Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
D.L. Olson, T.A. Siewert, S. Liu, and G.R. Edwards, editors, p 1004-1009 All rights reserved.
DOI: 10.1361/asmhba0001462 www.asminternational.org
THERMAL SPRAY COATINGS (TSCs) are (arc and plasma) processes. The materials in Cohesive strength
surface coatings engineered to provide wear-, their plastic or molten state are accelerated to- betweenparticles Unmelted
erosion-, abrasion-, and corrosion-resistant ward the substrate. The particles or droplets Poresandvoids \ n~ai~i,=
coatings for original equipment manufacture and strike the surface, flatten, and form thin platelets Oxide . . ~ ~
for the repair and upgrading of in-service equip- (splats) that conform, adhere, and interlock with inclusion
ment. In general, TSCs can be applied to a range the roughened surface irregularities and with
of substrate materials, including metals, ceram- each other. As the sprayed particles impinge on Substrate~ ~
ics, plastics, and polymer composites. Thermal the substrate, they cool and build up, particle by roughness
spray technology evolved and developed within
the welding field because of similarities in the
particle, into a lamellar-structured coating on the
substrate. In general, the substrate temperature Ads;Ta,e' ;:
electrical and combustion equipment and the can be kept at 200 °C (390 °F) or below to
Fig. 1 Schematic showing cross-sectional view of
feedstock materials used in thermal spray with prevent metallurgical changes in the substrate TSC lamellar structural components that af-
those used in welding and brazing. Accordingly, material. fect coating integrity
thermal spraying is classified as an allied weld- The properties of the TSC depend on such
ing process. factors as its porosity, the cohesion between par-
This article presents a general overview of the ticles, adhesion to the substrate (including inter- • High-power search radar aerials
five thermal spray processes and the specific face integrity), and the chemistry of the coating • Overhead walkways
flame and arc spray processes used to preserve material. The particles bond to the substrate me- • Railroad overhead line support columns
large steel components and structures. Also in- chanically (the primary mechanism), metallurgi- • Electrification masts
cluded are a TSC selection guide and an indus- cally, or chemically. Particle impact velocity, • Tower cranes
trial process procedure guide for applying alumi- particle size, substrate roughness, particle tem- • Traffic island posts
num and zinc TSCs onto steel. Additional perature, and substrate temperature influence • Street and bridge railings
information on thermal spray processes is avail- bond strength. Figure 1 shows the lamellar On a smaller scale, aluminum-zinc TSCs have
able in the article "Hardfacing, Weld Cladding, structure of particle splats, oxide inclusions, and been successfully used to protect lawn furniture
and Dissimilar Metal Joining" in this Volume. unmelted particles in a typical TSC cross sec- in corrosive seacoast environments.
Thermal spraying processes deposit finely di- tion.
vided metallic or nonmetallic feedstock surfac- Aluminum and zinc TSCs have a long history T h e r m a l S p r a y C o a t i n g Processes
ing materials in a molten or semimolten condi- of corrosion protection in structural steel work:
tion onto a properly prepared, grit-blasted Thermal spray processes differ in the feed-
substrate to form a TSC. The thermal spray feed- • Buildings stock materials used, the method of heating ap-
stock materials (wire, cored wires, ceramic • Bridges plied, and the method of propelling the material
rods, and powders) are heated to their plastic or • Towers toward the substrate. The primary TSC feed-
molten state by combustion (flame, high-veloc- • Radio and TV antenna masts stock materials can be classified as powder,
ity oxygen fuel, and detonation) and by electric • Steel gantry structures wire, cored wire, and ceramic rod. Thermal
spray processes can be categorized into two ba-
sic groups (combustion or electrical) according
Table 1 Classification of thermal spray processes relative fo method of heat generation to the method of heat generation (Table 1).
and feedstock form Table 2 gives typical characteristics of these
Thermal spray precess(a)
thermal spray processes. The combustion flame
and the electric arc processes are the main ones
Electrical used for preserving steel. Recommended feed-
Plasma
stock requirements, area coverage, and spray
Combustion rates for flame and arc spraying are given in the
Direct Coupled section "Typical Process Parameters" in this ar-
Feedstock form Flame HVOF(b) Detonation Arc current induction
ticle.
Powder X X X .-- X X Flame spraying is the simplest and most ver-
Wire X . . . . . . X . . . . . . satile process. All five feedstock forms can be
Cored wire X . . . . . . X . . . . . .
Ceramic rod X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sprayed with subsonic flame spray. The feed
(a) X, applicable.(b) High-velocityoxyfuel material is melted by an oxyfuel gas flame. In
flame powder spraying (Fig. 2), powder parti-
Thermal Spray Coatings / 1005
Group I (combustion)
Subsonic Flame powder Powder feedstock fed into oxyfuel flame 10 350 2200 3990 30 t00 t/2-10 1.1-22
Flame wire, rod, and cord Feedstock fed into oxyfuel flame 70 2500 2800 5070 180 590 I/2-10 1.1-22
Supersonic High-velocity oxygen fuel powder Powder fed into supersonic velocity 110 3900 2600 4710 900 2950 2-15 4.4-33
combustion flame
Detonation gun Powder and explosive gas cyclically fed ...... 2600 4710 900 2950 -"
into explosion chamber
Group II (electrical)
Arc Wire Two consumable electrodes fed into 70 2500 5000 9300 240 790 2(a) 4.4(b)
atomizing air/gas stream
Plasma Powder Powder fed into plasma torch with 4 140 5000 9300 240 790 0.1(a) 0.22(b)
temperatures to 8300 °F
(15,000 °F)
(a) kg/h/kW.(b) lb/h/kW
British Standards Institution code of practice both barrier and cathodic protection. When cut ging steel components and tools over bare alu-
for the corrosion protection of steel specifies through to the steel or when applied too thinly to minum surfaces or vice versa. Bare aluminum
that only TSCs are able to give more than 20 rule out through porosity, these TSCs provide and bare aluminum TSCs should be avoided
years of protection before maintenance is neces- galvanic protection to the steel. Aluminum cor- whenever there is a thermite sparking hazard.
sary in the 19 industrial and marine environ- rodes less rapidly than zinc in highly acidic con- Situations where bare aluminum or bare alumi-
ments considered. Only sealed, sprayed alumi- ditions, while zinc performs better in alkaline num TSCs and rusted steel will be near a com-
num or zinc gives such protection in seawater conditions. Aluminum TSCs immediately oxi- bustion or explosion source can occur on a regu-
immersion or splash zones (Ref 3). The Cana- dize to form a loosely adherent A1203 protective lar basis and should be avoided. There appears
dian Standards Association tabulates the life ex- film (as compared to the tightly adherent protec- to be little risk of thermite sparking as a result of
pectancy at more than 40 years for aluminum tive film on stainless steels) that prevent further the impact of rusted steel on a sealed or painted
and zinc TSCs in various exposure environments oxidation. Thus, there is no advantage to apply- aluminum, aluminum alloy, or aluminum com-
(Ref 4). ing aluminum TSCs greater than the non- posite TSC surface.
The selection of a TSC depends on the service through-porosity thickness of 150 to 200 ~m Porosity is an inherent feature of TSCs.
environment, the desired service life, operating (0.006 to 0.008 in.) unless wear or abrasion When applied to nonthrough porosity thickness
duty cycle, and the maintenance and repair sup- resistance is also required in addition to corro- (nominally about 175 Ixm, or 0.007 in.) for
port to be provided during the life cycle. Tables sion resistance. Aluminum TSCs have greater flame-sprayed aluminum and 90/10 MMC,
3 and 4 give current service life information for wear, abrasion, and erosion resistance than zinc these TSCs will protect the substrate steel.
aluminum and zinc TSCs in various service en- TSCs. When applied to a less than nonthrough porosity
vironments. Figures 7 and 8 plot the required Zinc alloyed with aluminum forms an effec- thickness, the TSC will retard substrate corro-
thickness specifications given in Tables 3 and 4, tive corrosion-resistant coating, combining the sion because of galvanic protection. The poros-
respectively. The service life estimates for 85/15 attributes of both elements. The greater electro- ity of the TSC is a function of the feedstock
wt% Zn/AI alloy and the 90/10 vol% aluminum chemical activity of zinc provides greater gal- material, the application method, and the spray
metal-matrix composites (MMCs) TSCs intro- vanic protection than aluminum. Aluminum, parameters.
duced in the late 1970s and 1980s, respectively, with its lower electrochemical activity and a Role of Sealants and Topcoats. Thermal
are based on accelerated laboratory tests and loosely adherent aluminum oxide film, provides spray coatings are applied in a single applica-
service applications through 1992. In a marine long-term protection even through porous coat- tion. They emit no volatile organic compounds,
environment, powder TSC with higher alumi- ings and gives better wear, abrasion, and erosion need no drying time, and provide galvanic pro-
num content exhibits improved corrosion resis- resistance than zinc TSCs. tection to exposed steel substrates. The natural
tance (Ref 2). Where resistance to wear, abra- Aluminum and aluminum composite TSCs surface texture of TSCs provides an excellent
sion, or both, is required in addition to corrosion can be used where the temperature is greater base for paint and thermoplastic or thermoset-
protection, 90/10-MMC TSCs should be consid- than 200 °C (390 °F). Aluminum composite ting powder sealers as well as paint and powder-
ered. The 90/10 MMC wire is composed of 90 TSCs are used when wear, abrasion, and erosion coating topcoats.
vol% AI + 10 vol% AI203 (8 to 10 p.m, or 320 resistance are required beyond that provided by It is preferable to seal TSCs. The sealer fills
to 400 pan., diameter). aluminum and zinc TSCs. the pores of the TSC, smooths the sprayed sur-
Galvanic Properties. Aluminum and zinc Thermite Sparking Hazard (Ref 5, 6). Ther- face, and improves appearance and service life.
and their alloys and composites provide broad mite sparking is caused by the reaction of rusted Sealers also simplify maintenance, which is gen-
atmospheric protection. Aluminum and zinc are steel and aluminum (in the form of a finely di- erally only the reapplication of the sealer. Seal-
anodic to steel and protect the ferrous substrate vided smear) when this combustible mix is ig- ers should be applied immediately after applying
in electrolytic solutions. When applied in a nited by an impact. Aluminum smears may be the TSC.
nonthrough porosity thickness, they provide generated on rusting steel by striking or drag- TSC paint sealers should have low viscosity
to flow and should be absorbed into the natural
pores of the TSC. The pigment particle size of
Table 3 Service life estimates of 85/15 Zn/AI TSCs in selected corrosive environments colored paint sealers must be small enough to
Coating thickness required for indicated service life
freely flow into the pores of the TSC, nomin-
ally a 5 fineness grind per ASTM D 1210. Ther-
5-10 years 10-20 years 20-40 years >40 years moplastic and thermosetting powder sealers
Type of exposure pJna in. p.m In. i~m in. ~m in.
have fine particles but should be electrostatically
applied to maximize penetration into the pores
Rural atmosphere . . . . . . 75-125 0.00~0.005 125-175 0.005--0.007 250-300 0.010-0.012
Industrial atmosphere . . . . . . 150-200 0.0(04).008 300-375 0.0124).015 350-400 0.014-0.016
of the TSC. Furthermore, thermal sprayed com-
Marine atmosphere . . . . . . 250-300 0.010-0.012 300-375 0.0124).015 350-400 0.0144).016 ponents must be sufficiently heated to maximize
Freshwater immersion 150-200 0.0(0-4).008 250-350 0.010--0.014 300-375 0.0124).015 . . . . . . outgassing of the pores prior to electrostatic ap-
Saltwater immersion 250-300 0.0104).012 350-400 0.014--0.016 . . . . . . . . . . . . plication of the powder coating.
Table 4 Service life estimates of aluminum and 90/10 aluminum metal-matrix composite TSCs
Coating thickness required for indicated service life(a)
50,usra--eMarneamo
. . . .i. . . here
0 1.25 2.50 3.75 5.00 6.25 7.50 8.75 10.0 only when:
55
55
0 1.25 2.50 3.75 5.00 6.25 7.50 8.75 10.0 larly advantageous in such cases because it
L ensures the uniformity and reproducibility of the
galvanized coating thickness.
50 ............... (~ Industrial atmosphere ,, :.= Wellhead valve assemblies for offshore use
• Marine atmosphere have been coated for salt atmosphere protection
45. •---- /~ Freshwater immersion /k al~ since the 1950s. Aluminum TSCs have been
used for flare stacks. Aluminum and zinc TSCs
• Saltwater immersion a[r]J, l~,=lA
have been used for the external protection of oil
40 [] Hightemperature a i and propane gas storage tanks. The interiors of
- - • Wear/abrasion # steel coal rail cars have been sprayed with alumi-
35 I
, 1 :- / num for sulfuric acid corrosion protection and
I,i with aluminum composite for both corrosion and
.3
30 • L:! abrasion protection. The exteriors have been
sprayed with zinc for atmospheric-corrosion
25 / }
protection. Thermal spray coatings have been
used to protect pipelines against many environ-
/ ments. Pile couplings, valves, manhole covers,
industrial gas bottles, and other small industrial
20
LU .j , items are candidates for protection by TSCs.
Zinc TSCs are used to protect potable water
pipelines and storage tanks (Ref 7). Aluminum
and zinc TSCs are used in sluice and canal lock
s°
gates in irrigation systems and in shipping canal
lock gates. Once coated, these components re-
Table 5 Deposition rates for selected feedstock used in flame and arc TSC applications • Equipment for surface preparation and ther-
Feedstock material mal spraying to include spray gun qualifica-
tions, air compressor, and air dryers
Wire Powder • Quality control equipment to determine the
Parameter A! Zn 85/15 Zn/AI 90110 AI MMC Ai Zn acceptability of surface preparation (white
and near-white metal finish, blasting media
Flame spray cleanliness, and anchor-tooth depth) and TSC
Depositefficiency(a),% 80-85 65-70 80-85 80-85 90 85 application (substrate temperature, air tem-
Materialrequired,kg/m2/izm 0.0024--0.0026 0.0098-0.0105 0.0(1664).0070 0.0024-0.0026 0.0027 0.0076 perature, dew point and humidity, TSC thick-
Arc spray ness, and TSC bend test)
• Application process: surface preparation (in-
Depositefficiency(a),% 75-80 65-70 72-78 75-80 (b) (b)
Materialrequired,kg/m2/izm 0.0029-O.0031 0.009-0.010 0.0089~.0096 0.0029-0.0031 (b) (b) cludes new steel, old steel, masking, degreas-
(a) Data for fiat plate. (1o)Not applicable
ing, and surface profile with quality control
check points; post blasting substrate condition
and thermal spraying period; thermal spraying
(includes equipment setup and bend test;
suffer from chloride intrusion into the concrete, includes the initial installation cost plus the re- planning and executing thermal spray se-
leading to rebar corrosion and concrete spalling. pair and maintenance costs incurred during the quence and controlling overspray with two
Zinc TSCs are sometimes used for rebar protec- service life of the coating system. The installa- quality control points)
tion before concrete is poured. Zinc TSCs are tion cost of TSC systems may range up to one • Procedures for spraying edges of materials or
sprayed directly onto bridge concrete substruc- and one-half times that of high-performance into cavities (that is, holes)
tures to provide a cathodic-protection coating or paint systems, but the LCCs could be less than • Sealing and topcoating with quality control
to serve as secondary anodes connected to an three-fourths the paint system LCC. Compara- control check points
impressed-current cathodic-protection system. tive TSC and painting system LCC may be esti- • Maintenance and repair of TSCs based on
In marine applications, the structural areas mated with the economic models in Ref 3 and 8. degree of damage and wear as related to expo-
and components of ships are preserved with alu- sure of the underlying coating or substrate
minum and zinc TSCs. The U.S. Navy routinely steel and the size of the degraded area
Industrial Process Instruction for • Debris containment and control
uses aluminum TSCs in new ship construction,
in the maintenance of ship structures, and for a Applying TSCs on Steel • Records, including a job control record sum-
wide range of shipboard components, especially An industrial process instruction is an engi- marizing the TSC job requirements, operator
those in topside and wet spaces. The British, neering procedure detailing the necessary equip- qualifications, and a check list of the nine
Australian, and New Zealand Navies use a du- ment, consumables, method (step-by-step pro- quality control check points
plex zinc (base) and aluminum (top) TSC sys- cedure), trained/certified personnel, and records • Operator test and qualifications per ANSI/
tem. Commercial ships and barges have used required to accomplish the objective of that AWS C2.16-92 ("Guide for Thermal-Spray
TSCs to preserve ship superstructures and vari- process with the requisite quality control, safety, Operator Qualification")
ous topside and interior components. and environmental compliance in a timely and
Sealed TSCs have a longer service life than cost-effective manner. The scope of an indus-
unsealed TSCs, are easier to clean and maintain, trial process instruction for applying TSCs on
and provide both barrier and galvanic protec- steel should include (Ref 9):
tion. Sealer paints and powder coatings must be
chemically compatible with the TSC material, • Definition of terms unique and critical to the Typical Process Parameters
the service environment, and the intermediate/ safe and successful accomplishment of the (Ref 9)
topcoat paint. Sealers must be suitably thinned process
and have a fine pigment grind to effectively pen- • Safety and environmental compliance re- Table 5 gives the nominal thermal spray de-
etrate the TSC. As indicated above, sealed TSCs quired for operator, observers, and passersby. posit efficiency and feedstock material required
are preferable to painted TSCs. Descriptions and For thermal spraying, airborne aluminum and per unit area or unit thickness for representative
specifications of sealer and intermediate/topcoat zinc dust could be an explosive hazard if not materials sprayed onto a flat plate. Deposit effi-
paints are given in Ref 3 and 8. properly handled. Aluminum and zinc fumes ciency is the percentage by weight of sprayed
Future Outlook. The suitability of a particu- produced in thermal spraying and in blasting materials adhering to a large fiat plate. Table 6
lar paint or thermoplastic/thermosetting powder debris from surface preparation, especially if gives the typical spray rates and area coverage
(applied electrostatically or by thermal spray) there was old lead-bearing paint, require per- for flame and arc spraying on a flat plate. Addi-
must be evaluated when the coating is designed sonnel protection, containment, and the req- tional feedstock will be required to spray com-
and specified. Such an evaluation is necessary in uisite waste disposal plex geometrical shapes. Specific values vary
order to get the sealer/topcoat paint or powder • Job and contract description detailing the fol- with the shop or field job site, thermal spray
system that best meets the service and life cycle lowing: the thermal spray work area bound- equipment, spray parameters, process used, and
cost (LCC) requirements compliant with the ary; what is and what is not to be thermal the geometrical shape of the components being
evolving environmental and safety regulations. sprayed; the thermal spray feedstock and TSC sprayed. The data in Tables 5 and 6 are technical
Specific paint or powder systems can be ranked thicknesses; sealing/topcoating materials; and data supplied by various equipment manufactur-
and validated with accelerated exposure tests the inspection and acceptance requirements ers and are given for comparison purposes and
simulating the service environment and duty cy- • Materials required, including thermal spray relative ranking; they are not intended for cost
cle. The penetrability of the sealer into the TSC feedstock (based on the nominal area cover- estimating.
can be validated by metallographic analysis and age and spray rates for the specified process Thermal spray coating applicators should de-
the service life ranked by accelerated weathering equipment), abrasive blasting media for velop their own shop and field deposit-effi-
tests. rough and final anchor-tooth blasting, sealer ciency data and production planning factors for
Thermal spray coatings are supplementing and topcoating paints or thermoplastic/ their specific equipment and their method of op-
and replacing paint coating systems because of thermosetting powder coatings, quality con- eration. Past production records should provide
their predictable service life, increased effec- trol consumables, and energy requirements a good information base for job cost estimating,
tiveness, and lower life cycle costs. The LCC (fuel gases, inert gases, and oxygen) production scheduling, and cost control.
Thermal Spray Coatings / 1009
Table 6 Typical deposition rates (spray rate and area coverage) for flame spraying and arc spraying with selected
feedstock on a flat plate
Deposition rates per indicated feedstock
Spray rate, Coverage, Spray rate, Coverage, Spray rate, Coverage, Spray rate, Coverage,
Application method kg/h rn2/h/l~m kg/h rn2/h/p~m kg/h m2/h/~m kg/h m2/h/tun
Flame spraying
With wire diameter:
2.38 mm (0.0937 in.) 2.5 1.44 9.1 2.05 8.2 1.96 2.5 1.44
3.18 mm (0.125 in.) 5.4 3.18 20 3.33 18 3.33 5.4 3.18
4.76 mm (0.187 in.) 7.3 4.22 30 4.81 26 4.81 7.3 4.22
With powder 6.8 100 14 80 . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arc spraying (per 100 A) 2.7 1.39 12 2.85 10 2.66 2.7 1.39
REFERENCES
sion," BS 5493, British Standards Institu- Aluminum in Offshore Structures, Wimpey
1. "Corrosion Tests of Flame-Sprayed Coated tion, 1977; available from the American Na- Offshore, London, Section 4.5
Steel, 19-Year Report," C2.14-74, Ameri- tional Standards Institute 7. "Painting Water Storage Tanks," ANSI/
can Welding Society, 1974 4. "Sprayed Metal Coatings for Atmospheric AWS D102-78, American Welding Society,
2. R.M. Kain and E.A. Baker, Marine Atmos- Corrosion Protection," G 189-1966, Cana- 1978
pheric Corrosion Museum Report on the Per- dian Standards Association, 1966; reaf- 8. Steel Structures Painting Manual, Steel
formance of Thermal Spray Coatings on firmed 1980 Structures Painting Council
Steel, Testing of Metallic and Inorganic 5. Rosenburgh et al., Aluminum Offshore-- 9. "Guide for the Protection of Steel with Ther-
Coatings, STP 947, American Society for Safety Analysis, Publication 85-3208, Veri- mal Spray Coatings of Aluminum and Zinc
Testing and Materials, 1987 tec, 1985 and their Alloys and Composites," ANSI/
3. "Code of Practice for Protective Coating of 6. Thermite Sparking, Aluminum Design AWS C2.18-X, American Welding Society,
Iron and Steel Structures Against Corro- Guide, Vol 2, Design Guide on the Use of in preparation