption of the Pyroclastic materials. A. Volcanic ash and small pumice
Japanese volcano Asama. fragments (lapilli) that erupted from Mount St. Helens in 1980. Inset
So far we have distinguished various pyroclastic materials photo is an image obtained using a scanning electron microscope
(SEM). This vesicular ash particle exhibits a glassy texture and is
based largely on the size of the fragments. Some materials are also
roughly the diameter of a human hair. B. Volcanic block. Volcanic
identified by their texture and composition. In particular, scoria blocks are solid fragments that were ejected from a volcano during an
is the name applied to vesicular ejecta that is a product of basaltic explosive eruption. C. These basaltic bombs were erupted by Hawaii's
magma ( as). These black to reddish-brown fragments Manna Kea Volcano. Volcanic bombs are blobs of lava that are ejected
are generally found in the size range of lapilli and resemble cin- while still molten and often acquire rounded, aerodynamic shapes as
they travel through the air. (Photos courtesy of U.S. Geological Survey)
ders and clinlcers produced by furnaces used to smelt iron. When
magmas with intermediate (andesitic) or felsic (rhyolitic) com-
positions erupt explosively, they emit ash and the vesicular rock
pumice (Figure 9.10B). Pumice is usually lighter in color and less
dense than scoria, and many pumice fragments have so many Volcanic Structures
vesicles that they are light enough to float. and Eruptive Styles
Forces Within
P Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity
CONCEPT cnrzcx 9.3 ‘gm ->mmZ-1OIffl
Q Describe pahoehoe and aa lava flows. The popular image of a volcano is that of a solitary, graceful,
Q How do lava tubes form?
snowcapped cone, such as Mount Hood in Oregon or Iapan’s
Q List the main gases released during a volcanic eruption.
Fujiyama. These picturesque, conical mountains are produced
What role do gases play in eruptions?
Q How do volcanic bombs differ from blocks of pyro clastic debris? by volcanic activity that occurred intermittently over thousands,
Q What is scoria? How is scoria different from pumice? or even hundreds of thousands, of years. However, many volca-
noes do not fit this image. Cinder cones are quite small and form
 Volcanic Structures and Eruptive Styles Z65

.4‘.

A. Scoria

_ ‘I
1-a _..“ 43!)»

B. Pumice
FIGIJRE 9.10 Scoria and pumice are volcanic rocks that exhibit a
vesicular texture. Vesicles are small holes left by escaping gas
bubbles. A. Scoria is usually a product of mafic (basaltic) magma.
B. Pumice forms during explosive eruptions of viscous magmas
having an intermediate (andesitic) or felsic (rhyolitic) composition.
(Photos by E. J. Tarbuck)

conduit, or pipe, that terminates at a surface opening called a vent

FIGtiB1ii 9.9 Volcanic bombs forming during an eruption of Hawaii's
Kilauea Volcano. Ejected lava masses take on a streamlined shape as
they sail through the air. The bomb in the insert is about 10 centimeters
lO11g. (Photo by Arthur Roy/National Audubon Society; inset photo by E. J. Tarbuck)
during a single eruptive phase that lasts a few days to a few years.
Other volcanic landforms are not volcanoes at all. For example,
Alaska’s Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes is a flat-topped deposit
consisting of 15 cubic kilometers of ash that erupted in less than
60 hours and blanketed a section of river valley to a depth of
200 meters (600 feet).
Volcanic landforms come in a wide vari-
ety of shapes and sizes, and each structure has
a unique eruptive history. Nevertheless, vol-
(Figure 9.11). Successive eruptions oflava, pyroclastic material, or
frequently a combination of both, often separated by long periods
of inactivity, eventually build the cone-shaped structure we call a
volcano.
Located at the summit of most volcanoes is a somewhat
ftmnel-shaped depression, called a crater (crater = a bowl). Vol-
canoes that are built primarily of pyroclastic materials typically
have craters that form by gradual accumulation ofvolcanic debris
on the surrounding rim. Other craters form during explosive erup-
tions as the rapidly ejected particles erode the crater walls. Craters
also form when the summit area of a volcano collapses following
an eruption (F‘i;gure s.";tf.F:). Some volcanoes have very large circular
'i2%‘.t€;§ilBiEi Anatomy of a "typical" composite cone (see also
Figures 9.13 and 9.16) for a comparison with a shield and cinder
cone, respectively).
,, .¢§<,-." "

,%.§
canologists have been able to classify volcanic
landforms and determine their eruptive pat- Bombs iv I;
terns. In this section we consider the general
Vent
anatomy of a volcano and look at three major Cfatef -' ’ 1 D a
volcanic types: shield volcanoes, cinder Lava~</tr Cone 2
cones, and composite cones.
Pyroclastic
» material
Anatomy of a Volcano
4:

Volcanic activity frequently begins when a fis- .

»-. g r ____h
:~_-.

. ..__ -~.--
sure (crack) develops in the crust as magma
moves forcefully toward the surface. As the gas-
rich magma moves up through a fissure, its Condult . __H _ A
path is usually localized into a circular (Pipe) “
266 CHAPTER 9 Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity
FIGURE 9.12. Crater versus caldera. A. The crater of Mount Vesuvius,
Italy, is about 0.5 kilometers in diameter. The city of Naples is located
northwest of Vesuvius, whereas Pompeii, the Roman town that was
buried by an eruption in A.D. 79, is located southeast of the volcano.
B. The huge caldera—6 kilometers in diameter-—formed when
Tambora's peak was removed during an explosive eruption in 1815.
(Photos courtesy of NASA)
depressions called calderas that have diameters greater than
one kilometer and in rare cases can exceed 50 kilometers. We
consider the formation of various types of calderas later in this
chapter.
FIGURE 9.13 Shield volcanoes. A. Shield volcanoes are built primarily of fluid basaltic lava flows and exhibit the shape of a broad, slightly
dome-shaped structure that resembles a warrior‘s shield. B. Mauna Loa is one of five shield volcanoes that collectively make up the island of
Hawaii. (Photo by Greg Vaughn/Alamy)
Shield Volcanoes
Shield volcanoes are produced by the accumulation of fluid
basaltic lavas and exhibit the shape of a broad, slightly domed
structure that resembles a Warrior's shield (Figure 9.13). Most
shield volcanoes begin on the ocean floor as seamounts, a few of
which grow large enough to form volcanic islands. In fact, with
the exception ofthe volcanic islands that form above subduction
zones, most other oceanic islands are either a single shield vol-
cano, or more often, the coalescence of two or
more shields built upon massive amounts of pil-
low lavas. Examples include the Canary Islands,
the Hawaiian Islands, the Galapagos, and Easter
Island. In addition, some shield volcanoes form
on continental crust. Included in this group are
several volcanic structures located in East Africa.
Mauna Loa: A Classic Shield Volcano Exten-
sive study of the Hawaiian Islands confirms that
they are constructed ofmyriad thin basaltic lava
flows averaging a few meters thick intermixed
with relatively minor amounts of pyroclastic
ejecta. Mauna Loa is one of five overlapping
shield volcanoes that together comprise the Big Island of
Hawaii (Figure 9.13).From its base on the floor of the Pacific
Ocean to its summit, Mauna Loa is over 9 kilometers (6 miles)
high, exceeding the height of Mount Everest. This massive pile
of basaltic rock has a volume of 80,000 cubic kilometers that
was extruded over a span of about one million years. The vol-
ume of material composing Mauna Loa is roughly 200 times
greater than the amount composing a large composite cone
such as Mount Rainier (Figure 9.14). Although the shield vol-
canoes that comprise islands are often quite large, some are
more modest in size. In addition, an estimated one million

Shield volcano
Mauna Loa, Hawaii defa
NE-SW profile
A.
Composite cone _ 4 km
Crater Mt Rainier,“/aghington Crater Clnder cone
" NW-SE profile L fivgset gfiraler. Arizona
B C “ pro ' 8
t<E~.‘.i=.»'2i Profiles comparing scales of different volcanoes.
A. Profile of Mauna Loa, Hawaii, the largest shield volcano in the
Hawaiian chain. Note size comparison with Mount Rainier,
Washington, a large composite cone. B. Profile of Mount Rainier,
Washington. Note how it dwarfs a typical cinder cone. C. Profile of
Sunset Crater, Arizona, a typical steep-sided cinder cone.
basaltic submarine volcanoes (seamounts) of various sizes dot
the ocean floor.
The flanks of Mauna Loa have gentle slopes of only a few
degrees. The low angle results because very hot, fluid lava travels
“fast and far” from the vent. In addition, most of the lava (per-
haps 80 percent) flows through a well-developed system of lava
tubes (see Figure 9.7). This greatly increases the distance lava can
travel before it solidifies. Thus, lava emitted near the summit often
reaches the sea, thereby adding to the width of the cone at the
expense of its height.
Another feature common in many active shield volcanoes is
a large, steep-walled caldera that occupies the summit. Calderas
on large shield volcanoes form when the roof above the magma
chamber collapses. This usually occurs as the magma reservoir
empties following a large eruption, or as magma migrates to the
flank of a volcano to feed a fissure eruption.
In the final stage of growth, shield volcanoes are more spo-
radic and pyroclastic ejections are more common. Furthermore,
lavas increase in viscosity, resulting in thicker, shorter flows.
These eruptions tend to steepen the slope of the summit area,
which often becomes capped with clusters of cinder cones. This
may explain why Mauna Kea, which is a more mature volcano
Flitifiillti Lava "curtain" extruded along the East Rift Zone, Kilauea, Hawaii. (Photo by Greg Vaughn/Alamy)
Volcanic Structures and Eruptive Styles Z67
that has not erupted in historic times, has
a steeper summit than Mauna Loa,
which erupted as recently as 1984.
20k Astronomers are so certain that
% m Mauna Kea is “over the hill” that they
have built an elaborate observatory on
its summit, housing some of the world’s finest (and most
expensive) telescopes.
Kilauea, Hawaii: Eruption of a Shield Volcano Kilauea, the
most active and intensely studied shield volcano in the world, is
located on the island of Hawaii in the shadow of Mauna Loa. More
than 50 eruptions have been witnessed here since record keeping
began in 1823. Several months before each eruptive phase,
Kilauea inflates as magma gradually migrates upward and accu-
mulates in a central reservoir located a few kilometers below the
summit. For up to 24 hours in advance of an eruption, swarms of
small earthquakes warn of the impending activity.
Most of the recent activity on Kilauea has occurred along the
flanks of the volcano in a region called the East Rift Zone. A rift
eruption here in 1960 engulfed the coastal village of Kapoho,
located nearly 30 kilometers (20 miles) from the source. The
longest and largest rift eruption ever recorded on Kilauea began
in 1983 and continues to this day, with no signs of abating.
The first discharge began along a 6-kilometer (4-mile) fissure
where a 100-meter (300-foot) high “curtain of fire” formed as red-
hot lava was ejected skyward (fB’igtt_t’a When the activity
became localized, a cinder and spatter cone, given the Hawai-
ian name Purl O0, was built. Over the next 3 years the general
eruptive pattern consisted of short periods (hours to days) when
fountains of gas-rich lava sprayed skyward. Each event was fol-
lowed by nearly a month of inactivity.
By the summer of 1986 a new vent opened 3 kilometers down-
rift. Here smooth-surfaced pahoehoe lava formed a lava lake.
Occasionally the lake overflowed, but more often lava escaped
through tunnels to feed flows that moved down the southeastern
flank of the volcano toward the sea. These flows destroyed nearly
Z68 CHAPTER 9 Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity
a hundred rural homes, covered a major roadway, and eventu-
ally reached the sea. Lava has been intermittently pouring into
the ocean ever since, adding new land to the island of Hawaii.
Cinder Cones
As the name suggests, cinder cones (also called scoria cones)
are built from ejected lava fragments that take on the appearance
of cinders or clinkers as they begin to harden in flight (see
Figure 9.9). These pyroclastic fragments range in size from fine
ash to bombs that may exceed a meter in diameter. However, most
of the volume of a cinder cone consists of pea- to walnut-sized
lapilli that are markedly vesicular and have a black to reddish-
brown color. Although cinder cones are composed mostly ofloose
pyroclastic material, they sometimes extrude lava. On such occa-
sions the discharges most often come from vents located at or
near the base rather than from the summit crater.
Cinder cones have very simple, distinctive shapes determined
by the slope that loose pyroclastic material maintains as it comes
to rest (Figure 9.16). Because cinders have a high angle of repose
(the steepest angle at which material remains stable), cinder
cones are steep-sided, having slopes between 30 and 40 degrees.
In addition, cinder cones have large, deep craters in relation to
the overall size of the structure. Although relatively symmetrical,
many cinder cones are elongated, and higher on the side that was
downwind during the eruptions.
Most cinder cones are produced by a single, short-lived
eruptive event. One study found that half of all cinder cones
examined were constructed in less than one month, and that
95 percent formed in less than one year. However, in some
cases, they remain active for several years. Once the event
FIGURE 9.16 SP Crater, a cinder cone located in the San Francisco Peaks volcanic field north of Flagstaff, Arizona. Cinder cones are built
from ejected lava fragments (mostly cinders and bombs) and are usually less than 300 meters (1,000 feet) in height. The lava flow
originated from the base of the cinder cone. (Photo by Michael Collier)
ceases, the magma in the “plumbing” connecting the vent to
X .
the magma source solidifies and the volcano usually does not I
erupt again. (One exception is Cerro Negro, a cinder cone in
Nicaragua, which has erupted more than 20 times since it
formed in 1850.) As a consequence of this short life span, cin-
der cones are small, usually between 30 meters (100 feet) and
300 meters (1,000 feet). A few rare examples exceed 700 meters
(2,100 feet) in height.
Cinder cones number in the thousands around the globe.
Some occur in volcanic fields such as the one near Flagstaff, Ari-
zona, which consists of about 600 cones. Others are parasitic
cones that are found on the flanks of larger volcanoes.
Paricutin: Life of a Garden-Variety Cinder Cone One of
the very few volcanoes studied by geologists from its very begin-
ning is the cinder cone called Paricutin, located about 320 kilo-
meters (200 miles) west of Mexico City. In 1943 its eruptive phase
began in a cornfield owned by Dionisio Pulido, who witnessed
the event as he prepared the field for planting.
For 2 weeks prior to the first eruption, numerous Earth
tremors caused apprehension in the nearby village of Paricutin.
Then, on February 20, sulfurous gases began billowing from a
small depression that had been in the cornfield for as long as
people could remember. During the night, hot, glowing rock
fragments were ejected from the vent, producing a spectacular
fireworks display. Explosive discharges continued, throwing
hot fragments and ash occasionally as high as 6,000 meters
(20,000 feet) into the air. Larger fragments fell near the crater,
some remaining incandescent as they rolled down the slope.
These built an aesthetically pleasing cone, while finer ash fell over
a much larger area, binning and eventually covering the village of
s.. . f~
. *f-55“
@933 -: - .‘.
B"
r=.I-=i.ir.':»a-M£;;i%"g..,_
' €
/Org
Pyroclastic
material
Central vent filled
with rock fragments

The village of San Juan Parangaricutiro engulfed by aa
lava from Paricutin. Only the church towers remain. (Photo by Michael
Collier)
Paricutin. In the first day the cone grew to 40 meters (130 feet),
and by the fifth day it was more than 100 meters (330 feet) high.
The first lava flow came from a fissure that opened just north of
the cone, but after a few months flows began to emerge from the
base of the cone itself. In lune 1944, a clinkery aa flow 10 meters
(30 feet) thick moved over much ofthe village of San luan Parangar-
icutiro, leaving only the church steeple exposed After
9 years of intermittent pyroclastic explosions and nearly continu-
ous discharge of lava from vents at its base, the activity ceased
almost as quickly as it had begun. Today, Paricutin is just another
one of the scores of cinder cones dotting the landscape in this
region of Mexico. Like the others, it will not erupt again.
Composite Cones
Earth’s most picturesque yet potentially dangerous volcanoes are
composite cones or stratovolcanoes. Most are located in a rela-
tively narrow zone that rims the Pacific Ocean, appropriately
called the Ring 0fFire (see Figure 9.35). This active zone consists
of a chain of continental volcanoes that are distributed along the
west coast of the Americas, including the large cones of the Andes
in South America and the Cascade Range of the western United
States and Canada. The latter group includes Mount St. Helens,
Mount Shasta, and Mount Garibaldi. The most active regions in
the Ring of Fire are located along curved belts of volcanic cones
situated adjacent to the deep-ocean trenches of the northern and
western Pacific. This nearly continuous chain of volcanoes
stretches from the Aleutian Islands to Iapan and the Philippines
and to the North Island of New Zealand. These impressive vol-
canic structures are manifestations of processes that occur in the
mantle in association with subduction zones.
Volcanic Structures and Eruptive Styles Z69
The classic composite cone is a large, nearly sym-
metrical structure consisting of alternating layers of
explosively erupted cinders and ash interbedded with
lava flows. A few composite cones, notably Italy’s Etna
and Stromboli, display very persistent eruption activ-
ity, and molten lava has been observed in their sum-
mit craters for decades. Stromboli is so well known for
eruptions that eject incandescent blobs of lava that it
has been referred to as the “Lighthouse of the Mediter-
ranean.” Mount Etna, on the other hand, has erupted,
on average, once every 2 years since 1979.
lust as shield volcanoes owe their shape to fluid
basaltic lavas, composite cones reflect the viscous
nature of the material from which they are made. In
general, composite cones are the product of gas-rich
magma having an andesitic composition. However,
many composite cones also emit various amounts of
fluid basaltic lava and occasionally, pyroclastic mater-
ial having rhyolitic composition. Relative to shields, the
l silica-rich magmas typical of composite cones gener-
l ate thick viscous lavas that travel less than a few kilo-
meters. In addition, composite cones are noted for
generating explosive eruptions that eject huge quantities of pyro-
clastic material.
A conical shape, with a steep summit area and more gradu-
ally sloping flanks, is typical of many large composite cones. This
classic profile, which adorns calendars and postcards, is partially
a consequence of the way viscous lavas and pyroclastic ejecta
contribute to the growth of the cone. Coarse fragments ejected
from the summit crater tend to accumulate near their source.
Because oftheir high angle of repose, coarse materials contribute
to the steep slopes of the summit area. Finer ejecta, on the other
hand, are deposited as a thin layer over a large area. This acts to
flatten the flank of the cone. In addition, during the early stages
of growth, lavas tend to be more abundant and flow greater dis-
tances from the vent than lavas do later in the volcano’s history.
This contributes to the cone’s broad base. As the volcano
matures, the shorter flows that come from the central vent serve
to armor and strengthen the summit area. Consequently, steep
slopes exceeding 40 degrees are sometimes possible. Two of the
most perfect cones—Mount Mayon in the Philippines and
Fujiyama in ]apan—-exhibit the classic form we expect of a com-
posite cone, with its steep summit and gently sloping flanks
.
Despite the symmetrical forms of many composite cones,
most have complex histories. Huge mounds of volcanic debris
surrounding these structures provide evidence that large sections
of these volcanoes slid downslope as massive landslides. Others
develop horseshoe-shaped depressions at their summits as a
result of explosive lateral eruptions-as occurred during the 1980
eruption of Mount St. Helens. Often, so much rebuilding has
occurred since these eruptions that no trace of the amphitheater-
shaped scars remain.
Many composite cones have numerous small, parasitic cones
on their flanks, while others, such as Crater Lake, have been trun-
cated by the collapse of their summit (see Figure 9.22). Still oth-
ers have a lake in their crater, which may be hot and muddy. Such
lakes are often highly acidic because of the influx of sulfur and
Z70 CHAPTER 9 Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity

larger lava fragments. Also referred to as

nuée ardentes (glowing avalanches), these
fiery flows are capable of racing down
steep volcanic slopes at speeds that can
exceed 200 kilometers (125 miles) per hour
_ . _, r ._
__";__=-5,. fir-;' .
-- —---. — 1:-.':.
(ttigrsre 9.19). Nuée ardentes are composed
._ '._;=<:" ’
15
of two parts: a low-density cloud of hot
H 4 expanding gases containing fine ash parti-
cles and a ground-hugging portion that con-
tains most of the material in the flow.
Driven by gravity, pyroclastic flows
tend to move in a manner similar to snow
avalanches. They are mobilized by volcanic
gases released from the lava fragments and
by the expansion of heated air that is over-
taken and trapped in the moving front.
These gases reduce friction between the
.__ Z fragments and the ground. Strong turbulent
“-;:v‘" flow is another important mechanism that
~';-S ?-'- aids in the transport of ash and pumice
fragments downslope in a nearly friction-
-.-.5; less environment (Figure 9.19). This helps
explain why some nuée ardente deposits are
i .,,,...
- -*3 H '1
‘:- found more than 100 kilometers (60 miles)
\
I

from their source.

}i="ii'..§i..l.l.§-.‘;.‘ri .§ 9..';i.ii Japan's Fujiyama exhibits the classic form of a
composite cone—steep summit and gently sloping flanks. (Photo by
Koji Nakano/Getty Images! Sebun)
chlorine gases that react with water to produce sulfuric (HZSO4)
and hydrochloric acid (HCI).
CONCEPT cnscx 9.4
Q Compare a volcanic crater to a caldera.
Q Compare and contrast the three main types of volcanoes
(consider size, composition, shape, and eruptive style).
Q Name a prominent volcano for each of the three types
of volcano es.
Q Briefly compare the eruptions of Kilauea and Paricutin.
Living in the Shadow
1 1 “ L -.
3. _ E“
' rSometimes, powerful hot blasts that
carry small amounts of ash separate flom the
main body of a pyroclastic flow. These low-density clouds, called
surges, can be deadly, but seldom have sufficient force to destroy
buildings in their paths. Nevertheless, on Iune 3, 1991, a hot ash
cloud from Japan's Unzen Volcano engulfed and burned hundreds
of homes and moved cars as much as 80 meters (250 feet).
Pyro clastic flows may originate in a variety of volcanic set-
tings. Some occur when a powerful eruption blasts pyroclastic
material out of the side of a volcano—the lateral eruption of
Mount St. Helens in 1980, for example. More frequently, however,
nuée ardentes are generated by the collapse of tall eruption
columns during an explosive event. When gravity eventually over-
comes the initial upward thrust provided by the escaping gases,
the ejecta begin to fall, sending massive amounts ofincandescent
blocks, ash, and pumice cascading downslope.
In summary, pyroclastic flows are a mixture of hot gases and
pyroclastic materials moving along the ground, driven primarily
by gravity. In general, flows that are fast and highly turbulent can
transport fine particles for distances of 100 kilometers or more.

of a Composite Cone The Destruction of St. Pierre In 1902, an infamous nuée

More than 50 volcanoes have erupted in the United States in the
past 200 years. Fortunately, the most explosive of these eruptions
occurred in sparsely inhabited regions ofAlaska. On a global scale
many destructive eruptions have occurred during the past few
thousand years, a few ofwhich may have influenced the course of
human civilization.
Nuée Ardente: A Deadly Pyroclastic Flow
One ofthe most destructive forces of nature are pyroclastic flows,
which consist of hot gases infused with incandescent ash and
ardente and associated surge from Mount Pelée, a small volcano
on the Caribbean island of Martinique, destroyed the port town
of St. Pierre. Although the main pyroclastic flow was largely con-
fined to the valley of Riviere Blanche, the fiery surge spread south
of the river and quickly engulfed the entire city. The destruction
happened in moments and was so devastating that almost all of
St. Pierre’s 28,000 inhabitants were killed. Only one person on the
outskirts oftown—a prisoner protected in a dungeon—and a few
people on ships in the harbor were spared
Within days of this calamitous eruption, scientists arrived on
the scene. Although St. Pierre was mantled by only a thin layer of
 Living in the Shadow of a Composite Cone Z71

li‘i£%i,iRE 9.'i§.i Pyroclastic flows. av

.
i3”'l"’f_
‘T . '
has
5'
_ ' ‘ii-=5->>
., ‘:'.7L‘Z"l - U - -
-
,_ — '

A. Illustration of a fiery ash and i. _ - _ " T

pumice flow racing down the slope of Prev_a|l1ng x_..f=€»_g_._,§;t _{.,_._‘ pf l, ha:
a volcano. B. Pyroclastic flow moving wind -;;_,%;* it xi 1;.‘
.____fl_; L -..:>;;__ if-5 -qr’ .uJ:_
rapidly down the forested slopes of ‘T -£3 3?"-t.
Mt. Unzen toward a Japanese village. - 3? ‘ff * at
(Photo by Yomiuri/AP Photo) -'

Eruption
column
Ash fall O

> Bombs

Pyroclastic
flow

-4;.

<_‘ =—.

(.5. 7 _;

.1
FEGUBE 9.20 The photo on the left shows St. Pierre as it appeared

.i J
T_“_"=:- It ‘-

shortly after the eruption of Mount Pelée, 1902. (Reproduced from the
collection of the Library of Congress) The photo on the right shows
St. Pierre before the eruption. Many vessels are anchored offshore, as
was the case on the day of the eruption. (Photo courtesy of The Granger
Collection, New York)

volcanic debris, they discovered that

masomy walls nearly a meter thick
were knocked over like dominoes;
large trees were uprooted and can-
nons were torn from their mounts.
_ _¢. __
A further reminder of the destruc-
-
tive force ofthis nuée ardente is pre-
xi‘
91
served in the ruins of the mental
hospital. One of the immense steel
chairs that had been used to confine
alcoholic patients can be seen today,
_ _ i’- an

,-
contorted, as though it were made
-,-,
of plastic.
_\

Lahars: Mudflows on Active

and Inactive Cones
In addition to violent eruptions, large composite cones may gen-
erate a type of very fluid mudflow referred to by its Indonesian
name lahar. These destructive flows occur when volcanic debris
becomes saturated with water and rapidly moves down steep vol-
canic slopes, generally following gullies and stream valleys. Some
pr»-,
--
,. .,_' _
__-alt-".._u.¢-2' '_.~.'
_
:1‘-—‘:!4|=_
:~ ha
_-‘.-§-2'1’.-~ lahars may be triggered when magma is emplaced near the surface,
 Z72 CHAPTER 9 Volcanoesand Other Igneous Activity _

Box 9.1 | of the Italian volcano we now call Vesuvius. eruptive cloud. Shortly thereafter, debris
- -. -\- .. i
Prior to this eruption, Vesuvius had been from this cloud began to shower Pompeii,
if
.1:
i.
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.
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iii -._._
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,
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l.,r dormant for centuries and had vineyards which was located 9 kilometers (6 miles)
=-_= if _ ._. .-,=- J
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t.: -.
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adorning its sunny slopes. On August downwind of the volcano. Many people
M..
4.
. ._ _ -_. .-1‘. .,\ ._ _ .-
...-"
. . .-;“' _. ;,. _. . . .:'_‘
..,. ~.,
.-
3-,,__ _. _. .__
- 1. _ _,;
24, however, the tranquility ended, and in fled during this early phase of the erup-
. -.-.. 4-’_ , ,. ..
,
_ ._. . . .-' :
,-.
. - 1_
' - . I 3 ._ 1 ," H —-_. -._-\.- '~ 1| '_
less than 24 hours the city of Pompeii (near tion. For the next several hours pumice
Naples) and more than 2,000 of its 20,000 fragments as large as 5 centimeters
residents perished. Some were entombed (2 inches) fell on Pompeii. One historical
Eruption of Vesuvius beneath a layer of pumice nearly 3 meters record of the eruption states that some
A.D. 79 (10 feet) thick, while others were encased
within a layer of ash (Figure 9.A bottom).
people tied pillows to their heads in order
to fend off the flying fragments.
They remained this way for nearly 17 cen- The rain of pumice continued for several
One well-documented volcanic eruption of
turies, until the city was excavated, giving hours, accumulating at the rate of 12-15 cen-
historic proportions was the A.D. 79 eruption
archaeologists a superbly detailed picture of timeters (5-6 inches) per hour. Most of the
ancient Roman life roofs in Pompeii eventually gave way.
f (Figure 9.A top). Despite the accumulation of more than
By reconciling his- 2 meters of pumice, many of the people that
torical records with had not evacuated Pompeii were probably
- detailed scientific stud- - -
still alive the next morning. Then, suddenly
, _', ies of the region, volca- and unexpectedly, a surge of searing hot ash
R l I O -R nologists have pieced and gas swept rapidly down the flanks of
together the chronology Vesuvius. This deadly pyroclastic flow killed
of the destruction of an estimated 2,000 people who had some-
E Pompeii. The eruption how managed to survive the pumice fall.
' most likely began as Most died instantly as a result of inhaling
steam discharges on the hot, ash-laden gases. Their remains
the morning of August were quickly buried by the falling ash. Rain
24. By early afternoon then caused the ash to become rock hard
fine ash and pumice before their bodies had time to decay. The
fragments formed a tall subsequent decomposition of the bodies
produced cavities in the hardened
ash that replicated their forms and,
in some cases, even preserved facial
expressions. Nineteenth-century
excavators found these cavities and
is ,, created casts of the corpses by
FIGURE 9.A The Roman . r_~=,;-t -.
. .; - -
_. .— r ‘
r:
‘i
3.’ pouring plaster of Paris into the
city of Pompeii was T
.""- ,
7', " i
’ ,2‘;
O
".-$i:5";’- .\-<7 * voids (Figure 9.A bottom).
destroyed in A.D. 79 during
an eruption of Mount
~ -' -1 11.:-.3 '.'*.f-P.>."=_..."~+;;¢:,~2»-‘--'.
-.--~'-it-1 11. ‘
. In
Today, Vesuvius towers over the
. fI,\i' I ._-. L ‘ .3;-'.‘ . 1 r» w5.3‘;- 2,5»
-f_'»--‘{'.?i:,'{+ if Naples skyline. Such an image
("Q

:7.-
Vesuvius. The top photo .."’_;;‘-v? I,--. 0-, -ii i ’_-ewe:--J-_ -h I
J ' I - .~"': :1; '." ;' . .-'
should prompt us to consider how
shows ruins of Pompeii. _ ( ;',{{-1'
_s -1 ‘£_-‘-.';-_ if
- '1‘; - ., \ } 3- 0 ‘ ‘ A -L.‘ K iv! _.,

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i‘Y'§"£I|s volcanic crises might be managed
Excavation began in the {ml an ;“}»:_JI »__»‘ . ¢_;_ ‘.}:‘-,:;‘,»( L ‘W

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ii hi‘.-‘H; in the future.
18th century and continues 'I '{'_ : -'
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shows plaster casts of §’*."’.',%§f.'. I X

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several victims of the A.D. ‘,',_".1 (1 ;.
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79 eruption of Mount ',':3;'§l_ - _
.»_- J.‘ _.‘_V1_.. ".i
“",.A
w-- - ts-h.
Vesuvius. (Photo A by Roger iii‘ l "! ‘S-5,-.<i|__
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Ressmeyer, Photo B by Leonard I In _-‘J 1:

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causing large volumes of ice and snow to melt. Others are gener- and snow that capped the mountain (nevado means snow in Span-
ated when heavy rains saturate weathered volcanic deposits. Thus, ish) and sent torrents of ash and debris down three major river
lahars may occur even when a volcano is not erupting. valleys that flank the volcano. Reaching speeds of 100 kilometers
When Mount St. Helens erupted in 1980, several lahars were (60 miles) per hour, these mudflows tragically took 25,000 lives.
generated. These flows and accompanying flood waters raced Mount Rainier, Washington, is considered by many to be
down nearby river valleys at speeds exceeding 30 kilometers per America’s most dangerous volcano because, like Nevado del Ruiz,
hour. These raging rivers of mud destroyed or severely damaged it has a thick, year-round mantle of snow and glacial ice. Adding
nearly all the homes and bridges along their paths. Fortunately, to the risk is the fact that more than 100,000 people live in the val-
the area was not densely populated leys around Rainier, and many homes are built on deposits left
In 1985, deadly lahars were produced during a small eruption by lahars that flowed down the volcano hundreds or thousands of
of Nevado del Ruiz, a 5,300-meter (17,400-foot) volcano in the years ago. A future eruption, or perhaps just a period of extraor-
Andes Mountains of Colombia. Hot pyroclastic material melted ice dinary rainfall, may produce lahars that could take similar paths.
 Other Volcanic Landforms Z73

T Other Volcanic Landforms

The most obvious volcanic structure is a cone. But other
distinctive and important landforms are also associated
with volcanic activity: calderas, fissure eruptions, basalt
plateaus, and volcanic pipes and necks.

Calderas
Calderas (caldaria. = a cooking pot) are large depres-
sions with diameters that exceed one kilometer and have
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:r '1'? Lahars are mudflows that originate on volcanic slopes. the top of a shield volcano caused by subterranean drainage
This lahar raced down the Muddy River, located southeast of Mount from a central magma chamber (Hcuuaiicm-type ccilclems); and
St. Helens, following the May 18, 1980, eruption. Notice the former (3) the collapse of a large area, caused by the discharge of colos-
height of this fluid mudflow as recorded by the mudflow line on the sal volumes of silica-rich pumice and ash along ring fractures
tree trunks. Note person (circled) for scale. (Photo by Lyn TopinkafU.S.
Geological Survey)
(Yellowstone-type calderas).

Crater Lake—Type Calderas Crater Lake, Oregon, is situated

in a caldera that has a maximum diameter of 10 kilometers
comcspr cnscx 9.5 (6 miles) and is 1,175 meters (more than 3,800 feet) deep. This
Q Describe the nature of a pyroclastic flow. caldera formed about 7,000 years ago when a composite cone,
Q Contrast the destruction of Pompeii (see Box 9.1) with the later named Mount Mazama, violently extruded 50-'70 cubic kilo-
destruction of St. Pierre (discuss time frame, volcanic material, meters of pyroclastic material iii).
With the loss of sup-
and nature of destruction). port, 1,500 meters (nearly a mile) of the summit of this once
Q Briefly describe a lahar.
prominent cone collapsed. After the collapse, rainwater filled the
Q Vtlhy do some people consider Mount Rainier America's most
dangerous volcano?
caldera (Figure 9.22). Later volcanic activity built a small cinder
cone in the caldera. Today, this cone, called Wizard Island, pro-
vides a mute reminder of past activity.

Hawaiian-Type Calderas Although some calderas are pro-

Students Sometimes Ask... duced by a collapsefollowing an explosive eruption, many are not.
For example, I—Iawaii’s active shield volcanoes, Mauna Loa and
If volcanoes are so dangerous, why do people live on Kilauea, both have large calderas at their summits. Kilauea’s mea-
or near them? sures 3.3 by 4.4 kilometers (about 2 by 3 miles) and is I50 meters
Realize that many who live near interval between successive (500 feet) deep. The walls of this caldera are almost vertical, and
volcanoes did not choose the eruptions might be several as a result it looks like a vast, nearly flat-bottomed pit. I(ilauea’s
location; they were simply born decades or more—plenty of time caldera formed by gradual subsidence as magma slowly drained
there. Their ancestors may have for generations of people to for- laterally from the underlying magma chamber to the East Rift
lived in the region for genera- get the last eruption and con- Zone, leaving the summit unsupported.
tions. Historically, many have sider the volcano to be dormant
been drawn to volcanic regions (dormin = to sleep) and there- Yellowstone-Type Calderas Historic and destructive erup-
because of their fertile soils. Not fore safe. Many people that tions such as Mount St. Helens and Vesuvius pale in comparison
all volcano es have explosive choose to live near an active to what happened 630,000 years ago in the region now occupied
eruptions, but all active volca- volcano have the belief that the by Yellowstone National Park, when approximately 1,000 cubic
noes are dangerous. Certainly, relative risk is no higher than in kilometers of pyroclastic material erupted. This super-eruption
choosing to live close to an other hazard-prone places. In sent showers of ash as far as the Gulf of Mexico and resulted in
active composite cone like essence, they are gambling that the eventual development of a caldera '70 kilometers (43 miles)
Mount St. Helens or Italy's they will be able to live out their across. It also gave rise to the Lava Creek Tuff, a hardened ash
Mount Vesuvius has a high lives before the next major deposit that is 400 meters (more than 1,200 feet) thick in some
inherent risk. However, the time eruption. places. Vestiges of this event are the many hot springs and gey-
sers in the Yellowstone region.
Z74 CHAPTER 9 Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity

Based on the extraordinary volume of erupted material,

-es "
r researchers have determined that the magma chambers associ-
ated with Yellowstone-type calderas must also be similarly mon-
"'5'" “ . _‘ I -I. as
1‘:
strous. As more and more magma accumulates, the pressure
J-‘aw-Hun"
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within the magma chamber begins to exceed the pressure exerted
:7.'. 1- i by the weight of the overlying rocks. An eruption occurs when the
- gas-rich magma raises the overlying strata enough to create ver-
t _
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tical fractures that extend to the surface. Magma surges upward
along these cracks, forming a ring-shaped eruption. With a loss of
fl ..-.=-’~"-I 4‘

V5.
support, the roof of the magma chamber collapses, forcing even
more gas-rich magma toward the surface.
Caldera-forming eruptions are of colossal proportions, eject-
ing huge volumes of pyroclastic materials, mainly in the form
of ash and pumice fragments. Typically, these materials form
..---.~_ pyroclastic flows that sweep across the landscape, destroy-
ing most living things in their paths. Up on coming to rest,
F;
v the hot fragments of ash and pumice fuse together, form-
\7 ing a welded tuff that closely resembles a solidified lava
flow. Despite the immense size of these calderas, their
E eruptions are brief, lasting hours to perhaps a few
days.
Unlike calderas associated with shield volca-
noes or composite cones, these depressions are
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so large and poorly defined that many remained
__*?7:t’*“" =3 \ “a .‘=~‘5-
"5- undetected until high-quality aerial and satel-
lite images became available. Other exam-
\
ples of large calderas located in the
United States are California's Long Valley
Caldera; LaGarita Caldera, located in the
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..._ and the Valles Caldera west of Los Alamos,
"*‘e<='-J .. ' New Mexico.

Fissure Eruptions
and Basalt Plateaus
The greatest volume ofvolcanic material is
__'»_
extruded from fractures in the crust called
p’

fissures (fissure: = to split). Rather than

building a cone, these long, narrow cracks
tend to emit low-viscosity basaltic lavas
that blanket a wide area (Figtii'e e.;t3).
The Columbia Plateau in the north-
.,- -~ 4 western United States is the product of
_¢

this type of activity (Fi§€§t.ilfE £1.24). Numer-

ous fissure eruptions have buried the
landscape, creating a lava plateau nearly a
mile thick. Some of the lava remained
molten long enough to flow 150 kilome-
ters (90 miles) from its source. The term
flood basalts appropriately describes
these deposits.
ij<‘iii;tIii?.Iii1 9.22. Sequence of events that formed Crater Lake, Oregon. Massive accumulations ofbasaltic lava, similar to those of the
About 7,000 years ago a violent eruption partly emptied the magma Columbia Plateau, occur elsewhere in the world. One of the
chamber, causing the summit of former Mount Mazama to collapse.
Rainfall and groundwater contributed to form Crater Lake, the
largest examples is the Deccan Traps, a thick sequence of flat-
deepest lake in the United States. Subsequent eruptions produced lying basalt flows covering nearly 500,000 square kilometers
the cinder cone called Wizard Island. (After I-I. Williams, The Ancient (l95,000 square miles) of west central India. When the Deccan
Volcanoes of Oregon. Photo courtesy of the U.S. Geological Survey) Traps formed about 66 million years ago, nearly 2 million cubic
 Other Volcanic Landforms Z75

Lava Basaltic kilometers oflava were extruded in less than 1 million years. Sev-
fountaining \ lava flows eral other huge deposits of flood basalts, including the Ontong
I
Q.

Iava Plateau, are found on the floor of the ocean.

>1 A ET :§_‘::

Volcanic Pipes and Necks

( -51‘-4
FIGURE 9.23 Basaltic fissure eruption. A. Lava fountaining from a
fissure and formation of fluid lava flows called flood basalts. B. These
basalt flows are near Idaho Falls. (Photo by John S. Shelton)
Most volcanoes are fed magma through short conduits, called
pipes, that connect a magma chamber to the surface. One rare
type of pipe, called a diatreme, extends to depths that exceed
200 kilometers (125 miles). Magmas that migrate upward through
diatremes travel rapidly enough that they undergo very little alter-
ation during their ascent. Geologists consider these unusually
deep pipes to be "windows" into Earth that allow us to view rock
normally found only at great depths.
The best-known volcanic pipes are the diamond-bearing
structures of South Africa. The rocks filling these pipes originated
at depths of at least 150 kilometers (90 miles), where pressure is
high enough to generate diamonds and other high-pressure min-
erals. The process of transporting essentially unaltered magma
(along with diamond inclusions) through 150 kilometers of solid
rock is exceptional. This fact accounts for the scarcity of natural
diamonds.
Volcanoes on land are continually being lowered by weath-
ering and erosion. Cinder cones are easily eroded because they
are composed of unconsolidated materials. However, all vol-
canoes will eventually succumb to erosion. As erosion pro-
gresses, the rock occupying a volcanic pipe is often more
resistant and may remain standing above the surrounding ter-
rain long after most of the cone has vanished. Shiprock, New
Mexico, is a classic example of this structure, which geologists

tr £i?’_\l 0' ‘ “Hi:

I ‘Ii
-,-.~.:,z ¢
FIGURE 9.24 Volcanic areas that comprise
‘I
the Columbia Plateau in the Pacific North-
west. A. The Columbia River basalts cover
.0-,. -
.39)’, Park. an area of nearly 200,000 square kilometers
(80,000 square miles). Activity began about
f '- -c_
r.'§{;_{-:.¢ 17 million years ago as lava poured out of
-.1 4"*;-
I i 3 large fissures, eventually producing a basalt
> > §‘i
,if1.-_)'-'__F plateau with an average thickness of more
than 1 kilometer. B. Basalt flows exposed
RX’.
"\.\\‘_
along Dry Falls in eastern Washington
State. (Photo by Wolfgang Kaehler/Alamy)

w~

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ma’
Z76 CHAPTER 9 Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity

- 0~'I 9irwI' ~, Geologists

Shiprock
(volcanic neck)
""I,,‘,,’fiZ" Ske ich
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FIGURE; 9.25 Shiprock, New Mexico, is a volcanic neck. This structure, which stands over 420 meters (1,380 feet) high, consists of igneous rock
that crystallized in the vent of a volcano that has long since been eroded away. (Photo by Dennis Tasa)

call a volcanic neck (Figure 9.25). Higher than many skyscrap- When magma rises through the crust, it forcefully displaces
ers, Shiprock is but one of many such landforms that protrude preexisting crustal rocks referred to as host or couniiy rock. Invari-
conspicuously from the red desert landscapes of the American ably, some of the magma will not reach the surface, but instead
Southwest. crystallize or “freeze” at depth where it becomes an intrusive
igneous rock. Much of what is known about intrusive igneous
activity has come from the study of old, now solid, magma bod-
ies exhumed by erosion.
co1vcr:1='r cnscx 9.6
Q Describe the formation of Crater Lake. Compare it to the
formation of a caldera found on shield volcanoes, such as Nature of Intrusive Bodies
Kilauea. The structures that result from the emplacement of magma into
Q Extensive pyroclastic flow deposits are associated with which preexisting rocks are called intrusions or plutons. Because all
volcanic structure? intrusions form out ofview beneath Earth’s surface, they are stud-
Q How do the eruptions that created the Columbia Plateau differ
ied primarily after uplifting and erosion have exposed them. The
from eruptions that create large composite cones?
challenge lies in reconstructing the events that generated these
Q What is Shiprock, New Mexico, and how did it form?
structures millions or even hundreds of millions ofyears ago.
Intrusions are known to occur in a great variety of sizes and
shapes. Some of the most common types are illustrated in
Figure 9.2.6. Notice that some plutons have a tabular (tabletop)
Intrusive Igneous Activity shape, whereas others are best described as massive. Also, observe
that some of these bodies cut across existing structures, such as
Forces Within sedimentary strata, whereas others form when magma is injected
"la:Z-iH1 fl"!
Q
P Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity between sedimentary layers. Because of these differences, intru-
mm
sive igneous bodies are generally classified according to their
Although volcanic eruptions can be violent and spectacular shape as either tabular (mbulu = table) or massive and by their
events, most magma is emplaced and crystallizes at depth, with- orientation with respect to the host rock. Igneous bodies are said
out fanfare. Therefore, understanding the igneous processes that to be discordant (discorriare = to disagree) if they cut across
occur deep underground is as important to geologists as the study existing structures and concordant (concordure = to agree) if
of volcanic events. they form parallel to features such as sedimentary strata.
 Intrusive Igneous Activity Z77

Composite
cones
Cinder

. -.- L
- .'_7_..-;
.. \—f1—
_ _'.

Batholith

*- ‘

FIGURE 9.26 Illustrations showing basic igneous structures. A. This block diagram shows the relationship between volcanism and intrusive
igneous activity. B. This view illustrates the basic intrusive igneous structures, some of which have been exposed by erosion long after their
formation. C. After millions of years of uplifting and erosion, a batholith is exposed at the surface.
278 CHAPTER 9 Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity

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Dikes can also occur radiating from an eroded volcanic neck, like
spokes on awheel. In these situations the active ascent ofmagma- FIGIJRE 9.27 Salt River Canyon, Arizona. The dark, essentially
generated fissures in the volcanic cone out of which lava flowed. horizontal band is a sill of basaltic composition that intruded
between horizontal layers of sedimentary rock. (Photo by E. J. Tarbuck)
Dikes frequently weather more slowly than the surrounding
rock. Consequently, when exposed by erosion, dikes tend to have
a wall-like appearance, as shown in Figure 9.25.
Because dikes and sills are relatively uniform in thickness and In many respects, sills closely resemble buried lava flows. Both
can extend for many kilometers they are assumed to be the prod- are tabular and can have a wide aerial extent and both may exhibit
uct ofvery fluid, and therefore, mobile magmas. One ofthe largest columnar jointing (Figtire 9.2.8). Columnar joints form as igneous
and most studied of all sills in the United States is the Palisades rocks cool and develop shrinkage fractures that produce elongated,
Sill. Exposed for 80 kilometers along the west bank of the Hud- pillar-like colunms. Furthermore, because sills generally form in
son River in southeastern NewYork and northeastern New Iersey, near-surface environments and may be only a few meters thick,
this sill is about 300 meters thick. Because it is resistant to ero- the emplaced magma often cools quickly enough to generate a
sion, the Palisades Sill forms an imposing cliff that can be easily fine-grained texture. (Recall that most intrusive igneous bodies
seen from the opposite side of the Hudson. have a coarse-grained texture.)

Fititifilii A28 Columnar jointing in basalt, Giants Causeway National Park, Northern Ireland. These five-
to seven-sided columns are produced by contraction and fracturing that results as a lava flow or sill
gradually C0018. (Photo by John Lawrence/Getty Images)

Geologists S/<e fch

Columnar joinring 1‘
Rapid cooliny *
from the P» -. _
outside fl >-_-*‘*
causes "~
shrinks9 e EX- __-;-‘-L_ 4. :3
cracks TI.-Li ~
Columnar
“P;
--
I “6-Y
jorhfing tends
to produce
6-sided
columns
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 Intrusive Igneous Activity 279

Massive Intrusive Bodies: Batholiths,

Stocks, and Laccoliths
Batholiths By far the largest intrusive igneous bodies are
batholiths (bathos = depth, lithos = stone). Batholiths occur as
mammoth linear structures several hundreds of kilometers long
and up to 100 kilometers wide (i="ig1irr:- The Sierra Nevada
batholith, for example, is a continuous granitic structure that
forms much of the Sierra Nevada, in California. An even larger
batholith extends for over 1,800 kilometers (1,100 miles) along
the Coast Mountains ofwestern Canada and into southern Alaska.
Although batholiths can cover a large area, recent gravitational Pacific
studies indicate that most are less than 10 kilometers (6 miles) Ocean
thick. Some are even thinner. The Coastal batholith of Peru, for
example, is essentially a flat slab with an average thickness of only
2-3 kilometers (1-2 miles). ‘
Batholiths are almost always made up of granitic (felsic)
and intermediate rock types and are often referred to as “gran-
ite batholiths.” Large granite batholiths consist of hundreds of
plutons that intimately crowd against or penetrate one another.
These bulbous masses were emplaced over spans of millions
of years. The intrusive activity that created the Sierra Nevada
batholith, for example, occurred nearly continuously over a
130-million-year period that ended about 80 million years ago
(Fig1ir'e ‘tx-

Southern
Stocks By definition, a plutonic body must have a surface expo- California
batholith
sure greater than 100 square kilometers (40 square miles) to be
considered a batholith. Smaller plutons of this type are termed
stocks. However, many stocks appear to be portions of much
larger intrusive bodies that would be called batholiths ifthey were ;=5‘iTiii’tIi-ii;i; Granitic batholiths that occur along the western
fully exposed. margin of North America. These gigantic, elongated bodies consist
of numerous plutons that were emplaced during the last 150 million
years of Earth's history.
Laccoliths A 19th centtuy study by G. K. Gilbert ofthe U.S. Geo-
logical Survey in the Henry Mountains ofUtah produced the first .€?lf€;%l1] Half Dome in Yosemite National Park, California, is part
clear evidence that igneous intrusions can lift the sedimentary Of the Sierra Nevada Batholith (Photo by Enrique R. Aguirre/agefotostock)
strata they penetrate. Gilbert named
the igneous intrusions he observed ‘I
laccoliths, which he envisioned as
molten rock forcibly injected between
.:- .',_ _ _ _

sedimentary strata, so as to arch the

beds above, while leaving those below
relatively flat. It is now known that the
five major peaks of the Henry Moun-
tains are not laccoliths, but stocks. %
However, these central magma bod- =
ies are the source material for branch-
ing offshoots that are true laccoliths,
as Gilbert defined them (Fi=;jn;re
Numerous other granitic laccol-
iths have since been identified in Utah.
The largest is a part of the Pine Valley
Mountains located north of St. George,
Utah. Others are found in the La Sal
Mountains near Arches National Park
and in the Abajo Mountains directly to
the south.
Z80 CHAPTER 9 Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity

Origin of Magma
The origin of magma has been controversial in
geology, almost from the beginning ofthe science.
How do magmas of different compositions form?
Why do volcanoes in the deep-ocean basins pri-
marily extrude basaltic lava, whereas those adja-
cent to oceanic trenches extrude mainly andesitic
lava‘? These are some of the questions we address
in the following sections.
*1
1‘:

Mt. Ellen
Laccofifh
(Henry Moun toms Utah)
1 .
.
D”
Generating Magma from
Solid Rock

j§——4?$édI'7?l@F»‘f9F‘f)‘-f’ g -
~&-
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.- .
.
_ _ _
--.

yt
Based on evidence from the study of
if earthquake-generated waves,Earth’s crust
' r . > '
. 2: and mantle are composed primarily of
1| 1:gl

ilt solid, not molten, rock. Although the outer

t ,~

l
core is a fluid, its iron-rich material is very
dense and remains deep within Earth. So
Geologists Ske fch 1 what is the source of magma that produces
igneous activity?
jiwf-?i,iiii=; §J.E¥i Mount Ellen, the northernmost of five peaks that make
up Utah’s Henry Mountains. Although the main intrusions in the Increase in Temperature Most magma originates when
Henry Mountains are stocks, numerous laccoliths formed as offshoots
Of these structures. (Photo by Michael DeFreitas North America/Alamy)
essentially solid rock, located in the crust and upper mantle, melts.
The most obvious way to generate magma from solid rock is to
raise the temperature above the rock’s melting point.
Workers in underground mines know that temperatures get
CONCEPT cnscx 9.7 higher as they go deeper. Although the rate oftemperature change
Q Describe each of the four basic intrusive features (dike, sill, varies considerably from place to place, it averages about 25° C
batholith, and laccolith). per kilometer in the upper crust. This increase in temperature
Q What is the largest of all intrusive igneous bodies? Is it tabular with depth, known as the geothermal gradient, is somewhat
or massive? Concordant or discordant? higher beneath the oceans than beneath the continents. As shown
in ;t=‘.tg; i .i%Il—~Tf., when a typical geothermal gradient is compared
to the melting point curve for the mantle rock peridotite, the
temperature at which peridotite melts is everywhere higher than
the geothermal gradient. Thus, under normal conditions, the
Students Sometimes Ask... mantle is solid. As you will see, tectonic processes exist that can
Some of the larger volcanic eruptions, like the eruption of increase the geothermal gradient sufficiently to trigger melting. In
Krakatau, must have been impressive. What was it like? addition, other mechanisms exist that trigger melting by reducing
the temperature at which peridotite begins to melt.
On August 27, 1883, in what is because the island was unin-
now Indonesia, the volcanic habited. However, the dis-
Decrease in Pressure: Decompression Melting If temper-
island of Krakatau exploded and placement of water from the
ature were the only factor that determined whether or not rock
was nearly obliterated. The explosion was enormous. The
melts, our planet would be a molten ball covered with a thin, solid
sound of the explosion was resulting tsunami exceeded
outer shell. This, of course, is not the case. The reason is that pres-
heard an incredible 4,800 kilo- 35 meters (116 feet) in height.
sure also increases with depth.
meters (3,000 miles) away at It devastated the coastal
Melting, which is accompanied by an increase in volume,
Rodriguez Island in the western region of the Sunda Strait
occurs at higher temperatures at depth because of greater confin-
Indian Ocean. Dust from the between the nearby islands of
ing pressure. Consequently, an increase in confining pressure
explosion was propelled into the Sumatra and Java, taking more
causes an increase in the rock’s melting temperature. Conversely,
atmosphere and circled Earth on than 36,000 lives. The energy
reducing confining pressure lowers a rock’s melting temperature.
high-altitude winds. This dust carried by this wave reached
1/Vhen confining pressure drops sufficiently, decompression
produced unusual and beautiful every ocean basin and was
melting is triggered.
sunsets for nearly a year. detected by tide-recording
Decompression melting occurs where hot, solid mantle rock
Not many were killed stations as far away as London
ascends in zones of convective upwelling, thereby moving into
directly by the explosion, and San Francisco.
regions of lower pressure. This process is responsible for gener-
ating magma along divergent plate boundaries (oceanic ridges)
 Origin of Magma Z81

buoyantly rise toward the surface. In a continental setting, basaltic

Temperature (°C) l magma may “pond” beneath crustal rocks, which have a lower den-
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 i sity and are already near their melting temperature. This may result
——\ curve for
- I ~0 in some melting of the crust and the formation of a secondary,
_ mantle rock i silica-rich magma.
pefifdotite , y
In stunmary, magma can be generated three ways: (1) when an
\ Complete ‘ increase in temperature causes a rock to exceed its melting point;
\ melting l (2) in zones of upwelling a decrease in pressure (without the addi-
_- Geothermal \ (100% _50 tion of heat) can result in decompression melting; and (3) the
gradient \ melt)
eters P0 C) O SSeJd introduction ofvolatiles (principally water) can lower the melting
IT] ll’)
.= \ temperature of hot mantle rock sufficiently to generate magma.
‘ -'75 ue
""
nk'o
l
00 C) C)
1 l _ '6C) sleqo>1 l
iiit
ll
1; Partial Melting and Magma Compositions
Depth
if ‘ (Solidi rock 0' if I l 1 An important difference exists between the melting of a substance
400' pi (peridqtite)_ g l . that consists of a single compound, such as ice, and melting
i 1 1 l - 125 igneous rocks, which are mixtures of several different minerals.
l
Ice melts at a specific temperature, whereas igneous rocks melt
l
F over a temperature range of about 200° C. As rock is heated, min-
500 -
erals with the lowest melting points tend to start melting first.
Should melting continue, minerals with higher melting points
A schematic diagram illustrating a typical geothermal begin to melt, and the composition of the magma steadily
gradient (increase in temperature with depth) for the crust and upper approaches the overall composition of the rock from which it was
mantle. Also illustrated is an idealized curve that depicts the melting derived. Most often, melting is not complete. This process, known
point temperatures for the mantle rock peridotite. Notice that when as partial melting, produces most, if not all, magma.
the geothermal gradient is compared to the melting point curve for
peridotite, the temperature at which peridotite melts is everywhere An important consequence ofpartial melting is the production
higher than the geothermal gradient. Thus, under normal conditions of a magma with a higher silica content than the original rock.
the mantle is solid. Special circumstances are required to generate Recall from the discussion of Bowen’s reaction series that basaltic
magma. (mafic) rocks contain mostly high-melting-temperature minerals
that are comparatively low in silica, whereas granitic (felsic) rocks
where plates are rifting apart (i1‘i.riii:re r;r.i%::€i). Below the ridge crest, are composed primarily of low-melting-temperature silicates that
hot mantle rock rises and melts replacing the material that shifted are enriched in silica (see Chapter 3). Because silica-rich minerals
horizontally away from the ridge axis. Decompression melting melt first, magmas generated by partial melting are nearer to the
also occurs within ascending mantle plumes. granitic end ofthe compositional spectrum than are the rocks from
which they formed.
Addition of Volatiles Another important factor affecting the
melting temperature of rock is its water content. Water and other .3?'iiI§iii?E_I $3.153 As hot mantle rock ascends, it continually moves into
volatiles, such as carbon dioxide, act as salt does to melt ice. That zones of lower pressure. This drop in confining pressure can trigger
melting, even without additional heat.
is, volatiles cause rock to melt at lower temperatures. Furthermore,
the effect of volatiles is magnified by increased pressure. Deeply
buried “wet” rock has a much lower melting temperature than
.

\'*3.*.‘e"..‘*I\.-112*-i
"' C H
i
5

‘rr:¢5‘E*
“dry” rock of the same composition. Therefore, in addition to a f¢
‘r
rock’s composition, its temperature, depth (confining pressure),
and water content determine whether it exists as a solid or liquid.
Volatiles play an important role in generating magma at conver-
gent plate boundaries where cool slabs of oceanic lithosphere
descend into the mantle (liiigure 513»-'.i). As an oceanic plate sinks, both
heat and pressure drive water from the subducting crustal rocks.
These fluids, which are very mobile, migrate into the wedge of hot i/'
mantle thatlies directly above. The addition ofwater .__ I _
_
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-:= s""'~
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if -
._- j };
-
.- ‘
_; "
'
'%":f;.-- -".9-‘.
'- _
in
have shown that the temperature atwhich peridotite <

begins to melt can be lowered by as much as 100° C

by the addition of only 0.1 percent water.
Melting of peridotite generates basaltic magma
having a temperature of 1200° C or higher. When
enough mantle-derived basaltic magma forms, it will
 Z82 CHAPTER 9 Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity

Continental
volcanic
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FIGURE 9.3% As an oceanic plate descends into the

mantle, water and other volatiles are driven from
the subducting crustal rocks. These volatiles lower
the melting temperature of mantle rock sufficiently to
generate magma.

CONCEPT cnncx 9.8 Plate Tectonics

Q Define geothermal gradient.
Q Describe the three ways that solid rock in the upper mantle and Volcanic Activity
and crust may melt to become magma.
Q In which two settings does decompression melting occur?
Geologists have known for decades that the global distribution of
Q What is partial melting? volcanism is not random. Most active volcanoes are located along
Q How does the composition of a melt produced by partial the margins of the ocean basins—notably within the circum-
melting compare with the composition of the parent rock? Pacific belt known as the Ring ofFire (Figure 9.35). These volca-
noes consist mainly of composite cones that emit volatile-rich
S

FIGURE 9.35 The Ring of Fire contains the largest concentration of Earth's major volcanoes. Inset shows Ecuador's Cotopaxi volcano. (Photo by
Patrick Esudero/Photolibrary)
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 Plate Tectonics and Volcanic Activity Z83

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nasty, " Eisinger says, adding that the smell muffled. Hawaiian volcanoes are unique in
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For volcanoes that are in a constant state “like a jet engine," from the expulsion of
of eruption, Eisinger said there are distinct gases. Eruptions also are often foreshadowed
patterns in the emission
____-.l' -7 ' .1. ..l._ ,1 _ _- _ _ _ , _ .1
“C185-"°1Can°eShehaS
visited in Indonesia, for
“For the most part l volcanoes are
eXemp1e.Weu1de1nite VQFY approachable 35 IOHQ 35
Chris Eisinger: Z'§f§,§§,n'§§f,§a§,e§Ilf,.T§§§Iia1 you know their cycles."
Studying Active But while most volcanol-
ogists are able to remain safe by paying by seismic activity that contributes to the
Volcanoes close attention to eruption cycles, fatalities rumble of the explosions. Though Eisinger
have happened. Recently, in August 2000, himself has never witnessed a volcanic
Chris Eisinger describes volcanoes the same two volcanologists died at the summit of eruption of historic magnitude, he noted
way he might discuss old, temperamental Semeru on the island of Java in Indonesia that accounts of such colossal eruptions as
friends. “For the most part, volcanoes are when the volcano erupted with no warning. that of Krakatau in 1883 produced reports of
very approachable, " he says, “as long as you Active volcanoes also emit low, rumbling a boom that could be heard thousands of
know their cycles. " As a graduate student in sounds, Eisinger said, due largely to subter- miles away.
the Department of Geological Sciences at Ari- ranean explosions that tend to be very —Chris Wilson
zona State University, Eisinger had 10 years
of firsthand experience with volcanoes under
his belt. He began as an undergraduate and Volcanologist Chris Eisinger uses a crowbar to hit some molten sulfur on Kawah
spent time at the Hawaiian Volcano Observa- Ijen in Indonesia. The 200° C (390° F) molten sulfur is still red hot and will cool to a
tory as well as in Indonesia, a region rife with yellow O1’ green COIOI. (Courtesy of Chris Eisinger)
volcanic activity.
But the summit of an active volcano is --'
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Eisinger can attest.
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for lava to flow into the sea, Eisinger also says

the runoff creates a steam that is highly acidic, .-

thanks to the high chlorine content of seawa-

ter. "Your eyes will water, " he said. “It's typi- .1‘
cally difficult to breathe and you end up
coughing if you're not wearing a gas mask. " . .’-_/

Rainstorms can further cloud the air, cre- .2?’-"' " "
In

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ating steam when the falling water strikes ,2»
the hot surface of the lava. At times, Eisinger i

says, visibility for volcanologists studying at lit? ,_._

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the summit is reduced to a few feet.

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magma having an intermediate (andesitic) composition and that to volcanism in the ocean basin, volcanism on continents is more
occasionally produce awe-inspiring eruptions. diverse, ranging from eruptions ofvery fluid basaltic lavas, like those
A second group includes the basaltic shields that emit very that generated the Columbia Plateau, to explosive eruptions of silica-
fluid lavas. These volcanic structures comprise most of the islands rich rhyolitic magma as occurred in Yellowstone.
of the deep ocean basins, including the Hawaiian Islands, the Until the late 1960s, geologists had no explanation for the appar-
Galapagos Islands, and Easter Island. In addition, this group ently haphazard distribution of continental volcanoes, nor were they
includes many active submarine volcanoes that dot the ocean able to accotmt for the almost continuous chain ofvolcanoes that cir-
floor; particularly notable are the innumerable small seamotmts cles the margin of the Pacific basin. With the development of the
that occur along the axis of the mid-ocean ridge. theory ofplate tectonics, the picture was greatly clarified. Recall that
A third group includes volcanic structures that appear to be most magma originates in the upper mantle and that the mantle is
somewhat randomly distributed in the interiors of the continents. essentially solid, not molten rock. The basic cormection between
None are found in Australia nor in the eastern two-thirds of North plate tectonics and volcanism is that plate motions provide the mech-
and South America. Africa is notable because it has many poten- anisms by which mantle rocks melt to generate magma.
tially active volcanoes including Mount Kilimanjaro, the highest We now examine three zones of igneous activity and their
point on the continent (5,895 meters [19,454 feetl). When compared relationship to plate boundaries These active areas
 A. Convergent plate volcanism
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(Continental volcanic arc)

FIGURE 9.36 Three zones of volcanism. Two of the zones are associated with plate boundaries. The third zone includes those volcanic
structures that are irregularly distributed in the interiors of plates.

284
 B. Divergent plate volcanism ., ...,¢,,_,, :4 , 4;
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F. Divergent plate volcanism
(Continental rifting)

FIGURE 9.36 Continued

285
286_ CHAPTER 9 Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity
are located (1) along convergent plate boundaries where plates
move toward each other and one sinks beneath the other;
(2) along divergent plate boundaries, where plates move away
from each other and new seafloor is created; and (3) areas
within the plates proper that are not associated with any plate
boundary.
Volcanism at Convergent Plate
Boundaries
Recall that at convergent plate boundaries slabs of oceanic crust
are bent as they descend into the mantle, generating a deep-
ocean trench. As a slab sinks deeper into the mantle, the in-
crease in temperature and pressure drives volatiles (mostly
water) from the oceanic crust. These mobile fluids migrate up-
ward into the wedge-shaped piece of mantle located between
the subducting slab and the overriding plate. Once the sinking
slab reaches a depth of about 100 kilometers, these water-rich
fluids reduce the melting point of hot mantle rock sufficiently
to trigger some melting. The partial melting of mantle rock
(peridotite) generates magma with a basaltic composition. After
a sufficient quantity of magma has accumulated, it slowly mi-
grates upward.
Volcanism at a convergent plate margin results in the
development of a slightly curved chain of volcanoes called a
volcanic arc. These volcanic chains develop roughly parallel
to the associated trench—at distances of 200-300 kilometers
(100-200 miles). Volcanic arcs can be constructed on oceanic,
or continental, lithosphere. Those that develop within the
ocean and grow large enough for their tops to rise above the
surface are labeled island archipelngos in most atlases. Geol-
ogists prefer the more descriptive term volcanic island arcs, or
simply island arcs (Figure 9.36A). Several young volcanic
island arcs border the western Pacific basin, including the
Aleutians, the Tongas, and the Marianas.
Volcanism associated with convergent plate boundaries
may also develop where slabs of oceanic lithosphere are sub-
ducted under continental lithosphere to produce a continental
volcanic arc (Figure 9.36E). The mechanisms that generate
these mantle-derived magmas are essentially the same as those
operating at island arcs. The major difference is that conti-
nental crust is much thicker and is composed of rocks having
a higher silica content than oceanic crust. Hence, through the
assimilation of silica-rich crustal rocks, plus extensive mag-
matic differentiation, a mantle-derived magma may become
highly evolved as it rises through continental crust. Stated
another way, the magmas generated in the mantle may change
from a comparatively dry, fluid basaltic magma to a viscous
andesitic or rhyolitic magma having a high concentration of
volatiles as it moves up through the continental crust. The vol-
canic chain of the Andes Mountains along the western margin
of South America is perhaps the best example of a mature con-
tinental volcanic arc.
Since the Pacific basin is essentially bordered by convergent
plate boundaries and associated subduction Zones, it is easy to
see why the irregular belt of explosive volcanoes we call the Ring
of Fire formed in this region (see Figure 9.35). The volcanoes of the
Cascade Range in the northwestern United States, including
Mount Hood, Mount Rainier, and Mount Shasta, are included in
this group.
Volcanism at Divergent Plate
Boundaries
The greatest volume of magma is produced along the oceanic
ridge system in association with seafloor spreading (Figure 9.36B).
Below the ridge axis where lithospheric plates are continually
being pulled apart, the solid yet mobile mantle responds to the
decrease in overburden and rises to fill the rift. Recall that as rock
rises, it experiences a decrease in confining pressure and under-
goes melting without the addition of heat. This process, called
decompression. melting, is the most common process by which
mantle rocks melt.
Partial melting of mantle rock at spreading centers produces
basaltic magma. Because this newly formed magma is less dense
than the mantle rock from which it was derived, it rises and
collects in reservoirs located just beneath the ridge crest. About
10 percent of this melt eventually migrates upward along fissures
to erupt on the ocean floor. This activity continuously adds new
basaltic rock to plate margins, temporarily welding them together,
only to break again as spreading continues. Along some ridges,
outpourings of bulbous pillow lavas build numerous small
seamounts.
Although most spreading centers are located along the axis
of an oceanic ridge, some are not. In particular, the East African
Rift is a site where continental lithosphere is being pulled apart
(Figure 9.36F). In this setting, magma is generated by decom-
pression melting in the same manner as along the oceanic ridge
system. Vast outpourings of fluid lavas as well as basaltic shield
volcanoes are common in this region.
Intraplate Volcanism
We know why igneous activity is initiated along plate boundaries,
but why do eruptions occur in the interiors of plates? Hawaii’s
Kilauea is considered the world’s most active volcano, yet it is sit-
uated thousands of kilometers from the nearest plate boundary in
the middle of the vast Pacific plate (Figure 9.36C). Other sites of
intraplate volcanism (meaning “within the plate”) include the
Canary Islands, Yellowstone, and several volcanic centers that
you may be surprised to learn are located in the Sahara Desert
of Africa.
Geologists now recognize that most intraplate volcanism
occurs where a mass of hotter than normal mantle material called
a mantle plume ascends toward the surface (Figure 9.36C).
Although the depth at which (at least some) mantle plumes orig-
inate is still hotly debated, some appear to form deep within
Earth at the core—mantle boundary. These plumes of solid yet
mobile mantle rock rise toward the surface in a manner similar
to the blobs that form within a lava lamp. (These are the lamps
 Living with Volcanoes 287

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FiCi‘UB.E 9.3‘? Model of hot-spot volcanism thought to explain the formation of oceanic plateaus and the volcanic islands associated with these
features. A. A rising mantle plume with large bulbous head and narrow tail. B. Rapid decompression melting of the head of a mantle plume
produces vast outpourings of basalt to generate the oceanic plateau. Large basaltic plateaus can also form on continental crust-—examples
include the Columbia Plateau in the northwestern United States and India's Deccan Plateau. C. Later, less voluminous activity caused by
the rising plume tail produces a linear volcanic chain on the seafloor.

that contain two non-mixing liquids in a glass container. As the
base of the lamp is heated, the denser liquid at the bottom
becomes buoyant and forms blobs that rise to the top.) Like the
blobs in a lava lamp, a mantle plume has a bulbous head that
draws out a narrow stalk beneath it as it rises. Once the plume
head nears the top of the mantle, decompression melting gen-
erates basaltic magma that may eventually trigger volcanism at
the surface.
The result is a localized volcanic region a few hundred kilo-
meters across called a hot spot (Figure 9.36C). More than 40 hot
spots have been identified, and most have persisted for millions
of years. The land surface surrounding a hot spot is often ele-
vated because it is buoyed up by the rising plume of warm low-
density material. Furthermore, by measuring the heat flow in
these regions, geologists have determined that the mantle
beneath hot spots must be 100-150° C hotter than normal man-
tle material.
Mantle plumes are responsible for the vast outpourings of
basaltic lava that created the large basalt plateaus including
the Siberian Traps in Russia, India’s Deccan Plateau, and the
Ontong lava Plateau in the western Pacific. The most widely
accepted explanation for these eruptions, which emit extre-
mely large volumes of basaltic lava over relatively short time
intervals, involves a plume with a monstrous head and a long,
narrow tail (Figure 59.3711). Upon reaching the base of the lithos-
phere, these unusually hot, massive heads begin to melt. Melt-
ing progresses rapidly, causing the burst ofvolcanism that emits
voluminous outpourings of lava to form a huge basalt plateau
in a matter of a million or so years (Figure 9.37B). The com-
paratively short initial eruptive phase is followed by tens of
millions of years of less voluminous activity, as the plume tail
slowly rises to the surface. Extending away from most large
flood basalt provinces is a chain of volcanic structures, similar
to the Hawaiian chain, that terminates over an active hot spot,
marking the current position of the remaining tail of the plume
(Figure 9.37C).
comcspr enact: 9.9
0 Are volcanoes in the Ring of Fire generally described as rela-
tively quiet or violent? Name a volcano that would support
your answer. ,
Q How is magma generated along convergent plate
boundaries?
Q Volcanism at divergent plate boundaries is associated with
which rock type? What causes rocks to melt in these
regions?
Q What is the source of magma for intraplate volcanism?
Q At which type of plate boundary is the greatest quantity of I
magma generated?
Living with Volcanoes
About 10 percent of Earth’s population lives in the vicinity of
an active volcano. In fact, several major cities including Seat-
tle, Washington; Mexico City, Mexico; Tokyo, Iapan; Naples,
Z88 CHAPTER 9 Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity
Italy; and Quito, Ecuador, are located on or near a volcano
(ii-‘inure £3.38).
Until recently, the dominant view of Western societies was
that humans possess the wherewithal to subdue volcanoes and
other types of catastrophic natural hazards. Today, it is apparent
that volcanoes are not only very destructive but unpredictable as
well. With this awareness, a new attitude is developing—“How do
we live with volcanoes?”
Volcanic Hazards
Volcanoes produce a wide variety of potential hazards that can
kill people and wildlife, as well as destroy property (Figure 9.39).
Perhaps the greatest threats to life are pyroclastic flows. These hot
mixtures of gas, ash, and pumice that sometimes exceed 800° C
race down the flanks of volcanoes, giving people little chance to
escape.
Lahars, which can occur even when a volcano is quiet, are
perhaps the next most dangerous volcanic hazard. These mix-
tures ofvolcanic debris and water can flow for tens of kilometers
down steep volcanic slopes at speeds that may exceed 100 kilo-
meters (60 miles) per hour. Lahars pose a potential threat to
many communities downstream from glacier-clad volcanoes
such as Mount Rainier. Other potentially destructive mass-
FIGURE 9.38 Seattle, Washington, with Mount Rainier in the background. (Photo by Ken Straiton/CORBIS)
wasting events include the rapid collapse of the volcano’s sum-
mit or flank.
Other obvious hazards include explosive eruptions that can
endanger people and property hundreds of miles from a vol-
cano (Figure 9.40). During the past 15 years, at least 80 com-
mercial jets have been damaged by inadvertently flying into
clouds of volcanic ash. One of these was a near crash that
occurred in 1989 when a Boeing 747, with more than 300 pas-
sengers aboard, encountered an ash cloud from Alaska’s
Redoubt Volcano. All four engines stalled after they became
clogged with ash. Fortunately, the engines were restarted at
the last minute and the aircraft managed to land safely in
Anchorage.
Monitoring Volcanic Activity
Today, a number of volcano monitoring techniques are
employed, with most of them aimed at detecting the movement
of magma from a subterranean reservoir (typically several kilo-
meters deep) toward the surface. The four most noticeable
changes in a volcanic landscape caused by the migration of
magma are (1) changes in the pattern of volcanic earthquakes;
(2) expansion of a near-surface magma chamber, which leads to
inflation of the volcano; (3) changes in the amount and/or com-
 g Living with Volcanoes Z89

i
E Prevailing wind
. t ==,

"

‘Ash fall

Acid rain
Z Eruption column

‘> Bombs

. Collapse of flank
/
Pyroclastic flow-\ ) Lava
Lava dome
collapse

Fumaroles ~

Lava flow \ <

Pyroclastic
Lahar flow
(mud or debris flow)
FIGURE 9.39 Simplified drawing showing a wide variety of na hazards associated
With volcanoes. (After U.S. Geological Survey)

position of the gases that are released from a volcano; and (4) an
increase in ground temperature caused by the implacement of
new magma.
Almost a third of all volcanoes that have erupted in historic
times are now monitored using seismographs, instruments that
detect earthquake tremors. In general, a sharp increase in seis-
mic unrest followed by a period of relative quiet has been
shown to be a precursor for many volcanic eruptions. How-
ever, some large volcanic structures have exhibited lengthy
periods of seismic unrest. For example, Rabaul Caldera in New
Guinea recorded a strong increase in seismicity in 1981. This
activity lasted 13 years and finally culminated with an erup-
tion in 1994. Occasionally, a large earthquake triggers a vol-
canic eruption, or at least disturbs the volcano’s plumbing.
Kilauea, for example, began to erupt after the Kalapana earth-
quake of 1975.
The roof of a volcano may rise as new magma accumulates
in its interior—a phenomenon that precedes many volcanic
eruptions. Because the accessibility of many volcanoes is lim-
ited, remote sensing devices, including lasers, Doppler radar,
and Earth-orbiting satellites, are often used to determine
whether or not a volcano is swelling. The recent discovery of
ground doming at Three Sisters Volcanoes in Oregon was first
detected using radar images obtained from satellites.
Volcanologists also frequently monitor the gases that are
released from volcanoes in an effort to detect even minor changes
in their amount and/or composition. Some volcanoes show an
increase in sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions months or years prior
to an eruption. On the other hand, a few days prior to the 1991
eruption of Mount Pinatubo, emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2)
dropped dramatically.
The development of remote sensing devices has greatly
increased our ability to monitor volcanoes. These instruments
and techniques are particularly useful for monitoring eruptions
in progress. Photographic images and infrared (heat) sensors can
detect lava flows and volcanic columns rising from a volcano. Fur-
thermore, satellites can detect ground deformation as well as
monitor SO2 emissions.
The overriding goal of all monitoring is to discover pre-
cursors that may warn of an imminent eruption. This is accom-
plished by first diagnosing the current condition of a volcano
and then using this baseline data to predict its future behavior.
Stated another way, a volcano must be observed over an
extended period to recognize significant changes from its “rest-
ing state.”
CONCEPT cmzcx 9.10
Q Describe four natural hazards associated with volcanoes.
Q What are the four changes in a volcanic area that are moni-
tored in order to detect the migration of magma?
290 CHAPTER 9 Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity _ g

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9;-fifi Volcanic eruptions can endanger people and property far from a volcano. A. The eruption of
Iceland's Eyjafjallajokull volcano sent ash high into the atmosphere on April 16, 2010. The thick plume of ash
drifted over Europe, causing airlines to cancel thousands of flights, leaving hundreds of thousands of travelers
stranded. (AP Photo by Brynjar Gauti) B. Satellite image of the ash plume from Eyjafjallajokull volcano. (NASA)
 Living with Volcanoes Z91

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Can Volcanoes Change
Earth’s Climate?
The idea that explosive volcanic eruptions
might alter Earth’s climate was first pro-
posed many years ago. It is still regarded as
a plausible explanation for some aspects of
climatic variability. Explosive eruptions emit
huge quantities of gases and fine-grained
debris high into the atmosphere, where it
spreads around the globe and remains for
many months or even years (Figure 9.B).
The Basic Premise
The basic premise is that this suspended
volcanic material will filter out a portion of
the incoming solar radiation, which in turn
will drop temperatures in the lowest layer of
the atmosphere. More than 200 years ago
Benjamin Franklin used this idea to argue
that material from the eruption of a large
Icelandic volcano could have reflected
sunlight back to space and therefore might
have been responsible for the unusually cold
winter of 1783-1784.
Mount Tambora
Perhaps the most notable cool period linked
to a volcanic event is the “year without a
summer" that followed the 1815 eruption of
Mount Tambora in Indonesia. The eruption
of Tambora is the largest of modern times.
During April 7-12, 1815, this nearly 4,000-
meter-high (13,000-foot) volcano violently
expelled more than 100 cubic kilometers
(24 cubic miles) of volcanic debris. The
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effects on our climate. Could such an eruption cific regional effects still presents a consid-
cause our climate to change? There is no erable challenge to atmospheric scientists.
doubt that the large quantity of volcanic ash The preceding examples illustrate that
emitted by the explosive eruption had the impact on climate of a single volcanic
significant local and regional effects for a eruption, no matter how great, is relatively
short period. Still, studies indicated that any small and short-lived. Therefore, if volcanism
longer-term lowering of hemispheric is to have a pronounced impact over an
temperatures was negligible. The cooling was extended period, many great eruptions,
so slight, probably less than 0.1° C (0.2° F), closely spaced in time, need to occur.
that it could not be distinguished from other Although no such extended period of explo-
natural temperature fluctuations. sive volcanism is known to have occurred in
historic times, such events may have altered
El Chichon climates in the geologic past. For example,
‘Two years of monitoring and studies following massive eruptions of basaltic lava that began
the 1982 El Chichon eruption indicated that its about 250 million years ago and lasted for a
cooling effect on global mean temperature million years or more may have contributed
was greater than that of Mount St. Helens, on to one of Earth’s most profound mass extinc-
the order of 0.3—0.5° C (0.5—0.9° F). The tions. A discussion of a possible link
eruption of El Chichon was less explosive than between volcanic activity and the Great Per-
the Mount St. Helens blast, so why did it have mian Extinction is found in Chapter 12.
a greater impact on
global temperatures? FIGURE 9.B Mount Etna, a volcano on the island of Sicily, erupting in
The reason is that the late October 2002. Mount Etna is Europe's largest and most active vol-
material emitted by cano. Upper. This photo of Mount Etna looking southeast was taken by
Mount St. Helens was a crew member aboard the International Space Station. It shows a
largely fine ash that plume of volcanic ash streaming southeastward from the volcano.
settled out in a Lower. This image from the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder on NASA’s
relatively short time. Aqua satellite shows the sulfur dioxide (S 0 ,) plume in shades of purple
El Chichon, on the and black. (Images courtesy of NASA)
other hand, emitted
far greater quantities
of sulfur dioxide gas
(an estimated 40 times ” 4
more) than Mount
St. Helens. This gas
combines with water
vapor high in the
atmosphere to produce g
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believed to have been widespread in the sulfuric-acid particles. EC-_.'=;‘_E" ;

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cold spells affected the northeastern United years to settle out t_ :— = — . -'~';?~:-_;:

States and adjacent portions of Canada. completely. Like fine

There was heavy snow in June and frost in ash, these aerosols
July and August. Abnormal cold was also lower the atmo- ;<

experienced in much of western Europe. sphere's mean

temperature because
Two Modern Examples they reflect solar qfl
P
Two major volcanic events have provided radiation back to
considerable data and insight regarding the space. t

impact of volcanoes on global temperatures. We now understand that volcanic clouds

The eruptions of Washington State's Mount that remain in the stratosphere for a year or ».
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opportunity to study the atmospheric effects thought. Thus, the volume of fine debris l» . . 1
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Z92 CHAPTER 9 Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity

crvr: 1'1‘ some THOUGHT

1. Match each of these volcanic regions with one of the three zones of volcanism (convergent plate
boundaries, divergent plate boundaries, or intraplate volcanism):
a. Crater Lake
b. Hawaii's Kilauea
c. Mount St. Helens
d. East African Rift
e. Yellowstone
f. Vesuvius
g. Deccan Plateau
h. Mount Etna
2. Examine the accompanying photo and complete the following:
a. I/Vhat type of volcano is it? What features helped you make a decision?
b. What is the eruptive style of such volcanoes? Describe the likely composition and viscosity of
the magma.
c. Which one of the three zones of volcanism is the likely setting for this volcano?
d. Name a city that is vulnerable to the effects of a volcano of this type.

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3. Divergent boundaries, such as the Mid-Atlantic ridge, are characterized by outpourings of basaltic
lava. Answer the following questions about divergent boundaries and their associated lavas:
a. What is the source of these lavas?
b. What causes the source rocks to melt?
c. Describe a divergent boundary that would be associated with lava other than basalt. Why did
you choose it and what type of lava would you expect to erupt there?
4. Explain why volcanic activity occurs in places other than plate boundaries.
5. For each of the accompanying four sketches, identify the geologic setting (zone of volcanism).
Which of these settings will most likely generate explosive eruptions? Which will produce out-
pouring of fluid basaltic lavas?

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6. Assume you want to monitor a volcano that has erupted several times in the recent past, but
appears to be quiet now. How might you determine if magma were actually moving through
the crust beneath the volcano? Suggest at least two phenomena you would observe or
measure.

7. Imagine you are a geologist charged with the task of choosing three sites where (state-of-the-
art volcano monitoring systems will be deployed. The sites can be anywhere in the world, but
the budget and number of experts you can employ to oversee the operations are limited. What
criteria would you use to select these sites? List some potential choices and your reasons for
considering them.
8. Explain why an eruption of Mount Rainier, similar to the one that occurred at Mount St. Helens in
1980, would be considerably more destructive.
9. Each statement describes how an intrusive feature appears when exposed at Earth’s surface by
erosion. Name the feature.
a. A dome-shaped mountainous structure flanked by upturned layers of sedimentary rocks.
b. A vertical wall-like feature a few meters wide and hundreds of
meters long.
c. A huge expanse of granitic rock forming a mountainous terrain tens
of kilometers wide. r.=-- =6‘-* ‘-’#--';¢ *-Yr»-er.- *--rat"-Jr-.‘t~-P" * :...'»*»*=»e"~.= =- 1~3K“?‘=-it -wt : 1:»
d. A relatively thin layer of basalt sandwiched between layers of sedi- ; - A L L A A
mentary rocks exposed on the side of a canyon. Basalt C
10 . During a field trip with your geology class you visit an exposure of rock
layers similar to the one sketched here. A fellow student suggests that -§'l"E§I9*?fL- ....-_.-.l-______.,-__ I
the layer of basalt is a sill. You, however, disagree. Why do you think the
other student is incorrect? I/Vhat is a more likely explanation for the Iiéélfi-31'? ill;§5ei§§}§?15£-i-§ii i9;—;?:f1%1-I-;i;}_5{Q-fie, 5-l j-¥-—- 3-
basalt layer? vi ii; I 2 if';Qj it
In Review Chapter 9 Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity
The primary factors that determine the nature of volcanic
eruptions include the magmas composition, its temperature,
and the amount ofdissolved gases it contains. As lava cools, it
begins to congeal and, as viscosity increases, its mobility
decreases. The viscosity ofmagma is also directly related to its
silica content. Rhyolitic (felsic) lava, with its high silica con-
tent (over 70 percent), is very viscous and forms short, thick
flows. Basaltic (mafic) lava, with a lower silica content (about
50 percent), is more fluid and may travel a long distance
before congealing. Dissolved gases tend to make magma
more fluid and, as they exp and, provide the force that propels
molten rock from the volcano.
The materials associated with a volcanic eruption include
(1) lavaflows (pahoehoe flows, which resemble twisted
braids; and aa flows, consisting of rough, jagged blocks; both
form from basaltic lavas); (2) gases (primarily water vapor);
and (3) pyroclastic material (pulverized rock and lava frag-
ments blown from the volcano’s vent, which include ash,
pumice, lapilli, cinders, blocks, and bombs).
Successive eruptions of lava from a central vent result in a
mountainous accumulation of material known as a volcano.
Located at the summit of many volcanoes is a steep-walled
depression called a crater. Shield cones are broad, slightly
domed volcanoes built primarily of fluid, basaltic lava. Cinder o Magma originates from essentially solid rock of the crust
cones have steep slopes composed of pyroclastic material.
Composite cones, or siratovolcanoes, are large, nearly sym-
metrical structures built of interbedded lavas and pyroclastic
Chapter Summary Z93
L if l/ESIC/ES
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deposits. Composite cones produce some of the most violent
volcanic activity. Often associated with a violent eruption is a
nuée ardente, a fiery cloud of hot gases infused with incan-
descent ash that races down steep volcanic slopes. Large
composite cones may also generate a type of mudflow known
as a lahar.
Most volcanoes are fed by conduits or pipes. As erosion pro-
gresses, the rock occupying the pipe, which is often more
resistant, may remain standing above the surrounding terrain
as a volcanic neck. The summits of some volcanoes have
large, nearly circular depressions called calderas that result
from collapse. Calderas also form on shield volcanoes by sub-
terranean drainage from a central magma chamber, and the
largest calderas form by the discharge of colossal volumes of
silica-rich pumice along ring fractures. Although volcanic
eruptions from a central vent are the most familiar, by far the
largest amounts of volcanic material are extruded from cracks
in the crust calledfissures. The termflood basalts describes
the fluid basaltic lava flows that cover an extensive region in
the northwestern United States known as the Columbia
Plateau. When silica-rich magma is extruded, pyroclastic
flows, consisting largely of ash and pumice fragments, usually
result.
and mantle. In addition to a rock’s composition, its temper-
ature, depth (confining pressure), and water content deter-
mine whether it exists as a solid or liquid. Thus, magma can
Z94 CHAPTER 9 Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity

be generated by increasing a roclc’s temperature, as occurs
when a hot mantle plume “ponds” beneath crustal rocks. A
decrease in pressure can cause decompression melting. Fur-
thermore, the introduction of volatiles (water) can lower a
r0cl<’s melting point sufficiently to generate magma. A
process called partial melting produces a melt made of the
low-melting-temperature minerals, which are higher in sil-
ica than the original rock. Thus, magmas generated by par-
tial melting are nearer to the granitic (felsic) end of the
compositional spectrum than are the rocks from which they
formed.
Intrusive igneous bodies are classified according to their
shape and by their orientation with respect to the country
or host rock, generally sedimentary or metamorphic rock.
The two general shapes are tabular (sheet-like) and
massive. Intrusive igneous bodies that cut across existing
sedimentary beds are said to be discordant; those that
form parallel to existing sedimentary beds are
concordant.
Dikes are tabular, discordant igneous bodies produced
when magma is injected into fractures that cut across rock
layers. Nearly horizontal, tabular, concordant bodies,
called sills, form when magma is injected along the bed-
ding surfaces of sedimentary rocks. In many respects, sills
closely resemble buried lava flows. Batholiths, the largest
intrusive igneous bodies, sometimes make up large linear
mountains, as exemplified by the Sierra Nevada. Laccoliths
are similar to sills but form from less fluid magma that col-
lects as a lens-shaped mass that arches overlying strata
upward.
Most active volcanoes are associated with plate boundaries.
Active areas of volcanism are found along mid-ocean ridges
where seafloor spreading is occurring (divergent plate bound-
aries), in the vicinity of ocean trenches where one plate is
being subducted beneath another (convergent plate bound-
aries), and in the interiors of plates themselves (intraplate
volcanism). Rising plumes of hot mantle rock are the source
of most intraplate volcanism.

Key Terms
aa flow (p. 262) flood basalt (p. 274) pumice (p. 264)
batholith (p. 279) geothermal gradient (p. 280) pyroclastic flow (p 270)
caldera (p. 273) hot spot (p. 287) pyroclastic material (p 264)
cinder cone (p. 268) intraplate volcanism (p. 286) scoria (p. 264)
columnar joint (p. 278) intrusions (p. 276) scoria cone (p. 268)
composite cone (p. 269) island arc (p. 286) shield volcano (p 266)
concordant (p. 276) laccolith (p. 279) sill (p. 278)
conduit (p. 265) lahar (p. 271) stock (p. 279)
continental volcanic arc (p. 286) lava tube (p. 263) stratovolcano (p 269)
crater (p. 265) mantle plume (p. 286) tabular (p. 276)
decompression melting (p. 280) massive (p. 276) vent (p. 265)
dike (p. 278) nuée ardente (p. 270) viscosity (p. 259)
discordant (p. 276) pahoehoe flow (p. 262) volatiles (p. 260)
eruption column (p. 261) partial melting (p. 281) volcanic island arc (p 286)
fissure (p. 274) Pipe (p- 265) volcanic neck (p 276)
fissure eruption (p. 274) plutons (p. 276) volcano (p. 265)

Examining the Earth System

1. Speculate about some of the possible consequences that a
great and prolonged increase in explosive volcanic activity
might have on each of Earth’s four spheres.
Despite the potential for devastating destruction, humans
live, work, and play on or near many active volcanoes. What
are some of the benefits that a volcano o1 volcanic region
might offer? (List some volcanoes and the assets they
provide.)
 Mastering Geology 295

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