INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS PUBLISHING SEMICONDUCTOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Semicond. Sci. Technol. 16 (2001) 514–520 www.iop.org/Journals/ss PII: S0268-1242(01)21090-6

The influence of growth conditions on the

quality of CdZnTe single crystals
J Franc1 , R Grill1 , P Hlı́dek1 , E Belas1 , L Turjanska1 , P Höschl1 ,
I Turkevych1 , A L Toth2 , P Moravec1 and H Sitter3
1
Institute of Physics, Charles University, Ke Karlovu 5, Prague 2, CZ-121 16, Czech
Republic
2
MTA MFA, Structure Research, H-1535 Budapest-114 POB 49, Hungary
3
Institute of Semiconductor Physics, Johannes Kepler University, Altenbergerstrasse 69,
Linz, Austria

Received 18 January 2001, accepted for publication 20 April 2001

Abstract
Experimental conditions were investigated for growth of inclusion-free
near-stoichiometric CdZnTe single crystals with a minimized concentration
of native point defects. The positions of the stoichiometric line
P S = 8 × 105 exp(−1.76 × 104 /T ) (atm) and the room-temperature and
high-temperature p–n lines were evaluated from high-temperature in situ
galvanomagnetic measurements. The Cd pressure at the congruent melting
point was estimated at ∼1.15–1.20 atm from analysis of the total inclusion
volume of five single crystals fabricated at Cd pressures in the range of
1–1.3 atm. An inclusion-free single crystal was prepared at PCd ∼ 1.2 atm.
Calculations based on a model of two major defects, the Cd vacancy and the
Cd interstitial, show that a very small deviation of PCd from P S results in a
large generation of the native defects. Thus a reproducible production of a
high-resistivity material by a slow cooling along the P S seems to be very
difficult.

1. Introduction on a transmission electron microscope showed their maximum

CdZnTe (CZT) has been the principal lattice-matched substrate
for epitaxial growth of (HgCd)Te since the mid-1980s.
Although alternative substrates (sapphire, Si) are under study,
CZT is expected to keep its leading position in the next
millennium, especially in the case of fabrication of detectors
used in the long-wavelength infrared spectral region, and in
advanced applications such as two- and multicolour focal
plane arrays. The number of pixel counts now available in
photovoltaic HgCdTe detector elements has increased to a
value of 10k × 10k. Due to the fact that the pixel size is
restricted by the infrared radiation wavelength and focusing
possibilities, the increase of pixel counts requires larger
near-perfect CZT substrates. One of the critical parameters
limiting the substrate quality is the presence of inclusions and
precipitates of one of the components in the as-grown crystals,
caused by deviations from stoichiometry. A review of results
on the formation of inclusions and precipitates and ways of
eliminating them in CdTe and CZT was given in [1]. While
inclusions are formed by melt-droplet capture near the growing
interface at the growth temperature, precipitates are formed due
to the retrograde solubility of native point defects during the
cooling process of the solidified crystal. Study of precipitates
dimensions to be 30 nm [2].
The standard way of reducing the density of second-
phase particles is an annealing of CZT wafers in a Cd or Te
atmosphere. This technological step, however, increases the
cost, and often results in a lower crystallographic quality of
the annealed substrate. Therefore the research effort has been
focused on the elimination of deviations from stoichiometry
during the crystal growth, looking for the optimal Cd pressure
and cooling conditions. The purpose of this paper is
to find optimal stoichiometric growth conditions based on
the evaluation of high-temperature (HT) galvanomagnetic
properties of CdTe [3].
2. Experiment
CZT single crystals (with a Zn content ∼4%) were fabricated
by the vertical gradient freeze method [4]. The crystals were
prepared in a quartz ampoule with a diameter of 105 mm, in
which a growth crucible with a diameter 100 mm was located at
Cd overpressure 1–1.3 atm. 6N purity starting elements were
used in all growth runs. The Cd pressure at the maximum
temperature during the growth was reached by adding the

0268-1242/01/060514+07$30.00 © 2001 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK 514

 The influence of growth conditions on the quality of CdZnTe single crystals

Table 1. Basic parameters of crystals used in the study.

PCd Concentration ρ µh Le , 300 K Le , 80 K
Crystal (atm) Type (cm−3 ) ( cm) (cm2 V−1 s−1 ) (µm) (µm)
A 1.3 P 6.8 × 1014 110 85 3.5 71
B 1.2 N 1.8 × 108 1.1 × 108 210 — —
C 1.2 P 4.6 × 1015 17 80 1.3 4.1
D 1.05 P 1.8 × 1016 6.2 35 1.2 1.3
E 1 P 1.9 × 1016 3.4 97 1.7 7.6

corresponding amount of Cd to the ampoule. The cooling stoichiometry line (P S ) in the P –T diagram at which the lattice
speed during the crystallization process at temperatures 1120– defects are mutually compensated, and the anion and cation
1080 ◦ C was 0.5 ◦ C h−1 . All crystals were very high quality atomic fraction relation xCd +xZn = xTe = 0.5 is fulfilled. Due
single crystals filling about 90% of the crucible volume with to the small amount of Zn in our single crystals and in order
no macroscopical defects (grain boundaries, twins). to simplify the model calculations, the Zn-related defects will
A complex study of the physical properties of as-grown be omitted in this paper. Here we are interested in undoped
single crystals was performed. The concentration of the materials, and therefore include only native defects in our
inclusions was investigated using an infrared microscope analysis. The slow cooling of the as-grown crystal along the
enabling the observation of inclusions larger than 1 µm. A P S results in sample formation without precipitates, which are
wafer of thickness 1.5 mm was cut along the (111) growth axis formed due to the native defect supersaturation. The annealing
of the crystal. The average concentration of inclusions was of the stoichiometric CZT at lower temperature results in the
calculated at several positions along the growth axis.
recombination of the defects producing pure materials, without
Optical properties were investigated by a FTIR
claiming to add some species by the diffusion from an external
spectrometer (BRUKER IFS 66/S) with Si and TGS detectors
source. The process rate is limited only by the necessary
in a continuous flow He cryostat. Spectra were corrected with
thermal balancing during the cooling, where the temporary
respect to the sensitivity of the detectors. Two types of contacts
nonequilibrium between the solid CZT and the surrounding
were used for Hall effect and conductivity galvanomagnetic
gas phase can cause the escape of one component (mostly Cd)
measurements—chemically prepared Cu contacts for low-
resistivity samples, and molten Pt contacts in the case of the from the sample and the ensuing stoichiometry deviation.
high-resistivity crystal B (see table 1). The diffusion length of Ignoring one- and two-dimensional defects, the stoi-
minority carriers was measured by an electron-beam-induced chiometry deviations are determined by native defects present
current (EBIC) method using a JEOL-50 scanning electron in the ideal lattice. The native defects (all divalent) which
microscope with a cooled holder. An Au-evaporated Shockley should be taken into account are [5] the Cd or Te interstital
barrier was used to separate electron–hole pairs in the EBIC donors CdI and TeI , the Te vacancy VTe , and the Te antisite
method. TeCd . The acceptor is the Cd vacancy VCd . The nature of
In order to find the intrinsic stoichiometric line, we the Cd antisite CdTe has not yet been identified. Due to the
performed two types of experiments. In the first, the influence low content of Zn in our samples we do not include Zn-native
of annealing conditions (T , PCd ) on the electrical properties of defects in the list. The densities of neutral native defects are
the material quenched to room temperature (RT) was studied. given by reaction constants [6]
Samples were annealed in the two-zone or one-zone furnace √
at temperatures of 700, 750, 800, 850 and 900 ◦ C and defined
X  n0 T PCd
CdI =
values of PCd within the whole stability region. RT Hall effect  K 
and conductivity measurements were performed in a classical 1  
× exp − E(CdI ) + U (CdI ) vib
+ S(CdI ) vib
, (1)
arrangement and the position of the stoichiometry line was kB T
established from the sign change of the Hall coefficient at RT.
X n0 K
The second experiment was based on the in situ TeI = √
TP
measurements of the Hall effect and conductivity at  Cd 
1  
temperatures 600–1050 ◦ C [3]. The theoretical analysis of × exp − E(TeI ) + U (TeI )vib + S(TeI )vib , (2)
such measurements allowed us to establish the HT intrinsic kB T
conditions in the P –T diagram and to correlate them with the
X n0 K
VCd = √
stoichiometry of the samples. TP
 Cd 
1  
× exp − E(VCd ) + U (VCd )vib + S(VCd )vib , (3)
3. Theory kB T
√

X  n0 T PCd
The effort to obtain high-quality CdTe and CZT samples VTe =
for substrates or radiation detectors is connected with K 
1  
the demand to prepare the stoichiometric single-crystalline × exp − E(VTe ) + U (VTe )vib + S(VTe )vib , (4)
material without inclusions and precipitates and with a low kB T
density of point defects. The thermodynamic conditions which
X  n0 T PCd 2
CdTe =
characterize such a treatment are defined by the position of the K 2

515
J Franc et al
 
1   In view of the complicated defect structure of CZT and the
exp − E(CdTe ) + U (CdTe )vib + S(CdTe )vib , (5) number of unknown parameters, the endeavour to establish
kB T

X  n0 K 2 the position of the stoichiometry line looks rather hopeless.
TeCd = There is, however, a good amount of knowledge which can
T PCd
2
be used to simplify this task, and to reach favourable result
 
1   without demanding the characterization of unknown defects.
× exp − E(TeCd ) + U (TeCd ) vib
+ S(TeCd ) vib
,
kB T We can take advantage of a well known feature of the defect
(6) statistics, which is expressed by the pressure dependence
of the neutral and ionized defect densities. Based on the
where E are relevant defect formation energies, and mass action relations [12], the PCd dependence of charged
the vibrational energy U vib and entropy S vib determine defect density is significantly more moderate than that in the
contributions to the vibrational free energy. Here, case of neutral species. For the above-mentioned dominant
 3/2 1/3 −1/3
I ] ∝ PCd and [VCd ] ∝ PCd .
2−
mCd kB charged defects we obtain [Cd2+
K = kB T 3
, With regard to the position of P S , which is below 1000 ◦ C
2πh̄2 located by more than one order of magnitude in PCd from
n0 = 1.48 × 1022 cm−3 is the number of unit cells per volume, the three-phase line, the concentration of all neutral (≡ deep)
kB is the Boltzmann constant, and mCd is the mass of a Cd defects is significantly reduced (10×–100×) compared to the
atom. The label X is used for neutral defects overall. moderate decrease (∼2×) at the doubly ionized (≡ shallow)
The densities of multiply ionized defects are calculated defects. Consequently, although the neutral defects dominate
for acceptors and donors: at saturated conditions, their effect is minimized inside the
homogeneity range far from the three-phase line and ionized
 

z − 
X  gX z − zµF − Ea1 − · · · − Eaz defects are sufficient to be included in the theory looking for
X = X exp , (7) the position of P S . The same reason for the omission is also
gX X kB T
valid at the native defect complexes, which are created by
 1 


 g z+ Ed + · · · + Edz − zµF the native defects reactions [5] and can be connected with the
Xz = XX X exp
+
, (8) stoichiometry deviations (e.g. VCd TeCd , CdI VTe , TeI TeCd , etc).
gX X kB T
The density of all such complexes is strongly dependent on
where Ea and Ed are the acceptor and donor one-electron PCd and can be thus eliminated from the discussion.
ionization energies and µF is the Fermi energy, which is The thermodynamic diversity between shallow and deep
obtained by solving the electric neutrality condition. gXz− defects mentioned above are convenient for the adjustment
(gXz+ ) is the degeneracy of the defect. The index z signifies the of stoichiometric samples. If the slightly nonstoichiometric
degree of ionization. The list of experimentally determined sample is cooled to the temperature at which only short-
ionization energies of native defects is given in [3]. The range diffusion is active and the solid–gas material exchange
experimentally determined energy gap Eg according to [7] is insignificant, the internal effective PCd moves to the
saturation limit and the shallow/deep defect density rate
Eg = 1.622 − 3.5 × 10−4 T − 1.1 × 10−7 T 2 (eV) (9) exceeds the equilibrium distribution at such T . Consequently,
a large proportion of shallow defects convert into deep ones,
is used at all temperatures.
decreasing the effect on the electrical properties of CZT. The
It has been shown by ab initio calculations [5] and
effect must be assisted by other types of lattice defects, e.g.
confirmed by in situ galvanomagnetic measurements [3] that
dislocations, to allow the defect conversion. For example the
the dominant donor (acceptor) native defects are CdI (VCd ),
conversion of two shallow VCd into possibly deep donor TeCd
both being doubly ionized near P S . In contrast, the shallow
requires a pair Cd+Te from an edge dislocation. The estimated
donor TeCd proposed in [5] was not approved in [3]. The
concentration of dislocations >104 cm−2 also in very good
simplified electric neutrality condition in which  and L
single crystals is sufficient to guarantee such process above
electrons [8], holes and singly and doubly ionized native
450 ◦ C.
defects are included reads
P S (defined by xCd = xTe = 0.5 for CdTe) is

−
2− 

 usually coupled with the p–n line (P I ), which defines the
n + nL + VCd + 2 VCd = p + Cd+i + 2 Cd2+ i . (10)
intrinsic material given by the electron and hole concentration
Though CdI and VCd are sufficient to describe electric equilibrium n = p. Though both lines are located close
properties of CZT, there is still a discrepancy at the optical together in the P –T diagram and their association is roughly
density measurements of CZT homogeneity range [9, 10], tolerable, we should emphasize their different nature here in
which extend both at Cd and at Te-rich conditions about order to appreciate the demands which are put on the CZT
3–5 times further from 50% atm than is obtained from samples.
electrical measurements. Consequently, a considerable Generally, we can specify two p–n lines in the P –T
amount of neutral defects which are not detected by electrical diagram (see figure 1), which differ by a method to be
I
measurements should be present in CZT. At Te saturation TeCd established. The first one (PRT ) is defined by the change of
was suggested [5,11] to be the most acceptable defect. We are the type of conductivity p ↔ n at RT of samples quenched
not familiar with any attempts to describe the Cd-saturated after annealing at defined T and PCd . PRT I
is practically
side. We suppose that the deep-donor VTe could be a proper identical to P if shallow defects dominate the deep defects.
S

defect for this case. The precision of the assignation is limited by the quenching

516
 The influence of growth conditions on the quality of CdZnTe single crystals
20
T ( oC) 10
1100 1000 900 800 700 600 500
101
o
19 T=900 C
10
0
10

Defect concentration (cm )

-3
PIHT 1/IeRHI
18 +
10-1 10 h
2+
PCd (atm)

2Cdi
10-2 [1] [13] 10
17

[7] nL
2-
2V
10-3 PIRT
16
nΓ V
- Cd

10 Cd

10-4 h
+
rt
-
n rt
15 +
S 10 Cdi
P V
x
10-5 Cd Cd
x
i

14
10
10-6 10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1

PCd(atm)
10-7
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
1000/T (K) Figure 2. The neutral (X) and ionized (+; −) native defect
concentrations together with  and L electron (n− −
 , nL ) and hole
Figure 1. Partial pressure of Cd along the three-phase loop of (h+ ) concentrations, all at 900 ◦ C, are represented by full curves.
CdTe(S) and the set of stoichiometric and p–n lines. The full curve The experimental (circles) and theoretical (dotted curve) Hall
represents the stoichiometric line P S obtained within our model, in concentrations are involved. The dashed curves show RT n− RT and
which only electrically active native defects are included. h+RT . The arrows show the saturation limits.
Dash-dotted and dashed lines plot the HT intrinsic line PHT I
and RT
line PRT
I
, which was obtained by quenching. Long–short dashed and
dotted lines show the results of [7] and [13]. of stoichiometry and p–n lines defined in section 3. We see
that the RT p–n line
velocity. Also, in case of very fast cooling, it takes about  
1.58 × 104
1 min to decrease the sample temperature significantly (below PRT
I
= 2.4 × 105 exp − (atm), (11)
ca 550 ◦ C) to stop the diffusion in the sample and to prevent T
the more volatile component (Cd) escaping. Consequently, the which was obtained by the quenching of annealed samples, is
p–n line is systematically shifted to the higher PCd in this case. shifted to a higher pressure relatively to the HT intrinsic p–n
I
The second procedure (PHT ) is based on the HT line:
in situ galvanomagnetic measurements taken under the  
thermodynamic conditions at which the position of the p– 1.73 × 104
PHT = 4.5 × 10 exp −
I 5
(atm). (12)
n line is to be established. The method is based on the T
fact that in the case where both dominant defects are doubly
ionized, the sample behaves as intrinsic near the stoichiometry PHT
I
crosses the three-phase line at PCd = 1.4 atm. Based on
line. The p–n line is located in the P –T diagram, where the the fit of HT experiments we could establish the position of
galvanomagnetic properties are identical to the properties of the stoichiometry line where only electrically active (shallow)
the intrinsic semiconductor at the same temperature. We profit defects were included:
from the fact that the electron mobility is dominated by the  
1.76 × 104
phonon scattering at HT, being practically independent of the P S = 8 × 105 exp − (atm). (13)
defect densities. Such a line is obtained by the thermodynamic T
equilibrium measurements and is not influenced by the With respect to the reasoning in section 3 we prefer this line as
undefined transformation during the cooling. the best approach, which conforms to the present knowledge
about CZT. P S crosses the three-phase line at PCds = 1.9 atm,
4. Results and discussion which is higher than the congruent melting point pressure
(PCdm = 1.266 [10]).
At first we concentrated on finding a position for the The effect of the four L minima in the conduction band
stoichiometric and p–n lines in the material. This problem to the native defect statistics at 900 ◦ C is outlined in figure 2.
was addressed by several authors experimentally [7], and Due to the occupation of the L bands the relevant electron
theoretically [7, 13] (see figure 1). These results disagree concentration is not expressed satisfactorily by 1/|eRH |. If
significantly. In the case of [7] the steep slope of the line higher minima in the band structure are occupied, only the
indicates that data were affected by undetermined donors at simultaneous analysis of both RH and σ describes the carrier
a concentration of ∼5 × 1016 cm−3 in the samples. The concentrations and mobilities correctly. Consequently the
theoretical calculation in [13] is based on HT in situ Hall concentration of native defects can be two or more times higher
measurements [12] which roughly agree with our experimental than electrons being assumed to be only in the -point. The
data. The model does not, however, take the occupation of L- dashed curves show the concentration of electrons and holes
minima at HT into account and the p–n line is consequently at RT.
shifted about 4× to higher PCd . Fabrication of inclusion- and precipitate-free single
The results of our calculations are based on anneal- crystals depends on several critical technological steps:
ing/quenching experiments and the in situ galvanomagnetic solidification of the melt at the congruent melting point (CMP)
measurements in CZT [3]. In figure 1 we show the positions PCdm to avoid segregation of inclusions near the growth

517
J Franc et al

T ( oC)
19
1100 1000 900 800 700 600 500 10
101

100 -2x10 17
17
-10
16
-1 -5x10
10 16 D
-2x10
16
-10
PCd (atm)

10-2 15

∆(cm )
10

-5x10

-3
E
18

-2x10 15 A
-3
5x

10
10
17

10-4 2x B
10
17

2x 5x
10 10
15
10
10-5
17
C

10

15
16
18

5x
-6 10

2x
1
10

0
1.0 1.2 1.4

16

10
16
-7 pCd(atm)
10
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
1000/T (K) Figure 4. The deviation from stoichiometry calculated from an
average volume of inclusions with dependence on PCd in the
Figure 3. P –T diagram with isoconcentration lines for deviation ampoule.
from stoichiometry.

boundary, annealing the excess Te present in the solidified A list of single crystals used in the study is given in
ingot due to the fact that the CMP is shifted towards the Te table 1. Figure 4 depicts the volume of second phase inclusions
site of the T -x diagram, and cooling the crystal along the with dependence on the Cd overpressure estimated from the
stoichiometric p–n line. For the case where inclusions are concentration of inclusions and their average dimensions.
formed during solidification of the melt, a method for their Crystals prepared at Cd pressures above 1.2 atm contained
removal in a temperature gradient has been proposed [13]. inclusions of diameter ∼10 µm, crystals fabricated at Cd
The annealing must be done under stoichiometric pressure ∼1 atm contained a higher concentration of inclusions
conditions at high temperatures, where the Cd diffusion with a smaller diameter (1–5 µm). One single crystal grown at
coefficient is high enough to reach the equilibrium in the ∼1.2 atm of Cd pressure contained no inclusions in the whole
whole crystal at real times. In the ideal case when the crystal volume. Based on the results presented we conclude that the
is cooled exactly along the p–n line, precipitate-free high- position of the CMP can be estimated in the range PCd = 1.15–
resistivity materials could be obtained. We show in figure 3 1.20 atm, which is only slightly lower than the results in [10].
the isoconcentration lines of deviation from stoichiometry As is apparent from figure 5, the deviation from stoichiometry
"n = 4n0 (xCd − 0.5) due to the electrically active defects. caused by a small deviation from the CMP is relatively large
This figure illustrates the fact that it is very complicated to (∼1018 cm−3 ), and is caused by the flat shape of the T –x
prepare the high-resistivity undoped CdTe. If we assume diagram, when a small change of T results in a large "x [1].
the high-resistivity material to be limited by a free carrier The position of the CMP from our experiments is depicted in
concentration (∝"n(p)) less than 109 cm−3 at RT and the figure 5.
minimum temperature (∼700 ◦ C) where the diffusion in large Only a qualitative comparison between RT galvanomag-
scale (∼1 cm) samples really occurs, then we get an extremely netic data (table 1) with the calculated deviation stoichiometry
narrow interval "PCd /P S ∼ 10−3 % at which such a sample curves with dependence on PCd (figure 3) can be given. Fig-
should be annealed. Such experimental precision is very ure 3 was calculated based on the assumption of no significant
difficult to match in real experiments and for the high- exchange between the Cd vapour and solid phases. This is
resistivity materials the proper deep defect doping should probably a good approximation in the case of large crystal vol-
therefore be used. The maximum resistivity which can umes and real cooling speeds used during the crystal growth.
realistically be reached in undoped CdTe can be obtained However, at temperatures below the melting point, when the
pinning the Fermi energy to the deep VCd level, which is Cd diffusion coefficient is high [14], Cd can diffuse several
located at ≈470 meV above the valence band. Such a situation centimetres into the crystal volume. This can cause deviations
corresponds to a p-type conductivity and a typical resistivity from the model calculation presented in figure 3. All except
of 106  cm. one of the crystals studied are low-resistivity p-types at RT.
In order to optimize the growth conditions from the This is in good agreement with the range of PCd = 1 used, i.e.
point of view of minimization of inclusions in the material 1.3 atm, which is well below the crossing of the stoichiomet-
we performed the growth of five crystals under different Cd ric line with the three-phase boundary at PCd = 1.9 atm (see
pressures in the range of 1–1.3 atm near the CMP in order figure 5). The high resistivity of crystal B can be explained by
to verify and precisely identify its position. The position the fact that during cooling, due to some exchange with the gas
of the CMP has been measured by the authors of [10] as phase, the path through the P –T diagram was close to the sto-
PCd = 1.266 atm. It should be noted that HT measurements ichiometric line. Only a small concentration of unintentional
of deviations from stoichiometry are very difficult and that so contamination with some deep impurity can result in pinning
far only relatively few points are available in the region around of the Fermi level in the middle of the gap and a high crystal
the CMP in the P –T diagram. resistivity.

518

Figure 5. Detail of the P –T diagram. Open triangles represent
experimental points determining the region of stability from [11].
The position of the CMP estimated from our experiments is shown
by a full diamond. Dash-dotted and dashed lines plot the HT
intrinsic line PHT
I
and the RT line PRT
I
, which was obtained by
quenching.
100
80
A
60
L(µm)
40
E fabricated at PCd ∼ 1.2 atm. The positions of the intrinsic p–n
20
C lines at high and room temperatures were established. The set
D
0
0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020
-1
1/T(K )
Figure 6. The temperature dependence of diffusion length of
minority electrons in the crystals studied.
RT data of the diffusion length of minority electrons L and
the corresponding mobility–lifetime product are also shown in
table 1. Results of temperature dependences (60–300 K) of L
of p-type samples from table 1 are shown in figure 6. Diffusion
length L in all samples studied has a tendency to increase with
decreasing temperature. Samples with a higher deviation from
stoichiometry and a very low resistivity at RT (C, D, E) show
only a moderate increase. In agreement with [15] where a
correlation of increased recombination, which is manifested
by low L with a VCd -related complex was observed, we
conclude that the deviation from stoichiometry towards Te-
rich conditions favouring the formation of VCd results in the
deterioration of L. This effect which can be seen at RT data in
table 1 increases strongly with decreasing T .
Results of measurement of optical transmissivity are
shown in figure 7. Crystals grown at PCd = 1.2 atm or higher
exhibit very good transmissivity within the whole spectral
range studied. Crystals prepared under low PCd ∼ 1 atm have
a poor transmissivity due to the prevailing absorption on free
carriers in these high-concentration, low-resistivity crystals,
The influence of growth conditions on the quality of CdZnTe single crystals
Figure 7. The optical transmissivity of the crystals studied at 300 K.
resulting from a high concentration of VCd at the Te-rich side
of the phase diagram. Absorption of free carriers also causes a
drop of transmissivity in the long-wavelength infrared part of
the spectrum of the low-resisitivity inclusion-free crystal D.
5. Conclusion
The parameters important for growth of inclusion- and
precipitate-free CdTe and CZT single crystals with a minimum
concentration of point defects were studied, namely the
position of the CMP and of the stoichiometric P S line in the
P –T diagram. The Cd pressure at the CMP was estimated
at ∼1.15–1.20 atm. An inclusion-free single crystal was
of isoconcentration lines of deviation from stoichiometry based
on a model of two dominant native defects, the Cd vacancy
and the Cd interstitial, shows that a very small deviation of
PCd from P S results in a large generation of the native defects.
Thus a reproducible production of a high-resistivity material
by a slow cooling along the P S seems to be very difficult.
However, cooling of crystals close to P S results in improved
optical properties, a higher mobility–lifetime product and
higher resistivity.
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