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Colombian Emeralds and Evaporites: Tectono-

Stratigraphic Significance of a Regional
Emerald-bearing Evaporitic Breccia...

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Colombian Emeralds and Evaporites: Tectono-
Stratigraphic Significance of a Regional Emerald-bearing
Evaporitic Breccia Level
Yannick Branquet
ISTO, UMR 7327-CNRS/Université d’Orléans/BRGM,Orléans, France
Géosciences-Rennes UMR6881-CNRS/Université de Rennes I, 35042 Rennes Cedex, France
Gaston Giuliani
IRD-LMTG, 24, avenue Édouard-Belin, 31200 Toulouse, France
CRPG-CNRS, Nancy université, 15, rue Notre-Dame-des-Pauvres, 54501 Vandœuvre-lès-Nancy, France
Alain Cheilletz, Bernard Laumonier
GeoRessources UMR 7359-CNRS/Université de Lorraine/CREGU, Nancy, France
Abstract. In the eastern front of the Colombian Eastern
Cordillera, all the emerald and evaporite deposits and
occurrences are hosted within a peculiar stratigraphic level
at the Berriasian/Valanginian transition. This level contains
evidence of sabkha evaporitic sediment reworking and
destabilization on active sedimentary slopes. A main
stratiform breccia is interpreted as a residual breccia
resulting from salt ablation through dissolution during an
emerald-related hydrothermal event and weathering. At 65
Ma, the emerald deposits formed in local extensional
structures related to the initiation of a foreland bulge and
associated flexure. A kind of bedding-parallel fibrous
calcite and pyrite veins (called “beef” by reservoir
geologists implied in rock mechanics) attest to a supra-
lithostatic hydrothermal fluid pressure prevailing shortly
before emerald deposition. Significant migration of hot,
deep (5-6 km) and overpressurized fluids occurred along
the eastern border around the K-T boundary. Finally,
halokinesis during Lower Cretaceous rifting likely needs to
be re-evaluated, at least on the Chivor district scale.
Keywords: Colombian emerald, Eastern Cordillera,
Chivor mining district, breccias, “beef” veins, evaporite
1 Introduction
It is well established that Colombian emeralds formed
from basinal brines which dissolved evaporites hosted
within the Lower Cretaceous sedimentary sequence of the
Eastern Cordillera (Giuliani et al. 1995). These works
demonstrated the genetic relationship between emeralds
and evaporites through mineralogy, fluid inclusion and
stable isotope studies. No evaporitic rocks were reported
and described in the Colombian emerald deposits before
Branquet et al. (1999a). However, old field studies dealing
with salt core bodies in the central part of the Eastern
Cordillera, reported emeralds mined within cap rock
residual breccias called “rute” in Colombia (Scheibe
1933). To our knowledge, since Branquet et al. (1999), no
works dedicated to the tectono-stratigraphic controls on
the Colombian emeralds and their relation with evaporites
have been published. In this paper, we present detailed
field, petrological and structural evidence highlighting the
role of evaporites in the formation of the eastern emerald
belt.
2 Geological and emerald deposits settings
The Eastern Cordillera (EC) of Colombia is a back-arc
basin inverted during the major Middle Miocene Andean
tectonic event. As the result of inversion, thick Lower
Cretaceous depocenters are at the core of large
anticlinoria flanking the eastern and western foothills of
the EC. Localized in both anticlinoria, major Colombian
emerald deposits are hosted within Lower Cretaceous
black shales, and are clustered into the western (e.g.
Coscuez and Muzo deposits) and the eastern (e.g. Chivor
and Gachala mining districts) emerald belts (Fig. 1). Here,
we only address the eastern emerald belt in the Chivor
area. This area corresponds to the EC frontal fold and
thrust system onto the easternmost Llanos foothills. The
eastern emerald deposits of the Chivor district formed at
65 ± 3 Ma (Cheilletz et al. 1997) and are associated with
a strong hydrothermal alteration leading to albization,
pyritization and carbonatization, the last two being
achieved through thermal sulfate reduction.
3 A regional Emerald-bearing Evaporitic
Breccia Level (EEBL)
3.1 Litho-stratigraphy
Field structural and stratigraphic studies undertaken in the
Chivor mining district allow us to identify a peculiar
stratigraphic level which hosts the emerald deposits and
gypsum occurrences (Figs. 1 and 2). This EEBL forms the
basal member of the upper part of the Tihonian-Berriasian
Guavio formation.
In emerald deposits and occurrences, the EEBL is
characterized by: i) a main breccia stratiform level, which
overlies the lower black shales and is mainly composed of
dismembered and crushed black shales mixed with cm- to
meter sized white albitite clasts (Fig. 3A, B, D). The lower
contact of the main breccia is broadly concordant with the
underlying bedding. A ubiquitous planar fabric within the
breccia indicates that bedding is locally preserved within
the main breccia. In contrast, the upper contact of the
breccia is irregular with caving structures and appears to
be discordant with overlying bedding in some places (Fig.
3A, B); ii) hecto- to decametric stratoid bodies of white
albitites lying just above and/or below the main breccia
level (Fig. 2). Generally, albitites below the main breccia
level show no peculiar textures and appear as alteration
halos in black shales. Upper albitites are different as they
show replaced and hydrothermalized nodules, tepee and
entherolitic structures which argue for the evaporitic
origin of the protolith (cf infra). In several emerald
deposits this EEBL is overlain by carbonated black shales
including limestones lenses and olistotroms (Figs. 2 & 3).
Hosted within the EEBL (Fig. 1), the gypsum
occurrences correspond to decametric white irregular
Figure 1. A. simplified geological map of the Colombian Eastern Cordillera. Inset is B location. B. Geological map of the Chivor
area. All emerald and gypsum deposits/occurrences are hosted within the upper Guavio Fm.
3.2 Hydrothermal alteration and weathering
The degree of hydrothermal alteration within the EEBL is
highly variable. Only one hydrothermal event is
recognized. It is responsible for emerald deposition
through carbonatization, ablitization and pyritization. In
the emerald deposits this alteration is at a maximum and
is particularly responsible for the transformation of
dolomicrite/evaporite lenses into white albitites through
Na metasomatism. Emerald-bearing veins are mainly
filled with calcite, dolomite, albite and pyrite. This
paragenesis also constitutes the hydrothermal cement of a
peculiar emerald-bearing polygenic breccia composed of
black shale and white albitite clasts (Fig 3 D). This breccia
is sparsely found near the top of the main breccia level
(Fig. 3B) and also fills polygenic breccia dykes (Fig. 3A).
In the gypsum occurrences, hydrothermal fluid/rock
interactions are weaker but isolated albite and pyrite
crystals are frequent in thin sections. Noteworthy, non-
cemented polygenic breccias (black shale and white
dolomicrite/gypsum clasts) occur locally in the Guali
gypsum occurrences. Finally, with the exception of the La
Guala emerald occurrence (Fig. 2), no hydrothermal
alteration occurred in the Valanginian Macanal black
shales overlying the EEBL.
The EEBL is strongly weathered. Present-day
meteoric waters flow through the main breccia level in the
emerald deposits, triggering pyrite oxidation and
stratoid bodies made up of alternating
dolomicrite/gypsum layers (Fig. 3C). The gypsum-
bearing bodies are embedded within a black shale breccia
similar to the main breccia level observed in the emerald
deposits. The dolomicrite/gypsum alternations show
gypsum nodules which are more or less flattened,
entherolithic structures and numerous gypsum veinlets.
At the Chivor area scale, the upper Guavio Fm. and
specially the EEBL, is continuous but very heterogeneous
with regard to lithologies and thicknesses (Fig. 2).
subsequent carbonate dissolution in the polygenic breccia.
In the evaporite occurrences, primary anhydrite nodules
replaced by gypsum are karstified, and veinlets and listric
cm-scale faults are filled with secondary fibrous gypsum.
3.3 Structures
Sedimentary and soft sediment deformation is widespread
in the EEBL. In particular, the basal contact of the EEBL
is marked by slumps, groove marks, hydro-plastic Riedel
shears and meter-thick layers of intraformational breccias.
During hydrothermal alteration leading to emerald
deposition, sub-vertical veins that represent mineralized
listric normal faults attest to a small amount of horizontal
stretching of the bulk EEBL, the main breccia level acting
as a “detachment” plane (Fig 3A, Branquet et al. 1999).
Polygenic breccia dykes crosscutting the upper albitites
are compatible with such horizontal stretching (Fig. 3A).
Within the main breccia level in the emerald mines,
albitites clasts are dragged and dismembered (Fig. 3B).
Such structures associated with scarce drag folds and
disharmonic folds demonstrate transport and
displacement within and along the main breccia level.
Moreover, the albitites host numerous bedding-parallel
fibrous calcite/pyrite veins i.e. “beef” (Fig. 3E) which are
generally barren and pre-date the emerald deposition. The
lack of strong hydrothermal alteration affecting the
gypsum occurrences makes such deformation difficult to
identify at those places. Miocene Andean compression (Fig. 1, Branquet et al.
Finally, the weakness of the EEBL locally enhances its 2002). This thrusting is attested to by “dry” shear bands
reactivation as thrust and decollement during Middle and friction slickensides.

Figure 2. Litho-stratigraphic synthesis and correlations between the emerald deposits/occurrences in the Chivor district. Logs are
located on Fig. 1. The main breccia level and albitites are hydrothermalized facies hosting most of the emerald deposits at the top of
the Guavio Fm.

Figure 3. A. Cross-section through the Chivor emerald deposit. B. Upper contact of the main breccia level with albitites (1), Chivor
Klein pit. Drag of albitite clasts within the breccia (2) is marked by tails. C. Evaporites at the Paez Gypsum mine (northeast of Fig.
1B) showing alternation of dolomicritic limestones and gypsum beds. D. Polygenic breccia cemented by pyrite, carbonates and albite,
Oriente deposit. E. “Beef” vein composed of fibrous calcite in albitites, Chivor Klein pit.

4 Interpretation emerald-related hydrothermalism at 65 Ma.

Using our structural works which depict Andean
deformation patterns, we established that emerald
deposits and evaporites of the Chivor area are hosted in
the same stratigraphic level at the top of the Berriasian
Guavio Fm. In the emerald deposit, ancient evaporites
made of alternating dolomicrite/anhydrite or gypsum beds
have been massively metasomatized into albitites. This
albitite protolith is exposed in gypsum occurrences which
appear to be EEBL segments partly “preserved” from the
The EEBL is a complex and polyphased breccia.
Dolomicritic thin layering, nodules, entherolitic and tepee
structures are diagnostic of evaporite deposition in a
sabkha environment. Soft-sediment deformation,
intraformational breccia and discontinuous albitites and
evaporite bodies argue for reworking of the sabkha
environment through slope instabilities, block break-off
and slide down-slope. Overlying the EEBL, black shales
with ammonites and olistotroms indicate more open
marine conditions coeval with slope instabilities.
 Therefore, we propose that the EEBL corresponds to
sabkhas reworked and partly dismembered during the
Early Cretaceous major transgression, which is coeval
with the important rifting event which affected the eastern
border of the EC back-arc basin at that time.
In this context, the main stratiform breccia level in the
emerald mines and the similar breccias embedding
dolomicritic gypsum lenses in the evaporite occurrences
are likely vanished salt-bearing sediments. Halite was
removed through various dissolution events from emerald
related hydrothermalism at 65 Ma to present-day meteoric
weathering. This interpretation is strengthened by the
close resemblance existing between the main breccia level
and the “rute” (cf supra.).
At 65 Ma, large flows of hydrothermal fluids
responsible for emerald deposition occurred through the
EEBL level and dissolved halite. Structures coeval with
those fluids flows are connected to the main breccia level
which acted as a major fluid drain. Detachment within the
main breccia level and associated extensional mineralized
structures described in Branquet et al. (1999a) do not
correspond to large extensional strain at the eastern border
of the EC around the KT limit. The observed structures
are rather diagnostic of hydraulic fracturing associated
with evaporite solution within the salt-bearing main
breccia level. Barren calcite beefs observed in albitites
indicate that high fluid pressures prevailed at least during
the incipient stage of hydrothermalism. As no horizontal
shortening is reported (Branquet et al. 1999), mechanical
analysis of the “beef” demonstrates that fluid pressures
exceeded lithostatic load (Cobbold et al. 2013). At the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary the overburden of the
Guavio Fm. in the Chivor area is about 5-6 km (Branquet
et al., 2002). At that time, the area was slightly uplifted in
an incipient foreland bulge (Bayona et al., 2008). These
authors interpreted extensional structures observed in the
emerald deposits as resulting from flexural extension.
Following this model, we suggest that the emerald-related
hydrothermal event recorded an abrupt change in
thehydrodynamics of the EC basin which triggered
regional-scale hot, deep and over-pressured brine
migration around the KT limit.
5 Discussion
As mentioned above, the main breccia level shows
transport and drag of clasts. Transport of clasts is also
obvious during the formation of polygenic breccia dykes.
As the polygenic breccia was cemented by hydrothermal
paragenesis below 5-6 km of overburden, near-surface
caving processes evidenced by evaporite solution-
collapse breccias (Warren, 2006) are ruled out.
Consequently, a remaining problem is to decipher
between halokinesis (transport by ductile flow of salt) and
fluid-assisted transport. Through fluidization, the latter
process has been identified for emplacement of the same
hydrothermal polygenic breccia along the thrusts of the
western emerald deposits (Branquet et al., 1999b).The
main breccia level in the EEBL does not show high shear
strain. This feature is incompatible with halokinesis along
detachment planes in salts in tectonic-controlled
sedimentary basins as in the Gulf of Mexico. Ductile flow
of salt triggers drag folding associated with important
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simple shearing (Warren, 2006). However, several lines of
evidence argue for halokinesis: (i) weathering and
hydrothermal alteration may have obliterated shear
criteria; (ii) cut-off of albitites lenses above the main
breccia level is evidence of block rotation in roll-over;
(iii) cm-scale disharmonic folding has been observed in
one location; (iv) a panel of EEBL is found above the
normal fault plane cutting the Paleozoic basement (Fig. 1,
Branquet et al. 2002), suggesting evaporite-lubricated
draping structures. During the Cretaceous rifting, no thin-
skinned extensional tectonics implying evaporites at the
basin scale has been reported in the EC to date.
Contractional salt bodies of the central part of the EC (Fig.
1) have a Lower Cretaceous mother salt rock but no
extension-related diapiric origin has been reported to date.
Therefore, we cannot exclude that the main breccia level
behaved as a salt weld prior to emerald deposition at 65
Ma. Further studies are required to ensure this point.
Finally, the EEBL is a major metallotect in the Chivor
mining district. On a larger scale, the emerald exploration
strategy on the eastern edge of the EC has to focus on
lateral stratigraphic equivalents of evaporite and black
shale breccia occurrences.
Acknowledgements
P. R. Cobbold is greatly thanked for recent discussion.
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