Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Attitude Determination
𝑠𝑏 = 𝑅𝑏𝑖 𝑠𝑖 , 𝑚𝑏 = 𝑅𝑏𝑖 𝑚𝑖
Absolute measurement sensors are based on the fact that knowing the position of a
spacecraft in its orbit makes it possible to compute the vector directions, with respect to
an inertial frame, of certain astronomical objects, and of the force lines of the Earth's
magnetic field.
Relative measurement sensors belong to the class of gyroscopic instruments, rate gyro and
the integrating gyro.
These instruments has been implemented as spinning disks mounted on gimbals;
however, modern technology has brought such marvels as ring laser gyros, fiber optic
gyros, and hemispherical resonator gyros.
S = 𝑠𝑏 = 𝑅𝑏𝑖 𝑠𝑖
Sun Sensors
Two types of sun sensors are available: analog and digital. Analog
sun sensors are based on photocells whose current I output is
proportional to the cosine of the angle α between the direction to
the sun and the normal to the photocell (Fig. 4.1a).
The current output is given by : I(α) = I(0) cos (α) from which α
can be determined.
The unit normal of the photocell is n, so that : s *n = cos α
However, knowing (α) does not provide enough information to
determine s completely, since the component of s perpendicular
to n remains unknown.
Typically, sun sensors combine two or more such photocells to
provide the complete unit vector measurement.
Sun Sensors
To determine the angle in a specific plane, one normally uses two
photocells in pair see Fig. 4.1b.
This arrangement gives the angle between the sun sensor normal n and
the projection of the sun vector s onto the n – t plane.
One needs three numbers to determine the matrix completely and but each
measured unit vector provides two pieces of information, so it takes at least two
different measurements to determine the attitude. This is the overdetermined
problem, since one has three unknowns and four known quantities.
Let’s start with two measurement vectors (with respect to the body) such as the
direction to the sun Sb and the direction of the Earth's magneticfield mb.
Considering the known components of the vectors in the inertial frame are si
and mi. The rotation matrix Rbi, satisfies
sb = Rbisi and mb = Rbimi
Let’s see Triad algorithm, because it is based on constructing two triads of
orthonormal unit vectors using the vector information that one has.
Algorithm TRIAD [Lerner/Wertz, 1978]
It is a very simple algorithm, since discards part of information to
obtain a deterministic determination (not overdetermined).
TRIAD considers only 2 direction vectors (2 sensors, Sun sensor +
magnetometer).
The algorithm is based on the construction of two triad of
orthonormal vectors, that represents a third frame 𝑡 in the two
interest frames, 𝑏 and 𝑖
Another main characteristics of TRIAD: since one information is
discarded, one elects the sensors with the best information (more
precision, less noise, etc).
Comments
• Low computational cost, low requirements in terms of memory.
• Does not use all available information.
• Less precise than other methods.
The smaller one can makes J(Rbi), the better is the approximation of Rbi.
Statistical Attitude Determination
Comments :
In the book one presents three diferent methods for solving this
minimization problem: 1) an iterative numerical solution based on
Newton's method; 2) an exact method known as the q-method;
and 3) an efficient approximation of the q-method known as
QUEST (QUaternion ESTimator)
Q-Method [Davenport/ Keat, 1977]
This method minimizes the function J(Rbi), and begin by
expanding the loss function as follows:
𝑁
1 𝑏𝑖 𝑇
𝐽= 𝑤𝑘 𝑣𝑘𝑏 − 𝑅 𝑣𝑘𝑖 (𝑣𝑘𝑏 −𝑅𝑏𝑖 𝑣𝑘𝑖 )
2
𝑘=1
𝑁
1 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑏𝑖
𝐽= 𝑤𝑘 (𝑣𝑘𝑏 𝑣𝑘𝑏 + 𝑣𝑘𝑖 𝑣𝑘𝑖 − 2𝑣𝑘𝑏 𝑅 𝑣𝑘𝑖 )
2
𝑘=1
Q-Method [Davenport/ Keat, 1977]
• The vectors in the expression are unitary vectors, so
𝑇 𝑇
𝑣𝑘𝑏 𝑣𝑘𝑏 = 1 , 𝑣𝑘𝑖 𝑣𝑘𝑖 = 1
𝑁
𝑇 𝑏𝑖
𝐽= 𝑤𝑘 (1 − 𝑣𝑘𝑏 𝑅 𝑣𝑘𝑖 )
𝑘=1
𝑔′ 𝑞 = 𝑞 𝑇 𝐾𝑞 − 𝜆𝑞 𝑇 𝑞
𝑔 𝑞 = 𝑞 𝑇 𝐾𝑞 = 𝑞 𝑇 𝜆𝑞 = 𝜆𝑞 𝑇 𝑞 = 𝜆
𝑁
𝑇 𝑏𝑖
𝐽= 𝑤𝑘 (1 − 𝑣𝑘𝑏 𝑅 𝑣𝑘𝑖
𝑘=1
QUEST [Shuster & Oh, 1981]
And maximizes the gain function g
𝑁
𝑇 𝑏𝑖
𝑔 𝑅 = 𝑤𝑘 (𝑣𝑘𝑏 𝑅 𝑣𝑘𝑖 = 𝜆𝑜𝑝𝑡
𝑘=1
Rearranging these two expressions provides a useful result that
the optimum eigenvalue is related to J (to be minimized)
𝜆𝑜𝑝𝑡 = ∑𝑤𝑘 − 𝐽
In the QUEST method one adopts this value for the 𝜆𝑜𝑝𝑡
QUEST [Shuster & Oh, 1981]
To obtain the optimal eigenvector (quaternion). One possible
solution is obtained using Rodriquez parameters p
𝑞 Φ
𝑝= = 𝑎 atan
𝑞4 2
𝜆+𝜎 𝟏−𝑆 𝑝 =𝑍
QUEST [Shuster & Oh, 1981]
The quaternion is obtained using the Rodriquez parameters in the
form given by
1 𝑝
𝑞=
1 + 𝑝𝑇 𝑝 1
Comment:
One problem with this approach is that the Rodriguez parameters
become singular when the rotation is π radians. Shuster and Oh
have developed a method of sequential rotations which avoids
this singularity Ref. 9
Example 4.4 One repeats Example 4.3 using the QUEST method.
Some references
• M. D. Shuster and S. D. Oh, “Three-Axis Attitude
Determination from Vector Observations,” Journal of
Guidance and Control, Vol. 4, No. 1, 1981, pp. 70–77.
• E. J. Lefferts, F. L. Markley and M. D. Shuster, “Kalman Filtering
for Spacecraft Attitude Estimation,”. Journal of Guidance,
Control and Dynamics, Vol. 5, No. 5, 1982.
• Roberto Alonso and Malcolm D. Shuster, “TWOSTEP, a Fast
Robust Algorithm for Attitude-Independent Magnetometer
Bias Determination,” The Journal of the Astronautical
Sciences, Vol. 50, No. 4, 2002, pp. 433–451.
• James R. Wertz (Editor), "Spacecraft Attitude Determination
and Control", Springer, 1978.
• Vincent L. Pisacane (Editor), "Fundamentals of Space
Systems", Oxford Univ Press, 2005