Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Chemistry
YouTube:
MSJChem
Mr. Weng Chemistry
Richard Thornley
Paul Anderson (Bozeman Science)
Chem textbook suggestions and additional resources:
https://www.sharingtheidea.com/best-ib-chemistry-textbooks/
Calculations template for IB Chemistry -- do these, and you’ll be set for every quantitative
question on the IB HL and SL Chem exams:
http://www.mrwengibchemistry.com/uploads/8/1/5/3/8153863/ib_chemistry_calculation_setting
_out_templates_2.docx
Great flashcards to help you learn the differences between the enthalpies and their definitions:
https://quizlet.com/5747743/flashcards
Flashcards for most general terms (HL terms):
https://quizlet.com/11529663/hl-chemistry-ib-definitions-flash-cards/
Good collection of notes for some areas: http://chemguide.co.uk/
I made these notes for chemistry SL:
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/0B-6sZS5ggZpUQmVwcTVjTTdTMFk?usp=sharing
Online website for SL notes:
https://thesciencecodex.wordpress.com/ib-chemistry/
Some videos made by my chem teacher
Note: It is directed toward the AP Exam, but there is a ton of overlap in its topics
http://chemistrynut.weebly.com/
Chapter 11: Measurement and Uncertainties
11.3; spectroscopy
Within spectroscopy, there are three main times that need to be known. These are mass
spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy and proton nmr (h nmr). Each of these have diverse functions
For example, . the mass spectrometer, in this it is not as simplified as in other chapters. Here, as the
ion is entered through the spectrometer, it breaks down into certain fragments. For example, if the
mass of a sample is 60, and the mass spectrometer detects a fragment at 45, then this is a mass
difference of 15. Each mass difference correlates to a particular ion. A mass difference of 15, for
Secondly, for infrared spectroscopy, this is quite similar to physics. By a process called resonance,
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb incoming infrared photons from electromagnetic
radiation. This causes them to, on average, increase their temperature and as they re-radiate this
energy to earth, these greenhouse gases contribute to global warming. So for infrared spectroscopy,
usually you will be given a graph of % transmittance against wave number. Where the
transmittance is at a peak low, then greenhouse gases have absorved it here. Compare the wave
number to the actual value by data booklet and this will help identify.
Notes Partially Submitted By : /u/AyySam
Chapter 2 : Atomic Structure
Atoms consist of three kinds of particles
● The proton
● The neutron
● The electron
The Atomic Number : Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom in an element. Different elements have
different atomic numbers.
The Mass Number : Number of protons plus the number of neutrons make up the mass number.
Radioisotopes : Elements having an unstable nucleus are termed as radioactive. They have various uses.
Relative Atomic Mass (in AMU) : Mass of an atom compared to 1/12th the mass of a Carbon - 12 atom is
called the relative atomic mass.
Mass Spectrometer : An instrument used to determine the relative atomic mass of an element. It has total
of 5 stages.
- Vapourization : The sample is injected into the system where is is vapourized and heated,
producing gaseous atoms or molecules
- Ionization : Gaseous atoms are bombarded with high energy electrons, generating positively
charged species.
- Acceleration : Positively charged species are attracted to the negatively charged plates and are
then accelerated in the electric field.
- Deflection : The positive ions are deflected by a magnetic eld perpendicular to their path. The
degree of deflection depends on the mass-to-charge ratio (the m/z ratio). The species with the
smallest mass, m, and the highest charge, z, will be defected the most. Particles with no charge
are not defected in the magnetic field.
- Detection : Detector detects the species. Ion hits the counter and the signal is generated.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum (EMS) : A spectrum of wavelengths that comprise the various types of
electromagnetic radiation
Chapter 3 : Periodicity
Periodic Table (Names)
Valence Electrons : The number of electrons in the outer shell of an atom which it loses or gains to attain
a stable electronic config are termed as Valence Electrons
Atomic Radius : The radius of a circle, Rc, is the distance from the centre of the circle to a point on the
circumference. It is easily measured and has a definite value.
- Across a period : Atomic radius decreases as effective nuclear charge increases which implies
that the attraction between valence shell electrons and the nucleus increases which reduces the
atomic radius
- Down a group the atomic radius increases as the number of shells increase. (Shielding Effect)
The ionization energy (IE) : The minimum energy required to remove an electron from a neutral gaseous
atom in its ground-state.
- Across a Period : As the effective nuclear charge, Ze, increases from left to right across a period
the valence electrons are pulled closer to the nucleus, so the attraction between the electrons and
the nucleus increases. This makes it more difficult to remove an electron from the atom.
- Atomic radii increase down a group, making it easier to remove an electron from the atom.
The Electron Affinity (Eea) : The energy required to detach an electron from the singly charged negative
ion in the gaseous phase. The trends are same as the ionization energy mentioned above.
Electronegativity : Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to gain a shared pair of electrons from its
covalent bond. Most electronegative element is Fluorine.
- Down a group from top to bottom electronegativity values decrease because atomic radii increase
and although the nuclear charge, Z, increases, its effect is shielded by the core electrons
Exothermic Reaction : A type of reaction where heat is given out to the surroundings. The products are
much more stable in an exothermic reaction rather than the reactants.
Enthalpy : The internal energy stored in reactants is called an enthalpy.
Q = MC(Delta)T
Energetics
The standard enthalpy change of formation of a compound : The enthalpy change when one mole of the
compound is formed from its elements in their standard states at 298 K and 100 kPa pressure.
The standard enthalpy change of combustion, H , is the enthalpy change when one mole of a substance is
completely combusted in oxygen under standard conditions (298 K and 100 kPa pressure).
Average Bond Enthalpy : This is defined as the energy needed to break one mole of a bond in a gaseous
molecule averaged over similar compounds.
Chemical Kinetics
Factors Affecting Rate of a Reaction
- Temperature : As temperature increases, there will be more collisions per second. More number
of particles have a greater activation energy now which leads to more number of successful
collisions, which increases the overall rate of a reaction
Notes Submitted By : /u/AyySam
Full notes for the HL Chemistry course and IA (23/24) - https://thesciencecodex.wordpress.com/
Organic Chemistry
- Homologous series: series of compounds that can be grouped together based on similarities in
formula
- Saturated compound: contains carbon-carbon single bonds
- When determining whether a compound is primary, secondary, or tertiary, look at the carbon
o If benzene contained three carbon-carbon double bonds, the enthalpy change of
hydrogenation would be ~3 times that of cyclohexane
o However, experiments show that it is much less than this
o Difference in energy is known as the resonance energy or delocalization energy
o Describes the enhanced stability of the benzene molecule resulting from the delocalization
of the electrons
- Homolytic fission: two electrons of a covalent bond are split evenly between two atoms
unevenly split between the two atoms (both electrons move together to form a new bond)
- Substitution reaction: replacement of individual atoms with other single atoms or with a small
group of atoms
- Addition reaction: two molecules are added together to produce a single molecule
3 stages in free-radical substitution (e.g. ):
1. Initiation
- Homolytic fission of the chlorine molecule in the presence of UV light produces two chlorine
radicals
2. Propagation
- Reaction between methane and a chlorine free-radical
- Methyl radical reacts with a chlorine molecule, producing the desired halogenoalkane
(chloromethane), along with a chlorine radical that can now take part in the first propagation
reaction
3. Termination
- Reduces concentration of radicals in the reaction mixture
- Addition polymerization: reaction of many small monomers that contain a carbon-carbon
- NOTE:
o When drawing diagrams to represent polymerization, you must draw continuation bonds
through the brackets
o Indicate to show that the polymer repeats
- Any monomer that contains a carbon-carbon double bond can undergo polymerization
- Alkanes:
o Oxidation
o Esterification (condensation reaction): carboxylic acid + alcohol
Reaction of Alkyl Halides
- Nucleophiles: contain a lone pair of electrons and may carry a full negative charge; seeks
positive center
- Highly electronegative halogen atom creates polar carbon-halogen bond
- Solvation: process by which solvent molecules surround the dissolved ions
o The smaller the nucleophile, the more effective the solvation
o Because nucleophile is encapsulated by the solvation shell, it is less effective in forming an
intermediate, therefore reactions would be favored
- Hydroxide ion is a better nucleophile than the water molecule
o Negatively charged ion has a far greater attraction for an electrophile than a neutral
molecule
- Steric hindrance: more alkyl groups on a carbon create more steric hindrance; measure of
- Alkenes are more susceptible to electrophilic attacks because of the delocalized electrons above
and below the plane of nuclei of the bonding atoms due to bonding
o Provides reduced level of steric hindrance to the attacking electrophile
- Markovnikov's rule: hydrogen atom will preferentially bond to the carbon atom of the alkene
- Nitration of benzene
entire group attached to the carbon, not just the atoms bonded directly to that carbon
- Constitutional isomers:
o Skeletal: different structural backbone
o Positional: different position of substituent or functional group
o Functional group: different functional group
- Stereoisomers: differ in the 3-D arrangement of their atoms in space
- Diastereomers: non-superimposable, non-mirror images; molecules with more than one chiral
center; different configurations at one or more but not all chiral centers
- Optically active organic compound can be identified by finding a chiral carbon (enantiomers and
diastereomers)
- Racemic mixture (racemate): 50:50 mixture of two enantiomers which does not rotate
plane-polarized light
Option D: Medicinal Chemistry
D.1 Pharmaceutical products and drug action
Medicines and Drugs: Terminology
Drug: a chemical that affects how the body works. This can include for positive and negative changes.
Medicine: a substance that improves health. Medicines can be natural or synthetic (contain beneficial
drugs). Synthetic medicine contain other ingredients that are inactive but help with the presentation and
administration of the drug. The beneficial effect of a medicine is called its therapeutic effect.
Drugs Can be Administered in Different Ways
The way a drug is delivered to a patient’s body depends on factors like the chemical nature of the drug,
the condition of the patient and the most effective way of getting the drug to the target organ.
Methods:
- Oral
- Taken by the mouth.
- Ex. Pills, capsules, tablets, liquids.
- Inhalation
- Vapour breathed in / smoking
- Ex. medication for respiratory conditions like asthma, drugs of abuse like cocaine or
nicotine.
- Skin patches
- Absorbed directly from the skin into the blood.
- Ex. hormone treatments like estrogen or nicotine patches.
- Suppositories
- Inserted into the rectum.
- Ex. treatment of digestive illnesses
- Eye or ear drops
- Liquids delivered directly to the opening.
- Ex. treatment of eye or ear infections.
- Parenteral - by injection
- Intramuscular - into muscle (ex. many vaccines)
- Intravenous - into the blood, the fastest method of injection (ex. Local anaesthetics)
- Subcutaneous - under the skin (ex. dental injections)
Bioavailability of Drugs: the Amount That Reaches the Target
- Not all of an administered drug reaches its target in the body because the drug may be be broken
down in metabolic processes or may be incompletely absorbed into the blood.
- The fraction of an administered drug that reaches the blood supply is known as its bioavailability.
- Drugs that are administered by intravenous methods have a bioavailability of 100%, so this is
used as a point of comparison.
- Bioavailability is important when calculating how much of a drug should be administered -
known as the dosage.
Factors that Influence Bioavailability
Administration of the Drug
- The relatively low bioavailability of a drug taken orally is known as the first-pass effect which
means that only 20%-40% of an orally ingested drug may reach the bloodstream
- This is because these drugs pass into the digestive system where biological catalysts known as
enzymes may alter them chemically.
- Once absorbed from the digestive system, they are passed in the blood to the liver where further
metabolic breakdown reactions occur.
- Other methods avoid the first-pass effect because they can provide more direct routes into the
bloodstream.
- Therefore, an oral dose of a drug need to be 4 times more than the dosage of the same drug given
intravenously.
Solubility of the Drug
- Water solubility is important for circulation in the aqueous solution in the blood but lipid
solubility helps in the passage of the drug through membranes during absorption.
Functional Groups in the Drug
- Functional groups in the drug can also influence bioavailability, especially in acid-base groups.
- The pKa and pKb values of these groups in the molecules determine the charges carried on the
drug at different pH values and hence, the reactivity and solubility in different parts of the body.
Side Effects
- The physiological effects of a drug can be either a therapeutic effect (the intended physiological
effect) or a side effect (unintended physiological effect).
- Side effects are defined as physiological effects which unintended and they vary from one drug to
another and with the same drug in different people.
- Sometimes side effects can be helpful (ex. aspirin helps protect against heart disease).
- Side effects can be benign (ex. causing drowsiness, nausea or constipation)
- Side effects can also be adverse such as causing damage to organs.
Tolerance and Addiction
- When a person is given doses of a drug, tolerance can develop, which can lead to a reduced
response to the drug for the same dose.
- Higher doses are needed to produce the same effect and this increases the chances of toxic
side-effects.
- A related condition is dependence or addiction.
- This happened when a patient becomes dependent on the drug in order to feel normal but they
undergo withdrawal symptoms if the drug is not taken.
- Withdrawal symptoms can be mild like headaches because of withdrawal from dependence of
caffeine.
- These symptoms can also be serious if the drug is toxic or shown tolerance like opiates.
Dosage
- The dosing regime for a drugs is the specific quantity of drug to be take at one time, and the
frequency of administration.
- Calculation of dosage must consider bioavailability as well as the possible side-effects and
potential problems of tolerance and addiction.
- There are quite a few complication for determining dosage that come from:
- Variables like age, sex, weight
- Environmental factors and diet
- Interactions with other drugs
- The dosage should result in constant levels of drug in the blood but this is impossible to achieve
unless you use an IV drip - other methods lead to fluctuations between administrations of the
drug.
- It’s important that the concentration of the drug in the bloodstream should stay in a certain range
and if it is above this range that side-effect may occur and below it, the drug may not be
therapeutically effective.
- The target range is known as the therapeutic window.
- The range of concentrations that defines the therapeutic window varies from one drug to the
other.
- For drugs with a small therapeutic window, drug levels in the blood have to be monitored very
closely to maintain an effective dosing without giving a toxic dose.
- The therapeutic window can be quantified as the therapeutic index (TI).
- This is the ratio of the dose that produces toxicity to the dose that produces a clinically effective
response in a population.
Important terms:
- The minimum effective dose ED 50, is the dose that produces the therapeutic effect in 50% of the
population.
- The lethal dose, LD 50 is the dose that is lethal to 50% of the population - used in animal trials.
- The toxic dose TD 50, is the dose that is toxic to 50% of the population - this is used in human
studies.
- In animal studies, lethal doses are determined but in human trials the upper limit is the toxic dose.
- Therapeutic index:
- In animals TI = LD50/ED50
- In humans TI = TD50/ED50
- The therapeutic index is a measure of a drug’s safety because a higher value indicates a wide
margin between doses that are effective and doses that are toxic.
- A low TI means a low margin of safety, where a slight change in the dose may produce a negative
side-effect.
How drugs work
1. Signal transmission - Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves
a. At the synapse of neuron
i. Blocking a neurotransmitter
ii. Change shape of neurotransmitter
iii. Increase the activity/effect of the neurotransmitter
2. Cellular action
a. Metabolic reaction inside cell - stop or enhance
b. Attach to cell receptors to initiate metabolic reaction inside cell.
3. Endocrine
a. Inhibit hormones
b. Mimic hormones
Therapeutic index = LD50/ED50
Ex. 100/10 - just a ratio
The lowes a TI the more lethal a drug is.
Therapeutic window = the range at which the dose of the drug is actually therapeutic.
Drug Action Depends on Interactions with Receptors
- The activity of most drugs is determined by their ability to bind to a specific receptor in the body.
- Receptors are usually proteins which includes enzymes, chemical structures on cell membranes or
DNA.
- The binding of the drug prevents or inhibits normal biological activity and so it interrupts the
developments of the disease.
- Drug-receptor interactions depend on a chemical fit between the drug and the receptor.
- The better the fit, the greater the activity of the drug.
- The binding of drug and receptor usually involves different types of noncovalent bonding such as
ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, van der Waal’s forces and hydrophobic interactions.
Development of Synthetic Drugs
- Most drug research focuses on identifying a suitable molecular target in the body and designing a
drug to interact with it.
- Once a target molecule has been identified, the next step is to find a lead compound (one that
shows the desired pharmaceutical activity which will be used as a start for the drug design and
development process).
- The effectiveness of the lead compound is optimized by synthesizing and testing many
chemically related compounds known as analogues.
- A process called combinatorial chemistry enables the production and testing of many candidate
medicines in a very short time.
- Following the extensive lab testing, a potential medicine is then tested on animals.
- Data on the safety and effectiveness of a drug enables researchers to predict the clinical
therapeutic index for humans and the dose to be administered in human trials are determined.
- The effectiveness of the drugs is judged by the relative improvement in the patients who had
received the real medication as compared with those on placebo.
Full of Below is here ----> Option C: Energy (SL & HL)
· n = N/NA
· m = n x M
· N = n x NA
n = mole number
N = # of atoms/molecules/ions
M = molar mass
m = real/given mass
An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into anything simpler by chemical (or
physical) means. Elements are composed of atoms that have the same atomic number (i.e. the same
number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.) An atom is an uncharged particle, meaning that it is
electronically neutral, but not electronically stable (excluding noble gasses.)
Most elements consist of more than one isotope. An isotope is an atom with a certain number of neutrons
and protons. Atoms with the same number of protons but varying number of neutrons are isotopes of the
same element.
To work out percentage composition:
Divide the thing you’re trying to find, by the mass of the compound it is in, and then multiply the answer
by 100.
E.g. (O/H2O) *100 = (16.00/18.02) *100 = 88.79%
To work out empirical formula:
Elements O C H
Topic 1.3
Key Concepts:
· Reactants can be either limiting or excess.
· T
he experimental yield can be different from the theoretical yield.
· A
vogadro’s law enables the mole ratio of reacting gases to be determined from volumes of the gases.
· T
he molar volume of an ideal gas is a constant at specified temperature and pressure.
· T
he molar concentration of a solution is determined by the amount of solute and the volume of the
solution.
· A
standard solution is one of known concentration.
The concept of completely independent gas particles applies to what are called ideal gases. No particles
can be totally independent in reality, otherwise liquefaction would not occur. However, at low pressures
and high temperatures the kinetic molecular theory adequately describes most of the real (actual) gases,
especially those with relatively low molecular masses. Under room temperature and pressure the KMT is
accurate to 1%.
concentration = number of moles / volume in dm3
number of moles = concentration (molarity) s volume (in dm3)
n = cV
c = n/V
Concentration is equivalent to molarity.
Pressure:
Pressure is force per unit area.
Pressure = force / area
Pressure is defined as the number of collisions of gas molecules per unit on the wall of a container.
Molecular bombardment causes the gas to exert a pressure on the inner walls of the container, but because
the vessel is rigid its volume cannot change. The symbol that represents pressure is: P
Pascal Pa (N m-2)
Atmosphere atm
Conversion: 760 mmHg = 1 atm = 101325 Pa
Volume: SI unit = m3
Conversion: 0 o C = 273 K
composition.
Relative atomic mass: The relative atomic mass of an element is the weighted average of all of it’s
isotopes.
Formula for RAM:
E.g.
(27*x) + (43*y) + (30*z) / 100
Each of the numbers represents the prevalence of the isotopes as given by the mass spectrometer. Each
variable represents the isotopic mass of the isotopes.
Many different models of the atom were proposed through history. Some people who made models of
the atom were Democritus, Rutherford, Thomson and Bohr.
electrons, 2n2.
· A
more detailed model of the atom describes the division of the main energy levels into s, p, d and f
sub-levels of successively higher energies.
· S
ub-levels contain a fixed amount of orbitals, regions of space where there is a high probability of finding
an electron.
· E
ach orbital has a defined energy state for a given electronic configuration and chemical environment and
Topic 3: Periodicity
Topic 3.1: Periodicity
Key concepts:
· The periodic table is arranged into four blocks associated with the four sub-levels: s, p, d and f.
· The periodic table consists of groups (vertical columns) and periods (horizontal rows)
· The period number (n) is the outer energy level that is occupied by electrons
· The number of the principal energy level and the number of the valence electrons in an atom can be
Topic 4: Bonding
All bonding is electrostatic in nature
è the attraction between positive and negative charges
Monoatomic ions are composed of one element E.g. P3-
Polyatomic ions are composed of more than one element E.g. OH-
· The number of electrons lost or gained is determined by the electronic configuration of the atom.
· The ionic bond is due to electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions
· Under normal conditions, ionic compounds are usually solids with lattice structures.
Common properties of ionic compounds:
High melting point: Due to the extremely strong bonds between the positive ions and the negative ions, a
lot of thermal energy is required to break the ions free.
Hard and Brittle: A strong force is needed to disrupt the regular arrangement of the crystal lattice. A
shearing force can destroy a lattice. The shearing force causes the ions to move, which then sets up
repulsion between similarly charged ions. This can then cause the crystal lattice to split or shatter.
Conducts when molten but not when solid: The ions in the solid crystal are held in position within the
lattice and are not free to move. When the solid melts (or is in solution) the ions are free to move and
complete an electric circuit. Electricity cannot flow without the movement of charged particles, and in
this case the charged particles are the ions.
Ionic bonding is formed between a metallic element with low/high electronegativity and a non-metallic
element with low/high electronegativity.
Metallic atoms often lose electrons, due to their low group numbers, meaning that they have low numbers
of valence electrons, while the non-metallic atoms often gain electrons due to their high number of
valence electrons.
Once the oppositely charged ions have been formed by the electron transfer between the atoms, they go
on to attract each other strongly, to form a three dimensional ionic lattice. In the ionic network lattice, the
total positive charge must equal the total negative charge; no free electrons floating around.
The effect of ion charge on melting point and lattice energy
Definition Lattice energy: The lattice energy is the amount of energy required to split up a mole of solid
lattice into gaseous ions.
E.g. the amount of energy required to split one mole of NaF (s) into Na+ (g) ions and F- (g) ions.
Ionic Melting temperature /0C Lattice energy /kJ mol-1 Ion size / x 10-12 m
compound
There is little difference in ion size but double charges in the ions of CaO cause the attraction to be 4
times as strong and hence the lattice energy to be approximately 4 times as great.
The term coordination number is used to express the number of ions that surround a given ion in the
lattice. Most ionic substances can be dissolved in water, due to water’s polar nature.
4.2: Covalent bonding
Key concepts:
· A covalent bond is formed by the electrostatic attraction between a shared pair of electrons and the
· Bond length decreases and bond strength increases as the number of shared electrons increases.
· Bond polarity results from the difference in electronegativity’s of the bonded atoms.
Covalent substances are formed by non-metallic atoms joining together. The substances can be either
elements, or compounds.
A covalent bond is formed by the electrostatic attraction between a shared pair of electrons and the
positively charged nuclei.
The covalent bonds are strong bonds – a significant chemical reaction has to occur before the bonds
break. However, the molecules themselves are held together by weaker forces – which are known as
intramolecular forces.
Molecular/ionic shape is concerned with the arrangement of atoms in space. This is known as the
molecular geometry.
Electron domain geometry arrangement is concerned with the arrangement of electron domains.
Pairs of electrons act as sites of high electron density known as electron domains, and repel each
other.
Lone non-bonding pairs of electrons repel more than bonding pairs of electron.
Double and triple bonds act as one electron domain.
Lewis structures are made up of dots and crosses indicating the singular valence electrons, while valence
structures use dashes, and each dash represents a pair of electrons. Structural formula is the same as
valence structure, except it doesn’t show any of the valence electrons.
Properties of covalent substances (usually)
· Can be solids, liquids or gases at room temperature
Different types of molecular geometry
Four single bonding pairs of electrons:
If all four pairs of electrons are made up of bonding electrons the shape of the molecular geometry is
tetrahedral. The angle between electron pairs is approximately 109.5o. The electron domain geometry is
tetrahedral.
Three bonding pairs of electrons and one non-bonding pair of electrons:
If three pairs of electrons are bonding and one pair is non-bonding the molecular geometry is trigonal
pyramid. The bond angle is approximately 107o. The electron domain geometry is tetrahedral.
Two bonding pairs of electrons and two non-bonding pairs of electrons:
If two pairs of electrons are bonding and two pairs are non-bonding the molecular geometry is V – shape
or bent. The bond angle is approximately 104.5o. The electron domain geometry is tetrahedral.
One bonding pair and three non-bonding pairs of electrons:
If three pairs of electrons are non-bonding and one pair of electrons is bonding the molecular geometry is
linear. The bond angle is 180o. The electron domain geometry is tetrahedral.
Three electron domains around a central atom:
Where there are 3 electron domains around an atom, the electrons pairs spread out in a planar distribution.
The molecular geometry is trigonal planar and the bond angle is 120o.
· The strength of a metallic bond depends on the charge of the ions and the radius of the metal ion.
· Alloys usually contain more than one metal and have enhanced properties.
Explanation of properties:
Electrical conductivity: When a potential difference is applied the delocalised mobile valence electrons
are able to flow from the end of the metal conductor to the other. Electrons in the conducting wire then
replace them.
Good conductor of heat: The close packing within the lattice assists to transfer heat from high to low
temperature regions.
Malleable and ductile: The metal can be bent or beaten into different shapes without breaking. When a
force is applied to a piece of metal, the layers of positive ions can slip over each other. This is due to the
presence of the delocalised valence electrons, which move with the layers, preventing the cations from
coming into contact with one another, and preserving the metallic bonds.
High melting point: There is a strong attraction between the delocalised valence electrons and the
positive ions and a large amount of heat energy is required to overcome these attractions before the metal
melts.
In the structure of a metallic lattice, many atoms are packed closely together into a three-dimensional
network lattice. Electrons in the outer shell are not held tightly to their specific metal atom. This means
that they can flow around freely between the atoms and are not bonded to any particular atom. These
electrons are delocalised. The metal atoms are present as cations (positively charged ions)
The strong bonding in metals is due to the strong attraction between the positive cations and the
delocalised valence electrons.
Alloys
A metal alloy is a mixture of two or more metals. Alloys are usually less malleable and ductile than pure
metals and they tend to have lower melting points. They do, however, have other properties that make
them more useful than pure metals. Alloys can be better than pure metals in different ways, either by
being tougher and harder to break, or more malleable/ductile, or more resistant to heat.
When elements are in the elemental form they have no charge. When they form an ionic compound,
they either lose or gain electrons to become ions before bonding.
Topic 5: Energetics / thermochemistry
5.1: Measuring energy changes
Key Concepts:
· Heat is a form of energy
· Chemical reactions that involve the transfer of heat between the system and the surroundings are described
as endothermic or exothermic.
The enthalpy change (ΔH) for chemical reactions is indicated in kJ mol .
-1
·
· ΔH values are usually expressed under standard conditions, given by ΔH, including standard states.
A chemical reaction can be described as a rearrangement of atomic partnerships. In the initial stages of a
chemical reaction, bonds that are present must be broken. This process requires an input of energy. The
second stage of the reaction involves the formation of the new bonds of the products. Since this second
process involves a lowering of potential energy, the energy of the system will be lowered during this
stage.
Where the energy required for initial bond breaking is less than that evolved in forming the new bonds,
there will be a net loss of potential energy from the system. A reaction such as this is known as an
exothermic reaction.
ALL COMBUSTION REACTIONS AND NEUTRALISATION REACTIONS ARE
EXOTHERMIC.
Where the energy required for initial bond breaking exceeds that evolved in forming the new bonds, there
will be an increase in energy required by the system for the reaction to proceed, therefore this energy must
be supplied from some external source. The reaction is said to be endothermic.
The breaking of bonds always absorbs energy and the making of bonds always evolves energy.
Enthalpy is a measure of the total energy of a system and is given the symbol H. Enthalpy is defined as: H
= U + PV; where U is the internal energy, P is the pressure of the system and V is the volume of the
system.
Assuming that pressure is constant, the change in enthalpy of a system is equal to the energy change
measured as heat.
Therefore for a chemical reaction (at constant pressure) the enthalpy change is given by the relationship:
ΔH = H(products) – H(reactants)
When ΔH is +ve, the reaction is endothermic.
When ΔH is -ve, the reaction is exothermic.
The activation energy (EA) is the energy required to break bonds within the reactants and start the
reaction.
The activation energy can be lowered using a catalyst. A catalyst increases the rate of reaction by
providing an alternate reaction pathway. Note that a catalyst has no effect on the ΔH value. A catalyst
decreases the energy needed to break the bonds of the reactants.
In exothermic reactions, the products have a lower enthalpy and are more stable than the reactants.
In endothermic reactions, the reactants have a higher enthalpy and are more stable than the
products.
ΔH is the enthalpy change for a given system. It refers to the enthalpy change per mole(s) as defined by a
chemical equation. The commonly used unit of ΔH is kJ mol-1. When the theta (θ) is added to the ΔH
(ΔHθ) it references the fact that this is determining the enthalpy change in standard conditions.
The symbol q is used to represent the heat change for a given system. It refers to any specified quantity of
reactants rather than per mole.
The values ΔH and q can be related to each other using the relationship:
q = (ΔH) / mole
Definition of ΔH:
ΔH is the quantity of heat that needs to be evolved or absorbed to return the temperature to its
initial value when the number of mole reactants in the physical state and allotropic forms are specified in
the stoichiometric equation, completely react.
ΔH = energy / mol = kJ mol-1
Energy change = m x c x ΔT
m = mass of substance being heated (grams)
c = specific heat capacity of substance (unit J K-1 g-1)
ΔT = temperature change (oC or K)
The heat capacity of water is 4.18 J K-1 g-1
When working out the enthalpy of a solution one needs to ensure that they use the heat capacity value of
water namely 4.18 J K-1 g-1. When calculating off of a temperature/time graph, you need to extrapolate
the line backwards to ensure that you are getting the temperature without heat loss.
The change in energy of a reaction = mass x specific heat capacity x Δ temperature.
q = m x c x ΔT
Enthalpy changes (ΔH) relate to the number of moles in the reaction.
∆ H = -(q / n)
Where q is the energy change, and n is the moles.
change in energy = mass x specific heat capacity x change in temperature --> E = mc∆T
Enthalpy changes (∆H) are related to the number of moles in the reaction...if all the coefficients
are doubled, then the value of ∆H will be doubled (attention must be paid to limiting reagents
though).
When a reaction is carried out in water, the water will gain or lose heat from (or to) the reaction.
Therefore, the change in energy, and so the ∆H value, can be calculated with E = mc∆T where E
is equal to ∆H, m is the mass of water present, and c = 4.18 kJ Kg-1 K-1. This ∆H value can then
be calculated back to find the enthalpy change for each mol of reactants. The specific heat
capacity of water is used due
When trying to measure the enthalpy change of a reaction the solution should be placed in a
container as insulated as possible, to keep as much heat as possible from escaping. The
temperature should be measured continuously , and the value used in the equation is the
maximum change in temp from the initial position.
The results will be a change in temperature. This can be converted into a change in heat (or
energy) by using the above equation and a known mass of water. This can be used to calculate
the ∆H for the amount of reactants present, and then this can be used to calculate for a given
number of mols.
5.2: Hess’s Law
Key Concepts:
· The enthalpy change for a reaction that is carried out in a series of steps is equal to the sum of the enthalpy
changes for the individual steps.
· ΔH1 = ΔH2 + ΔH3 + ΔH4
The change in energy of a reaction = mass x specific heat capacity x Δ temperature.
q = m x c x ΔT
Enthalpy changes (ΔH) relate to the number of moles in the reaction.
∆ H = -(q / n)
Where q is the energy change, and n is the moles.
change in energy = mass x specific heat capacity x change in temperature --> E = mc∆T
Enthalpy changes (∆H) are related to the number of moles in the reaction...if all the coefficients
are doubled, then the value of ∆H will be doubled (attention must be paid to limiting reagents
though).
When a reaction is carried out in water, the water will gain or lose heat from (or to) the reaction.
Therefore, the change in energy, and so the ∆H value, can be calculated with E = mc∆T where E
is equal to ∆H, m is the mass of water present, and c = 4.18 kJ Kg-1 K-1. This ∆H value can then
be calculated back to find the enthalpy change for each mol of reactants. The specific heat
capacity of water is used due
When trying to measure the enthalpy change of a reaction the solution should be placed in a
container as insulated as possible, to keep as much heat as possible from escaping. The
temperature should be measured continuously , and the value used in the equation is the
maximum change in temp from the initial position.
The results will be a change in temperature. This can be converted into a change in heat (or
energy) by using the above equation and a known mass of water. This can be used to calculate
the ∆H for the amount of reactants present, and then this can be used to calculate for a given
number of mols.
chemically changed.
Base information
A homogenous reaction is one that occurs in a single phase in either the gaseous or liquid states. Since all
gases are mutually miscible, gases can only exist in single phase, meaning that all gaseous reactions will
be homogenous.
Liquid reactions may be either homogenous or heterogenous depending on whether their reactants exist in
one or more phases.
Reactions involving solid reactants are always heterogenous reactions.
The rate of reaction decreases with time because:
At the start of the reaction:
· Greater amount of substance and greater number of collisions per unit time
· Greater number of collisions with the correct geometry per unit time.
As the reaction proceeds:
· Smaller amount of substance.
· Fewer number of collisions with the correct geometry per unit time.
Collision theory
1. Particles must collide before they can react. The more particles there are in a given volume, the more
Rate of reaction
The speed of a process is defined as the change in a given quantity over a specific period of time. For
chemical reactions, the quantity that changes is the amount or concentration of a reactant or product.
Definition of Rate: The rate of a chemical reaction is the time rate of change of concentration of one
of the reactants or products.
The unit for rate is mol dm-3 s-1 (or M-1).
Factors affecting the rate of reaction
Concentration
The rates of most reaction involving reactants in solution, or in the gaseous state, depend on the
concentration of the reagents. In general, increasing the concentration of reactants increases the rate at
which reactants are converted to products.
Surface area
As the surface area of solid reactants increase, the rate of the reaction for most chemical reactions will
also increase.
A greater surface area of a solid means a larger number of particles exposed. Therefore, there will be a
larger number of successful collisions per unit time, between the particles.
Temperature
The rates of most chemical reactions increase with temperature. The temperature of a system is a measure
of the available kinetic energy to the particles of the system. Therefore, as the temperature of a system
increases the average kinetic energy of the particles of the system also increase, increasing the proportion
of molecules/particles with energy exceeding that of the EA.
NOT ALL MOLECULES IN A SAMPLE HAVE EXACTLY THE SAME AMOUNT OF
KINETIC ENERGY AT A PARTICULAR TEMPERATURE.
The effects of temperature on a reaction
For reactants to undergo reaction they must have enough kinetic energy to break the existing chemical
bonds. This amount of chemical energy is called the activation energy of the reaction.
The greater the temperature, the more likely the particles will have enough kinetic energy to react. Hence,
more collisions between particles will result in ‘succesful’ collisions- a chemical reaction.
Secondary effect
As the temperature increases, particles move faster andcollide more frequently and with greater energy,
resulting in more succesful collisions per unit time and a greater rate of reaction.
Catalysts
A catalyst is a substance that lowers the activation energy of a reaction by providing an alternate reaction
pathway. This alternate reaction pathway has a lower activation energy than the original pathway. The
catalyst must remain chemically unchanged for it to be classified as a catalyst.
A catalyst is a substance that:
· increases the rate of the reaction
· does not undergo permanent chemical change during the reaction (i.e. does not generally get consumed in
the reaction.)
· is needed in only small quantities to have an effect
There are two main kinds of catalysts. Homogenous catalysts are in the same physical state as the
reactants and the products. Heterogenous catalysts are in different states to the reactants.
Topic 7: Equilibrium
7.1: Equilibrium
Key Concepts:
· A state of equilibrium is reached in a closed system when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are
equal.
· The equilibrium law describes how the equilibrium constant (Kc) can be determined for a particular
chemical reaction.
· The magnitude of the equilibrium constant indicates the extent of a reaction at equilibrium and is
temperature dependent.
· The reaction quotient (Q) measures the relative amount of products and reactants present during a reaction
at a particular point in time. Q is the equilibrium expression with non-equilibrium concentrations. The
position of the equilibrium changes with changes in concentration, pressure and temperature.
· A catalyst has no effect on the position of the equilibrium constant.
When a system is at equilibrium, no changes in the concentrations of reactants or products occur. A
system at equilibrium does not mean that the reaction has stopped.
There are important differences between the rate and the extent of a reaction. The rate describes how fast
the reactants are converted into products; the extent describes how far a reaction proceeds. A catalyst
increases the rate of a reaction, but has no effect on the extent of the reaction (the position of
equilibrium).
Dynamic equilibrium
Dynamic equilibrium is the state that a reaction can reach when both the products and reactants are in a
state of equilibrium. When dynamic equilibrium has been reached in a reaction, the following things
occur:
· macroscopic properties are constant e.g. colour, density
“⇌” emphasises that the reaction can be in a state of equilibrium. This also informs you that the reaction
does not have 100% completion rate in terms of the transformation of reactants to products.
The rate of a reaction is the speed of the reaction; how quickly the reaction achieves equilibrium.
The extent of a reaction is the degree that the reactants had been converted to products.
Equilibrium can be reached from either direction;
· from products only
Le Chatelier’s Principle dictates that when one of the factors that affect the position of equilibrium is
introduced to the reaction, the reaction will compensate in the other direction.
For example, using the Haber Process: N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) one can illustrate Le Chatelier’s Principle in
action. When excess amounts of a reactant is added to the reaction environment (N2) the reaction
automatically compensates by moving the position of equilibrium forward. The effect that this has on
the reaction environment is that it increases the amount of product produced due to the increased rate of
completion of reaction.
An important example is the way that changes in pressure are expressed by Le Chatelier’s Principle. If the
pressure of the system decreases, the position of equilibrium shifts towards more gaseous molecules.
3 : 1 --> 2
e.g. 3H2(g) + N2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
4 : 2
As the reactants have a greater number of gaseous molecules, the reaction will move backwards towards
the reactants.
The opposite will occur if pressure increases with the reaction shifting towards less gaseous molecules.
The only factor that affects the Kc value is temperature.
· An indicator can be used to show the presence of acids and bases.
When an acid is added to a base (or vice versa) the properties of both the acid and the base are lost. The
acid is neutralised by the base.
The hydronium ion (H3O+) represents the existence of a hydrogen ion (proton) in water.
Acids and bases can be identified according to their respective properties.
The common properties of acids are that they:
· taste sour
· are corrosive
The common properties of bases are that they:
· feel soapy
· are corrosive
Reactions
ACID + BASE à SALT + WATER
E.g. HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) à NaCl(aq) + H2 O(l)
ACID + CARBONATE (base) à SALT + WATER + CO2
E.g. 2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) à 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Ionic equation: 2H+(aq) + CO32-(aq) à H2 O(l) + CO2(g)=
ACID + METAL à SALT + H2
E.g. 2HCl(aq) + Mg(s) à MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Ionic equation: 2H+(aq) + Mg(s) à Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
ACID + METAL OXIDE à SALT + WATER
E.g. 2HNO3(aq) + CuO(s) à Cu(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
Ionic equation: 2H+(aq) + CuO(s) à Cu2+(aq) + H2O(l)
ACID + SULFITE à SALT + WATER + SULFUR DIOXIDE
E.g. 2HCl(aq) + CaSO3(s) à CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + SO2(g)
Ionic equation: 2H+(aq) + CaSO3(s) à Ca2+(aq) + H2O(l) + SO2(g)
ACID + SULFIDE à SALT + HYDROGEN SULFIDE
E.g. 2HCl(aq) + FeS(s) à FeCl2(aq) + H2S(g)
Ionic equation: 2H+(aq) + FeS(s) àFe2+(aq) + H2Sg)
Polyprotic acids
Acids such as sulphuric acid (H2SO4) are capable of losing more than one hydrogen ion (H+). It forms the
hydrogen sulfate ion HSO4-, which then loses a further H+ to form the sulphate ion SO42-.
E.g. H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) à HSO4-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
HSO4-(aq) + H2O(l) à SO42-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
Amphiprotic substances
Amphiprotic substances can act as either acids or as bases depending on the species they are reacting
with.
E.g. HSO4-(aq) + H2O(l) à SO42-(aq) + H3O+(aq) in which HSO4- acts as an acid.
HSO4-(aq) + H3O+(aq) à H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) in which HSO4- acts as a base.
Amphoteric substances
Amphoteric substances can also act as an acid or a base but has no protons to donate.
E.g. Al2O3
· Strong acids and bases of equal concentrations have higher conductivities than weak acids and bases.
· A strong acid is a good proton donor and has a weak conjugate base.
· A strong base is a good proton acceptor and has a weak conjugate acid.
The strength of an acid is how extensively the substance is ionised (donates H+ ions) in water. A strong
acid has close to 100% ionisation. Sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid and nitric acid are all strong acids. In
weak acids, the extent of the ionisation is far less than in strong acids.
Methods to distinguish between strong and weak acids:
· Test the conductivity of each acid
· React each acid with a reactive metal and observe the extent of reaction
· React each acid with strong base and observe heat produced.
· The activity series ranks metals according to the ease with which they undergo oxidation.
· The Winkler Method can be used to measure biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), used as a measure of the
stronger oxidising agent while the reducing agent listed higher on the series is the stronger reducing
agent.
· The stronger an oxidising agent of a given redox pair is, the weaker its conjugate reducing agent will be
reducing agent.
The combined half-equations which detail the transfer of electrons are called redox reactions.
Reducing agents cause reduction, causing the reducing agent to undergo oxidation.
Oxidising agents cause oxidation, causing the oxidising agent to undergo reduction.
Conjugate pairs – The conjugate pairs are the oxidising agent and the reducing agent of an equation and
they differ by the number of e- in the equation.
Eg. Zn and Zn2+ are conjugate pairs and differ by 2e-.
OXIDATION
Oxidation can be defined in 4 different ways:
1. The loss of electrons
2. The increase of oxidation number
3. The loss of hydrogen
4. The gain of oxygen
a) In terms of changes in oxygen (O) or hydrogen (H) content.
Oxidation is the process of gaining oxygen and/or losing hydrogen.
e.g. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) --> CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
CH3CH2OH(l) + O2(g) --> CH3CHO(aq) + H2O(l)
b) In terms of electron transfer.
Oxidation is the process of losing electrons.
e.g. Zn(s) --> Zn2+(aq) + 2e-
c) In terms of oxidation numbers.
Oxidation is an increase in oxidation number.
+2 +3 -2 +6
e.g. FeCl2 --> FeCl3; H2S --> H2SO4
REDUCTION
Reduction can be defined in 4 different ways:
1. The gain of electrons
2. The decrease of oxidation number
3. The gain of hydrogen
4. The loss of oxygen
d) In terms of changes in oxygen (O) or hydrogen (H) content.
Reduction is the process of losing oxygen and/or gaining hydrogen.
e.g. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) --> CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
CH3CH2OH(l) + O2(g) --> CH3CHO(aq) + H2O(l)
e) In terms of electron transfer.
Reduction is the process of gaining electrons.
e.g. Cu2+(s) + 2e- --> Cu(s)
f) In terms of oxidation numbers.
Reduction is a decrease in oxidation number.
+6 +4 +5 +3
e.g. SO3 --> SO3 ; 2-
PCl5 --> PCl3
OXIDATION NUMBERS
Oxidation numbers are directed numbers (always + or – in sign), which are assigned to atoms using a set
of rules.
1. The oxidation number of any atom in the elemental form is zero.
0 0
e.g. Cl2 O2
2. The oxidation number of a monoatomic ion is the same as the charge on the ion.
+1 -2
e.g. Na+
S2-
2. Balance the equation for oxygen by compensating the other side of the equation with H2O.
+
3. Balance the atoms, showing the hydrogen in H2O as coming from H on the other side.
4. Balance the charges, adding electrons to make the total charge on both sides of the equation the same.
9.2 Electrochemical cells
Key concepts:
Voltaic cells:
· Voltaic cells convert chemical energy into electrical energy.
· Oxidation occurs at the anode (negative electrode) and reduction occurs at the cathode (positive
· Oxidation occurs at the anode (positive electrode) and reduction occurs at the cathode (negative
· It is conventional in all cell diagrams to show the anode on the left of the cathode
· Cations flow towards the cathode and anions flow towards the anode.
· Electrons always flow from the anode to the cathode in the external circuit.
The functions of the salt bridge
1. The salt bridge completes the circuit electrically. Negative charges (electrons in the wire and
electrodes, negative ions in the solution and slat bridge) flow in one direction and positive charges
augment the current by flowing through the solutions and salt bridge in the opposite direction.
2. The salt bridge supplies ions in the correct stoichiometric amount to maintain electrical
neutrality in the solutions of each half-cell.
Around the anode, positive charges are being produced and the electrical balance would be lost unless if
the negative ions were not flowing out of the salt bridge.
Topic 10: Organic Chemistry
10.1: Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry
Key Concepts:
· A homologous series is a series of compounds of the same family, within the same general formula, which
· Structural isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms.
· Saturated compounds contain single bonds only and unsaturated compounds contain double or triple
bonds.
Definitions
Homologous series:
· Same general formula
Functional group: The site of chemical reactivity
Saturated / Unsaturated:
· A saturated hydrocarbon has only single C – C bonds.
· An unsaturated hydrocarbon has multiple carbon bonds, meaning either double or triple bonds.
Structural isomers: Same molecular formula but different structural formula.
Empirical formula: The ratio of each type of atom (element) in the molecule.
e.g CH| 1:1
Molecular formula: Provides the actual number of each type of atom (element) in the molecule. e.g.
C6H6
Semi-structural formula: butane | CH3(CH2)CH3 or CH3CH2CH2CH3
Prefixes:
1 - meth
2 - eth
3 - prop
4 - but
5 - pent
6 - hex
7 - hept
8 - oct
9 – non
10 - dec
Alkanes
Alkanes have the functional group CnH 2n+2.
They are a homologous series, meaning that the successive members of the series differ by the structural
unit of CH2. This homologous series is composed of saturated molecules, as all of the bonds between the
atoms in the molecule are single bonds. Alkanes can undergo combustion reactions when in the presence
of oxygen. They can also undergo substitution reactions with halogens. In these reactions, a hydrogen
atom is replaced by a halogen e.g. chlorine. This reaction usually takes place in the presence of U.V light.
Alkanes can undergo:
1. Combustion reactions:
Alkanes can undergo both complete combustion, which causes the production of water vapour and CO2
and incomplete combustion, which causes the production of water vapour, CO2(g) and CO(g), or the
production of carbon solid.
Example: C3H8 + 5O2 à 3CO2 + 8H2O
2. Substitution reactions:
An atom or a group of atoms is substituted for another atom or group of atoms. Substitution reactions
need U.V radiation for the reaction to occur.
Example: CH4(g) + Cl2(g) àCH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)
methane U.V chloromethane
Alkenes
Alkenes are a homologous series of hydrocarbons, which are unsaturated, because they contain at least
one carbon-carbon double bond. The general formula is CnH2n. Alkenes can also combustion reactions
with oxygen. Due to the carbon-carbon double bond in alkenes, they are much more reactive than alkanes.
The individual bonds in the double bond are weaker than the single C-C bond and require less energy to
break them. Alkenes undergo addition reactions, which involve breaking the double bond and adding the
atoms of the reacting species. The smallest alkene possible is ethene: CH2CH2
Alkenes can undergo:
1. Addition reactions:
In addition reactions, the double bond between the alkenes is broken allowing lots of new reactions to be
formed.
2. Combustion reactions:
Alkenes can undergo both complete and incomplete combustion.
Example: CH2CH2(g) + Br2(aq) à CH2BrCH2Br(l)
In this reaction the bromine solution is an orange/brown colour. After reaction with an alkene the solution
loses it’s colour. The decolourisation is a good chemical test for the presence of unsaturation (in the
molecules). Alkanes do not react with bromine, so mixing bromine water and alkanes des not result in a
colour change.
Ethene can also undergoes addition polymerisation, which is when ethene molecules effectively add to
each other producing a long chain of carbon atoms.
Alkynes
Alkynes are an unsaturated homologous series that contain at least one carbon-carbon triple bond. The
general formula for alkynes is CnH2n-2.
The smallest alkyne you can make is ethyne.
Alkynes can undergo:
1. Addition reactions
2. Combustion reactions
Alcohols
Alcohols are a homologous series. The functional group of alcohols is –OH; the hydroxyl group. The
functional group determines the chemical properties of the homologous series, and the chain length
(number of carbon atoms) causes the variation in physical properties such as boiling point and density
within the homologous series. Methanol and ethanol are very soluble in water. This is largely due to the
very polar nature of the hydroxyl functional group, which forms hydrogen bonds with water molecules.
As the non-polar hydrocarbon chain of the alcohol becomes larger, the alcohols become less soluble in
water as they become less polar. Propanol is just polar enough to dissolve in water, but butanol is not
sufficiently polar and forms an emulsion in water.
Ethanol can be produced by addition reactions or substitution reactions.
Addition to ethene: CH2=CH2 + H20 àCH3CH2OH (with a solid phosphoric acid catalyst)
Alcohols can also readily undergo combustion reactions with oxygen.
Oxidation reactions:
Alcohols can be readily converted into many important groups of compounds. Two important examples
are the oxidation of primary alcohols to aldehydes and carboxylic acids. Aldehydes contain the
functional group – CHO.
Carboxylic acids contain the carboxyl functional group – COOH
Varying the reaction conditions can produce these two functional groups. Milder conditions produce the
aldehydes and under harsher oxidation conditions, carboxylic acids can be produced.
Primary alcohols can be oxidised to: aldehydes and then: carboxylic acids
Secondary alcohols can be oxidised to: ketones
Tertiary alcohols cannot be oxidised.
A primary alcohol is when the carbon atom attached to the hydroxyl group is attached to one other
carbon atom.
A secondary alcohol is when the carbon atom attached to the hydroxyl group is attached to two
other carbon atoms.
A tertiary alcohol is when the carbon atom attached to the hydroxyl group is attached to two other
carbon atoms.
Halogenoalkanes
The general formula for halogenoalkanes is CnH2n-1X. Halogenoalkanes are alkanes which have halogens
bonded to them.
Halogenoalkanes can undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions. There are primary, secondary and
tertiary halogenoalkanes.
Aldehydes
The functional group for aldehydes is CHO. This consists of a C double bonded to an O whilst also being
bonded to an H. The ending is al for example, ethanal.
Ketones
The functional group for ketones is R2C=O, where the R stands for the alkyl groups. The ending is called
a carbonyl. The ending is one for example, propanone.
Carboxylic acids
The functional group for carboxylic acids is COOH, which is a C double bonded to an O, which is also
bonded to an O that is bonded to an H. The functional group is called a carboxyl.
Esters
Esters have the functional group COOR. Or a C double bonded to an O which is bonded to an O and then
the alkyl strand.
Amines:
Amines have a functional group of RNH2.
Benzene:
Benzene is C6H6. Benzene
Esters:
Esters also have a carbonyl group.
Esters are formed when an alcohol and a carboxylic acid undergo reactions with one another.
E.g ethyl ethanoate
The ethyl name comes from the alcohol, and the ethanoate comes from the carboxylic acid.
Concentrated sulphuric acid is used as a catalyst, and also acts as a dehydration agent and a drying agent.
.
CH3 )Topic 8: Acids and Bases
FREE RADICAL SUBSTITUTION MECHANISM – ALKANE + HALOGEN
.
denotes a free radical
Initiation is the formation of the free radical via homolytic fission. U.V radiation is needed to break the
bonds between the chlorine atoms causing each atom to become a free radical due to each atom receiving
one electron from the bond homolytic process.
.
Cl – Cl --> 2Cl
Propagation is the continued propagation of the free radicals throughout the alkane/halogen pairings.
. .
CH4 + Cl --> CH3 + HCl
. .
CH3 + Cl2 --> CH3Cl + Cl
.
CH3Cl + Cl --> CH2Cl + HCl
etc...
Termination is the part of the mechanism which causes the ending of the free radical substitution
method, eliminating all free radicals and causing the production of stable products.
. .
Cl + Cl --> Cl2
. .
Cl + CH3 --> CH3Cl
. .
CH3 + CH3 --> C2H6
Option B: Biochemistry
B.1: Introduction to biochemistry
· The diverse functions of biological molecules depend on their structures and shapes.
· Metabolic reactions take place in highly controlled aqueous environments.
· Reactions of breakdown are called catabolism and reactions of synthesis are called anabolism.
· Biopolymers form by condensation reactions and are broken down by hydrolysis reactions.
· Photosynthesis is the synthesis of energy-rich molecules from carbon dioxide and water using light energy.
Photosynthesis:
Photosynthesis is a redox reaction. UV/chlorophyll
The reaction for photosynthesis is: 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) à C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g)
Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction, as it requires energy for the process to be completed.
Organisms such as plants use this process to synthesize the food that they need, using the energy supplied
by sunlight. As plants can synthesize their own food, plants are called autotrophs.
Humans are heterotrophs, which means that we are unable to synthesize our own foods. Due to this,
humans must consume other organisms for a source of complex molecules.
Carbohydrates and fats are both oxidised by the body to give energy.
Fats are the more efficient source as they have much more energy available per gram, but carbohydrates
are more easily obtainable.
Oxidation:
Glucose is used as a fuel by the cells to provide energy. The glucose is used by cells in the process of
respiration to produce energy.
Oxidation by oxygen is aerobic respiration and is represented by the equation,
C6H12O6 + 6O2 à 6CO2 + 6H2O ΔH = -2860 kJ mol-1
In times of physical exertion the oxygen might not reach the cells quickly enough to provide sufficient
energy, and an alternate form of respiration, anaerobic respiration takes place.
C6H12O6 à 2C3H6O3 ΔH = -120 kJ mol-1
The product, lactic acid, builds up in muscles causing fatigue.
Determining the energy content of food:
Each food can have its energy content calculated by combustion. A simple way is to burn the food and
use the energy generated to heat up water. The energy released can then be calculated due to the
temperature change that the water undergoes.
A more precise method to determine the energy content of food is using a bomb calorimeter.
Anabolism: Anabolism is the part of metabolism concerned with building up or synthesis. The reactants
are small molecules called precursors, and the products are larger, more complex molecules of higher
energies. Anabolic pathways need energy to function. Examples include the synthesis of proteins from
amino acids.
Catabolism: Metabolic reactions concerned with breaking things down are known as catabolism.
Catabolic reactions release energy and produce more simple, lower energy products. Examples include
the breakdown of glucose in respiration.
The energy from a catabolic reaction is used to drive anabolic reactions. This is known as energy coupling
and involves an energy carrier called adenosine triphosphate, which is commonly known as ATP.
Condensation reactions: A condensation reaction is where a molecule of water is lost for each covalent
bond that forms between two monomers. Condensation polymerization is when condensation reactions
are used to create biopolymers.
Hydrolysis: The breakdown of these molecules reverses the condensation reaction by adding a molecule
of water for each covalent bond broken. The water is split with –H and –OH attaching seperately to the
product molecules.
· Protein structures are diverse and are described at the primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary levels.
· A protein’s three-dimensional shape determines its role in structural components or in metabolic processes.
· Most enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts by binding specifically to a substrate at the active site.
· As enzyme activity depends on the conformation, it is sensitive to changes in temperature and pH and the
· Crystalline solids
· Acts as buffers – a weak acid/weak base conjugates resist change in pH when small amounts of acid or
pI = isoelectric point is the pH at which the amino acid is in the zwitterion form.
When the pH of a 2- amino acid is above its isoelectric point, the 2 – amino acid becomes negatively
charged due to the 2 – amino acid acting as an acid. When the pH is lower than the isoelectric point, the 2
- amino acid becoming positively charged due to the 2 – amino acid acting as a base.
Peptide links
Two amino acid monomers can link together via a condensation reaction between the amino group of
one amino acid and the carboxyl group of the other. The peptide bond is the area of the compound
where H2O was removed from the compound during the condensation reaction. This reaction can also be
called an esterification reaction.
Protein structure
There are many different types of proteins, and many different possible structures that these proteins can
take. However proteins normally tend to fall into two categories, structural or globular. Structural
proteins tend to be insoluble and often have rope-like structures. Globular proteins have a more
spherical form and are often soluble in the aqueous environment of living organisms. Examples of
structural proteins are muscle, cartilage and hair while examples of globular proteins are hormones,
enzymes and antibodies.
A protein’s structure is determined by the:
· number of amino acid units in the chain
Primary structure
The primary structure of a protein can be defined as the type, number and sequence of the amino acids in
it. Primary structure is determined by the genetic code carried on the DNA molecules. The genetic code is
code for amino acids which helps our bodies know what order and type of amino acids should be chained
together to produce different types of proteins.
Secondary structure
The secondary structure of a protein relates to the coiling, folding and pleating caused by hydrogen
bonding within the protein chain. The two most common examples of secondary structure are the α-helix
and the β-pleated sheet.
The α-helix occurs mostly within globular proteins. It normally involves hydrogen bonds forming
between the peptide bonds within the protein molecule.
The β-pleated sheet is more common in structural proteins. β-pleated sheets form when hydrogen bonds
are formed between sections of the protein molecule that lie side by side.
Tertiary structure
The three-dimensional folding of a protein, superimposed on the α-helix and the β-pleated sheet is
called the tertiary structure. The overall shape is composed of:
· covalent bonding between different parts of the protein chain such as disulfide bridges
· ionic bonds
· ion-dipole attractions
The hydrophobic side chains of the amino acid will be found on the internal part of the protein when it is
folded into the tertiary structure, while the hydrophilic side chains will be on the outside.
Quaternary structure
Quaternary structure is the interaction that occurs between different protein chains. The types of
inter-protein interactions that can occur are:
+ -
· ionic bonding between charge groups such as NH3 and COO
Denaturation of Proteins
Denaturation is a change in the tertiary structure of the protein such that the protein cannot fulfill its
biological activity/function. Proteins can be denatured by a:
· change in pH to either very high or very low
· reaction with other chemicals. For example the heavy metals; Hg, Pb
These factors will interfere with the attractive forces that stabilize the tertiary structure.
Functions of proteins
In the body, proteins can serve a variety of functions and can exist in a variety of forms such as:
· structural proteins e.g. keratin in skin
· energy sources
Enzymes
Enzymes are protein molecules that act as biological catalysts. They increase the rate of biochemical
reactions whilst not being used up in the process. Enzymes are highly specific for the reactions that they
catalyse. They are globular proteins and their shape is determined by their tertiary and quaternary
structures.
Enzymes have faster reaction rates than inorganic catalysts and only work within the narrow ranges of
temperature and pH found in the body. They become inactive at higher/lower temperatures and pH values
due to changes in the tertiary and quaternary structure of the protein. This process is called the
denaturation of the protein.
Enzymes usually catalyse one step of a metabolic process. The substance whose reaction is catalysed is
referred to as the substrate. The substrate binds to a specific region of the enzyme molecule known as the
active site. The enzyme and substrate molecules fit by a lock and key mechanism, with the shape and
interactions between the functional groups holding them together.
A refined version of the lock and key model is known as the induced fit model. In this model, the active
site changes its shape as the substrate approaches, in direct response to the substrate.
B.3 – Lipids
Key concepts:
· Fats are more reduced than carbohydrates and so yield more energy when oxidized.
· Triglycerides are produced by condensation of glycerol with three fatty acids and contain ester links.
Triglycerides
Fats and Oils are members of a group of lipids known as triglycerides.
Triglycerides are esters of fatty acids. These esters form through a condensation reaction between the
fatty acid and glycerol, a molecule with 3 –OH groups.
Triglycerides made from saturated fatty acids tend to be solids at room temperature. Saturated fatty
acids contain only carbon-carbon single bonds in the hydrocarbon chain and are relatively unreactive. As
the hydrocarbon chains have a zig zag structure, this enables the triglyceride molecules to align closely
with one another, strengthening the dispersion forces between the molecules.
Triglycerides made from unsaturated fatty acids can be either monounsatured or polyunsaturated.
Triglycerides containing unsaturated fats have lower melting temperatures and are commonly liquid at
room temperature. This is because the hydrocarbon chains cannot align as closely due to the ‘kink’ in the
chain caused by the double bond. This leads to fewer dispersion forces between the molecules.
Saturated fatty acids have the general formula CnH2n+1COOH.
Oxidative Rancidity
Unsaturated fats can react with oxygen in the atmosphere. This reaction occurs at the C=C double bond.
Things such as light, enzymes and metal ions can accelerate the process and catalyse its occurrence.
Antioxidants are added to unsaturated fats in an effort to reduce the amount of oxidation that occurs.
Unsaturated fats are less stable than saturated fats because they can undergo auto-oxidation.
Iodine number
Iodine solution can be used to determine the number of double bonds (degree of unsaturation) in fatty
acids. The iodine number of a fat/oil is the mass of iodine (I2) that reacts with 100g of the lipid.
Higher iodine numbers mean a higher degree of unsaturation.
E.g. Calculation of iodine number for linoleic acid (Molar mass = 280 g mol-1)
For 100g of linoleic acid C17 H31COOH
n(linoleic acid) = 1--/280 = 0.357 mol
n(I2) to react = 2 x 0.357 = 0.714 mol (2 mol of double C=C bonds)
mass (I2) = n x M = 0.714 x 254 = 181g
Iodine number = 181 g
E.g. Derivation of double bond number using iodine number
Iodine number of arachidonic acid = 333g
Mole of I2 = 333/254 = 1.31 mol
Mole of arachodinic acid = 100/304.5 = 0.3284 mol
Ratio of mole of acid: mole of I2 = 1.31 / 0.3284 = 3.99
Number of double bonds = 4
Omega-3 and Omega-6 fatty acids
Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are unsaturated “Essential Fatty Acids” (EGAs) that need to be
included in the diet because the human metabolism cannot create them from other fatty acids.
These fatty acids use the Greek alphabet to identify the location of the double bonds. The ‘alpha’ carbon
is the carbon closest to the carboxyl group (carbon number 2) and the ‘omega’ is the last carbon of the
chain.
Linoleic acid is an omega-6 fatty acid because it has a double bond six carbons away from the ‘omega’
carbon. Linoleic acid plays an important role in the lowering of cholesterol levels within the body.
Alpha-linoleic acid is an omega-3 fatty acid because it has a double bond 3 carbons away from the omega
carbon.
Essential Fatty Acids
Essential fatty acids are important as they are used to produce the body’s required lipids. Essential fatty
acids are also needed as precursors for important hormone-like chemicals such as the prostaglandins and
the leukotrienes.
Phospholipids
Phospholipids are a class of lipids that consist of a hydrophilic polar head group and a hydrophobic
tail. The polar head group contains one or more phosphate groups while the hydrophobic chain is made
up of two fatty acyl chains. When many phospholipid molecules are placed in water, their hydrophilic
heads tend to face water and the hydrophobic tails are forced to stick together forming a bilayer.
Phospholipids are fat derivatives in which one fatty acid has been replaced by a phosphate group and
one of several nitrogen-containing molecules.
HDL and LDL cholesterols
HDL (high density lipoproteins) remove cholesterol from the walls of the arteries, and transport the
cholesterol to the liver. LDL (low density lipoproteins) transport cholesterol to the arteries where it leads
to the thickening of the artery walls, causing health issues. The main sources of LDL cholesterol are
saturated fats such as lauric acid.
Hormones
A hormone is a chemical messenger substance that is produced by the endocrine glands. Hormones
circulate throughout the body via the blood and influence only the target tissue which they have receptors
for.
Two hormones that are very important are the hormones of Progesterone and Testosterone. Both of these
hormones are steroids and are derived from cholesterol which causes them to display the characteristic
four ring structure of steroids.
Steroids
The negative side effects from taking anabolic steroids can include:
· high blood pressure
· heart attacks
· a potential for liver disease
· impotency
· for women, the development of secondary male sexual characteristics such as facial hair
B.4 Carbohydrates
Key Concepts:
· Carbohydrates have the general formula Cx(H2O)
· Monosaccharides contain either an aldehyde group or a ketone group and several –OH groups.
· Glycosidic links can form between monosaccharides causing the formation of disaccharides and
polysaccharides.
· Carbohydrates are used as energy sources and energy reserves.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and typically contain multiple
hydroxyl functional groups. Plants use the energy of sunlight to synthesize carbohydrates from carbon
dioxide and water. This process is known as photosynthesis. Examples of carbohydrates are cellulose,
glycogen and sucrose.
Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides have the empirical formula CH2O and molecular formulas of (CH2O)n where n = 3 or
greater. The carbon chain is unbranched and all carbon atoms in the chain except one contain a hydroxyl
group.
Glucose
Glucose has the molecular formula of C6H12O6 as do all hexoses (monosaccharides with 6 carbons). There
are 2 different forms of glucose known as alpha-glucose and beta-glucose.
The differences between alpha-glucose and beta-glucose lie in the positioning of the –OH group in the
molecule and whether it is up-facing or down-facing.
Disaccharides
Monosaccharides are able to undergo condensation reactions causing the formation of a disaccharide.
The –O- linkage between the monosaccharides is called a glycosidic link.
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are condensation polymers of monosaccharides such as glucose. They have high molar
masses and differ from simple sugars in that most of them are insoluble.
The main storage carbohydrate in plants is starch, while in animals it is glycogen. Both starch and
glycogen are polymers of alpha-glucose. Cellulose is a polysaccharide formed from the polymerisation of
beat-glucose.
Energy
The digestion of carbohydrates such as start and sucrose provides glucose which then passes into the
blood stream where it can then be transported to the tissues where it can act as an energy source.
Cellular respiration is the process by which aerobic cells obtain energy from the oxidation of molecular
oxygen of foodstuffs that serve as fuel. Such energy production is a basic requirement for life, as all living
things need energy to function. The main source of energy comes from the oxidation of glucose. The
cellular oxidation of glucose is a lengthy process involving numerous enzymes but it can be summed up
in one equation.
Respiration: C6 H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g) --> 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) ΔH =-2803 kJ mol-1
Functions of carbohydrates
The main functions of carbohydrates in the human body lie in it’s potential as an energy source, it’s
application as an energy reserve, and it’s usage as a precursor for other biologically important molecules.
As an energy source, carbohydrates are normally in the form of glucose. As energy reserves and storage,
they are normally in the form of glycogen.
B.5 Vitamins
Key concepts:
· Vitamins are organic micronutrients which (mostly) cannot be synthesized by the body but must be
· Vitamin deficiencies in the diet cause particular diseases and affect millions of people worldwide.
Definitions
Micronutrients are substances required in small amounts (mg or micro grams). They are required in
roughly <0.005% of body weight. Examples of micronutrients include vitamins and trace minerals such
as Fe, Cu, F, Zn, I, Se, Mn, Mo, Cr, Co and B. Minerals and most vitamins are not synthesised by the
body and must be take in in the diet (excluding vitamin D).
Macronutrients are chemical substances that are required in relatively large amounts (>0.005% body
weight). Examples include proteins, fats and carbohydrates and minerals such as Na, Mg, K, Ca, P, S
and Cl. Macronutrients such as carbohydrates supply energy and are required for the growth and
maintenance of the body.
organisms.
· Host-guest chemistry involves the creation of synthetic host molecules that mimic some of the actions
performed by enzymes in cells, by selectively binding to specific guest species, such as toxic materials in
the environment.
· Enzymes have been developed to help in the breakdown of oil spills and other industrial wastes.
· Enzymes in biological detergents can improve energy efficiency by enabling effective cleaning at lower
temperature.
· Biomagnification is the increase in concentration of a substance in a food chain.
· Green chemistry, also called sustainable chemistry, is an approach to chemical research and engineering
that seeks to minimize the production and release to the environment of hazardous substances.
Computer Science
SUBMITTED BY u/pranayshahxyz
Although it is hard to find resources for Computer Science (both HL and SL), I have a few links which I
refer to very frequently for revision:
● http://bwagner.org (Has both SL and HL notes; VERY HELPFUL)
● https://dokuwikimatyas.no-ip.org/ (Check if it works, has almost all topics)
● http://ib.compscihub.net/ (Helpful for Paper 3)
● https://drive.google.com/drive/u/0/folders/0B9jMq1QUTjXrY2paLTdvZWZnLWM (Mr Teacher
Wachs from YouTube)
● https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/IB/Group_4/Computer_Science (Has almost all topics)
● http://gen.lib.rus.ec/book/index.php?md5=006FCC8CBD00393AFD90F3375795F3D5 (Core
Computer Science IB Text Book - only for the SL syllabus)
● http://www.mrpudaloff.com/uploads/1/4/0/1/14010214/barrons_ap_computer_science_2008-200
9_1.pdf (This is the AP Computer Science book. Has a similar syllabus as IB CS HL, quite long
yet extremely helpful).
Please add any more links.
Cheers,
u/pranayshahxyz
Design Technology
Flashcards: https://quizlet.com/subject/ib-design-technology/
Notes: http://www.ruthtrumpold.id.au/destech/
ESS
Physics
For physics, after much deliberation on papers, one of the most important skills is mathematical
manipulation. Make sure you know how to divide ratios, and quantities. For example, the ratio of heights
if one takes twice the time for free fall, etc. While knowing the physics behind is expected, if you can
manipulate your answer using the formula, all the better.
Chris Doner on YT is your God
Flash cards for SL (Laws and definitions):
https://quizlet.com/79796928/ib-physics-laws-and-definitions-flash-cards/
Flash cards for SL (Definitions) (also has for Option Astrophysics):
https://quizlet.com/133523384/ib-physics-sl-definitions-flash-cards/
Study guide: https://ibphysics2016.wikispaces.com/
Revision guide by the guy who made the Physics revision app: https://ibphysicsnotes.wordpress.com/
Lectures of all topics:
https://www.youtube.com/user/CampbellMitch/playlists?&ab_channel=MitchCampbell
Extra resources from Cambridge: http://ibdiploma.cambridge.org/
Another good resource for basic conceptual understanding of certain topics : CrashCourse vids on
youtube. Relatively simple, but they get the job done.
I have some notes for Core waves and Electricity:
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/0B-6sZS5ggZpUNVNUSGxuX0RyRnM?usp=sharing
Sports Science