Concepts

Points to Remember

1
DEFINITION

Autotrophic nutrition
Mode of nutrition is the way to obtain food. On the basis of obtaining and utilizing food,
there are two types, autotrophic and heterotrophic.

 Autotrophic nutrition: When an organism prepared their own food and does not depend on
any other organism is called as autotrophic nutrition.
 An organism that follows the autotrophic mode of nutrition is called as autotrophs e.g.,
plants.
 Autotrophic mode of nutrition is further divided into two categories photoautotrophs (uses
photosynthesis as a source of energy, e.g., plants and green bacteria) and chemoautotrophs
(uses chemosynthesis, e.g., non- green sulphur bacteria).
2
DEFINITION

Photoautotroph
Photoautotrophic mode of nutrition is the process of formation of food by the process of
photosynthesis.

 In this process, the organism used sunlight as a source of energy along with carbon
dioxide and water.
 An organism that follows such mode of nutrition is called as photoautotroph e.g., algae,
green plants.
3
DEFINITION

Life processes
 Life processes are the series of actions, such as movement, respiration, sensitivity, growth,
reproduction, excretion and nutrition that are essential for a living being to sustain.
4
DEFINITION

Hetertrophic nutrition
The mode of nutrition in which an organism depend on plant or other animal for food is
called as heterotrophic nutrition. Organism that carry out heterotrophic nutrition are called as
heterotrophs e.g., animals.
Heterotrophic mode of nutrition is further divided into three groups such as:
 Holozoic: It is the method in which animal taking in the complex food e.g., human being,
cow, lion deer etc.
 Saprophytic: It is the method in which organism first convert the complex food into the
simpler and then use them as food e.g., bacteria, fungi etc.
 Parasitic nutrition: It is the method in which an organism live in the body of another
organism and get nutrients from them e.g., Plasmodium, worms etc.
5
DEFINITION

Difference between autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition

6
DEFINITION

Importance of photosynthesis
 The process of photosynthesis is unique to phototrophs. It synthesizes organic food from
inorganic raw material.
 All animals and heterotrophic plants depend upon the phototrophs for their organic food.
 Photosynthesis convert radiant or solar energy into chemical energy.
 Productivity of agricultural crops directly depends upon the rate of photosynthesis.
7
DEFINITION

Photosynthesis
 Photosynthesis is the process through which plants use water and carbon dioxide to create
their food, grow and release excess oxygen into the air.
 The process takes place in the chloroplast of the plant.
 Photosynthesis is not limited to green plants only, it is also a process that occurs in certain
algae, specifically blue-green algae and bacteria.
8
DEFINITION

Functions of blood
 Transport of nutrients like amino acid, vitamin and mineral to the tissues from alimentary
canal.
 Haemoglobin, present in the RBC, binds to oxygen molecule forming oxyhaemoglobin
and supplies oxygen to the tissues from the lungs and in turn receives CO22 present in the
tissue forming carbaminohaemoglobin and thereby return CO22 to the lung.
 Transport of excretory waste material to liver, kidney or skin from the tissues.
 Hormones secreted by the glands are transported to the target organ via blood.
 Maintain body temperature and water balance.
 Coagulation property of the blood prevents from excessive blood loss.
 Antibodies and antitoxin produced by WBC provides immunity to the body.
9
DEFINITION

Mouth
The various organs of digestive system are mouth, teeth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine,
large intestine, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder and pancreas.
Mouth

 Food is chewed by teeth and swallowed by tongue.

 Carbohydrates, such as starch, are broken down or digested to form sugar.
10
DEFINITION

Stomach
 The stomach is a highly muscular organ. The opening of stomach into intestine is called as
pylorus.
 The gastric glands present in its walls secrete gastric juice containing hydrochloric acid
(HCl) and enzymes, like pepsinogen.
 HCl activates pepsinogen into pepsin and kills bacteria. Proteins are broken into smaller
fragments called peptones by the enzyme pepsin.
 It eventually leads to the formation of chyme, which is moved to intestine by pylorus.
11
DEFINITION

Small intestine
 Small intestine has three sub regions; duodenum, jejunum and ileum.
 It serves for both digestion and absorption.
 It receives two digestive juices; the bile and pancreatic juice.
 Ileum is very long, has large villi and made up of single epithelium, which helps in
absorption of food.
12
DEFINITION

Large intestine
 The large intestine is about 1.5 m long.
 It has three parts caecum, colon and rectum.
 Caecum is situated at the junction of small and large intestine.
 Colon absorbs water and some remnants of digested food.
 Rectum temporarily stores undigested food and waste, to be defecated through anus.
13
DEFINITION

Absorption of water by root

 Plants have the potentiality to absorb water through their entire surface right from root,
stem, leaves, flowers, etc. However, as water is available mostly in the soil, only the
underground root system is specialized to absorb water.
 Roots are often extensive and grow rapidly in the soil.
 In roots, the most efficient region of water absorption is the root hair zone. Each root hair
zone has thousands of root hairs. Root hairs are specialized for water absorption. They are
tubular outgrowths of 50-1500 m (0.05-1.5 mm) length and 10 nm in breadth.
 Each root hair has a central vacuole filled with osmotically active cell sap and a peripheral
cytoplasm. The wall is thin and permeable with pectic substances in the outer layer and
cellulose on the inner layer. Root hairs pass into capillary micropores, get cemented to soil
particles by pectic compounds and absorb capillary water.
14
SHORTCUT

Functions of lymph
 Nutritive
 Drainage
 Absorption
 Defence
15
DEFINITION

Function of xylem in transport system in plants

 The xylem transports water and soluble mineral nutrients from the roots throughout the
plant.
 It is also used to replace water lost during transpiration and photosynthesis.
16
DEFINITION

Root pressure
 Root pressure is the pressure developed in the roots due to the inflow of water, brought
about due to the alternate turgidity and flaccidity of the cells of the cortex and the root hair
cell, which helps in pushing the plant sap upwards.
17
DEFINITION

Forces that contribute to ascent of sap

The forces that contribute to ascent of sap are as follows:

1. Root pressure
2. Capillarity
3. Transpiration pull
4. Adhesion
18
DEFINITION

Conduction of water through xylem

Aim: Conduction of water through xylem

Procedure:

 A: A twig with phloem removed and xylem intact.

 B: A twig with xylem removed and phloem intact.
 The twigs are then fixed to a stand and are allowed to remain for about 2 days
with their lower end immersed in the water.
Observation:

 A: Leaves are normal

 B: Leaves get wilted and droop down.
Inference: Water is conducted upwards in a plant through deeper parts i.e., xylem.
19
DEFINITION

Transpiration
 Transpiration is the evaporative loss of water from the aerial parts (leaves and stem) of the
plant.
20
DEFINITION

General features of blood vessels (artery and vein)

Artery

 It carries blood from the heart to the organs.

 All the arteries carry pure blood except pulmonary artery which carries impure blood.
 Blood flows with a high pressure and speed.
 Arteries are deeply situated in the body.
 The walls of the artery are thick and tough.
 Their lumen is constricted.
Veins

 It carries blood from organs to the heart.

 All the veins carry impure blood except pulmonary vein which carries pure blood.
 In veins, blood flows with a low pressure and speed.
 Veins are superficial placed just below the skin.
 The walls of the artery are thick and tough.
 Their lumen is wide.
21
DEFINITION

Double circulation
 The majority of mammals (including humans) utilize a double

circulatory system.

 This means that we have two loops in our body in

which blood circulates.

 One is oxygenated, meaning oxygen rich, and the

other is deoxygenated, which means it has little to no oxygen, but a lot

 of carbon dioxide.
22
DEFINITION

Experiment of transpiration using polythene bag

Method Result Inference
1. Plant is covered with a
Drops of water observed
transparent polythene bag and The plant releases water
on the inner side of the
mouth is tied. through transpiration.
bag.
2. kept in sunlight for few hours.
23
DEFINITION

Function of liver
Most of the biochemical functions of the body are performed by liver. They are as follows:

 Secretion and synthesis of bile

 Carbohydrate metabolism
 Storage of fats
 Deamination and urea formation
 Purification of blood
 Synthesis of plasma proteins
 Synthesis of heparin
 Synthesis of vitamin-A
 Storage of minerals
 Detoxification
 Haematopoiesis
24
DEFINITION

Difference between an arteries and veins

25
DEFINITION

Function of phloem in transport system in plants

 Transport of soluble products of photosynthesis is called as translocation and it occurs in
phloem.
 The translocation of food and other substances take place in sieve tube.
 Materials like sucrose is transferred into phloem tissue using energy from ATP.
26
DEFINITION

Transportation of food and other substances

 Excess of food is taken into the storage organs like roots, fruits and seeds.
 This process is known as translocation and it takes place through phloem in upward as
well as downward direction.
 In flowering season, sugar stored in the roots or stem is translocated to the buds for
growing them into flowers.
27
DEFINITION

Heart

The heart

is the central organ for pumping the blood throughout the body. Heart

is made up of strong cardiac muscles. It is located in the chest cavity

with its lower part pointing towards the left. Its size is that of the

persons fist. It pumps blood rich in carbon dioxide to the lungs and

oxygen-rich blood to other parts of the body.

 The heart

consists of four chambers namely auricles and ventricles. The two upper

chambers of the heart are known as the auricles.

 The two

lower chambers of the heart are the ventricles. Left and right parts of

the heart are separated by a muscular partition called as septum.

 Heart has

number of valves which allow the blood to flow in one direction. These

prevent the oxygenated blood mixing with de-oxygenated blood.

 SA node, the natural and primary pace maker of the heart is located in the upper wall of
the right atrium in the heart.
 AV node,

the secondary pace maker is located in the bundles of tissues on the

border between right atrium and right ventricle of the heart.

28
DEFINITION

Swallowing and peristalsis

 Swallowing cause or allow something, especially food or drink to pass down the throat.
 Peristalsis is the wave of constriction, caused by the circular muscles of the gut pushing
the food along.
29
DEFINITION

Carhohydrate digestion in the oral cavity

 The salivary glands in the oral cavity secrete saliva, which helps to moisten the food.
 The food is then chewed while the salivary glands also release the enzyme salivary
amylase, which begins the process of breaking down the starch into maltose, isomaltose
and alpha dextrins.
30
DEFINITION

Protein digestion in stomach

 Protein digestion begins in the stomach by gastric juice.
 It contains hydrochloric acid, pepsinogen and prorennin. The H++ ions present in
HCl converts pepsinogen into pepsin.
 In the presence of HCl, the pepsinogen and prorennin is converted into their active forms,
i.e., pepsin and rennin respectively.
 Rennin acts on the casein protein of milk and converts it into paracasein, which in the
presence of calcium ions forms calcium paracaseinate (curdling of milk).
 The function of rennin is then taken over by pepsin and other milk-coagulating enzymes.
31
DEFINITION

Circulation of blood in the heart

GIF
The circulation of blood within the different chambers of the heart is described below:
Right atrium:

 Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium from

 The anterior region of the body via the superior vena cava and the posterior region of the
body via the inferior vena cava.
 This causes an expansion of the right atrium.
Right ventricle

 When the right atrium contracts, the tricuspid valve is opened.

 As a result, the blood flows from the right atrium into the right ventricle.
 When the right ventricle contracts, the blood is forced into the pulmonary artery due to the
opening of the pulmonary semilunar valves. The pulmonary artery carries the blood to the
lungs for oxygenation.
Left atrium

 After oxygenation, four pulmonary veins bring the blood back from the lungs into the left
atrium.
 This makes the left atrium expand.
Left ventricle

 When the left atrium contracts, the bicuspid valve is opened.

 As a result, the blood flows from the left atrium into the left ventricle.
 When the left ventricle contracts, the oxygenated blood is pushed into the aorta via the
aortic semilunar valves.
 The aorta then carries the oxygenated blood to different parts of the body.
32
DEFINITION

Action of saliva on starch

 From the experiment of action of starch on saliva it was found that saliva contains an
enzyme, called as salivary amylase that cause breakdown of starch into sugar.
33
SHORTCUT

Definition of blood pressure

 Blood pressure is the pressure which the blood flowing through the arteries exert n their
walls.
34
DEFINITION

Systolic pressure
 Systolic blood pressure is defined as pressure exerted by the blood during ventricular
systole.
35
DEFINITION

Diastolic pressure
 Diastolic blood pressure is defined as the pressure of the blood during ventricular diastole.
 Normal blood pressure is 120/80 mm Hg.
 Sphygmometer is used to measure blood pressure.
36
DEFINITION

Pancreatic juice
It is produced from whitish gland pancreas, located behind the stomach. The pancreatic juice
contains three enzymes. E.g., trypsin, amylopsin and lipase.
 Trypsin converts peptones and proteoses to smaller peptides.
 Amylopsin/pancreatic amylase converts starch into maltose.
 Lipase/steapsin converts fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
37
DEFINITION

Assimilation of food
 The absorbed food supplied to cells is used to release energy and also to build up the cell
components. This is called as assimilation.
38
DEFINITION
Process of photosynthesis
 Photosynthesis is a chemical process that uses sunlight to turn carbon dioxide into sugars
the cell can use as energy.
 Carbon dioxide + Water + light energy --> Glucose + Oxygen
 Photosynthesis has two main sets of reactions. Light-dependent reactions need light to
work; and light-independent reactions, which do not need light to work.
39
DEFINITION

Site and raw materials for photosynthesis

 The grana are the site of light reaction of photosynthesis.
 The stroma of chloroplast is the site of dark reaction of photosynthesis.
 Raw materials for photosynthesis are carbon dioxide and water.
 It takes place in presence of chlorophyll and sunlight.
40
DEFINITION

Experiment to show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis

Aim- To prove the necessity of chlorophyll in photosynthesis.
Method-

 A destarched plant is exposed to sun.

 A variegated leaf is plucked after a few hours.
 After marking outline of the green and non green part of the leaf, starch test is performed.
Observation- Bluish black colour only in green part of the leaf.
Result- Starch is present in the green part.
Conclusion- Chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.
41
DEFINITION

Experiment to prove the necessity of carbon dioxide in photosynthesis

Aim- To prove the necessity of carbon dioxide in photosynthesis
Method-
 Insert one of the leaf of a destarched plant into a conical flask containing potassium
hydroxide.
 Potassium hydroxide solution absorb the carbon dioxide gas from the air present in the
glass bottle.
 Expose to sunlight for few hours and later perform starch test to this and other leaf of the
plant.
Observation-

 Leaf exposed to atmosphere- bluish black.

 Leaf exposed to KOH- negative
Result- Starch is present in the green part.
Conclusion- Chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.
42
DEFINITION

Excretion in plants
 Oxygen is a by product of photosynthesis, which is excreted from the leaves of plants.
 Excess water is excreted as water vapor by the process of transpiration.
 Plants store their some of excretory products in leaves and get rid of that by losing them.
 Some of the plants store their excretory product as resins and gums.
43
DEFINITION

Respiration
 Respiration is the breakdown of glucose to yield energy in the form of ATP (energy
currency of the cell).
 Generally the breakdown of glucose occurs by utilizing oxygen and is represented by the
following reaction.
C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+energyC6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+energy

 Breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide and water occur in 2 major phases. They are
1. Glycolysis (glucose →→ pyruvate) takes place in cytoplasm.
2. Krebs cycle (pyruvate →→ CO2+6H2O+ATPCO2+6H2O+ATP) takes place in
mitochondria.

 Breakdown of glucose in each step is caused by specific enzymes.

 A large part of energy liberated is converted into chemical energy in the form of ATP
(adenosine triphosphate).
 When energy in the form of ATP is used, ATP gets converted into ADP.
 One mole of glucose on complete oxidation produces 38 molecules of ATP.
44
DEFINITION

The urinary system

 The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs, located on either side of the backbone and
protected by the last two ribs.
 A ureter arises from the hilum in the median surface of each kidney.
 The front end of the ureter is expanded into kidney, called as pelvis.
 The urine is then passed through the urinary bladder to the outside of the body.
45
DEFINITION

Exchange of gases in plants

 Gaseous exchange in plants takes place through the stomata in the leaves, lenticels in the
stem and general surface of the roots.
 The gases are exchanged by the process of diffusion.
 During daytime, the CO22 released by respiration is utilized for the photosynthesis.
Oxygen is released during photosynthesis.
 At night, there is no photosynthesis, only respiration goes on and more CO22 is
eliminated.
46
DEFINITION

Two kinds of respiration aerobic and anaerobic

Based on the presence / absence of oxygen, respiration is of two types:
1. Aerobic respiration:

 Aerobic respiration is the release of energy from complete oxidation of glucose in the
presence of oxygen. This is represented by the following overall reaction.
C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+energyC6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+energy
2. Anaerobic respiration:

 Anaerobic respiration (anoxybiotic) is the release of energy from incomplete breakdown

of glucose in the absence of oxygen to ethanol and carbon dioxide. The chemical reaction
can be written as:
C6H12O6+6O2→2C2H5OH+2CO2+2ATPC6H12O6+6O2→2C2H5OH+2CO2+2ATP
47
DEFINITION

Structure and function of nephrons (uriniferous tubules)

 Nephron or uriniferous tubule is the basic structural and functional unit of the kidney.
 It's function is to remove excess water, wastes and other substances from the blood and
return substances, like sodium, potassium or phosphorus, whenever any of these
substances run low in the body.
48
DEFINITION

Cellular respiration
 Cellular respiration is conversion of the chemical energy of organic substances into a
metabolically usable energy within living cells.
 It is of two types: aerobic and anaerobic.
49
DEFINITION

Types of nutrients
On the basis of the chemical nature, the nutrients are of two types. They are as follows:

 Inorganic nutrients- Nutrients that do not have carbon in their structure are inorganic
nutrients. They include water and minerals.
 Organic nutrients- Nutrients having carbon in their structure are organic nutrients. They
include carbohydrates, proteins, fats and vitamins.
50
DEFINITION

Breakdown of glucose by various pathways

51
DEFINITION

Nose
Structure-

 Nose is the opening that connects the environment with respiratory tract.
 The external part of the nose have two nostrils.
 The two nostrils opens into a pair of nasal chambers
Function-

 It warms the air, while passing through it.

 It adds moisture to the air.
 It's mucous secretion traps dust particles.
52
DEFINITION

Pharynx
 The membrane-lined cavity behind the nose and mouth, connecting them to the
oesophagus is called as pharynx.
 It is a common passage of air and food.
 The entrance of the trachea is guarded by a flap like epiglottis.
 Incomplete closure of the epiglottis, while swallowing causes cough.

53
DEFINITION

Larynx
 The hollow muscular organ forming an air passage to the lungs and holding the vocal
cords in humans and other mammals.
 It is also called as voice box.
54
DEFINITION

Trachea
 A large membranous tube reinforced by rings of cartilage, extending from the larynx to
the bronchial tubes is called as trachea.
 Its walls are supported by C shaped rings of cartilage.

 It conveys air to and from the lungs.

55
DEFINITION

Bronchi
 Bronchi are the main passageway into the lungs, formed from trachea.
 They are hollow tubes surrounded by cartilage rings.
 They are lined with cilia and mucus secreting cells.
 They carry air into the lungs.
 Bronchi are further divided into smaller bronchioles.
56
DEFINITION

Lungs
 Lungs are composed of the bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli.
 The two lungs are roughly cone shaped.
 The left lung has two lobes and the right one has three lobes.
 The left lung is slightly small that than the right lung.
57
DEFINITION

Artificial kidney (hemodialysis)

 In case of kidney failure, an artificial device is used to remove the nitrogenous waste
products from the blood. This process is known as hemodialysis.
 The patient's blood is slowly pumped from the patient's body into the dialyzer, where
waste products and extra fluid are removed and the purified blood is then returned into the
same vein.
58
DEFINITION

Inspiration
 Inspiration or inhalation is the process of bringing air from outside the body into the lungs.
 It is carried out by creating a pressure gradient between the lungs and the atmosphere.
 When air enters the lungs, the diaphragm contracts toward the abdominal
cavity, thereby increasing the space in the thoracic cavity for accommodating the inhaled
air.
 The volume of the thoracic chamber in the anteroposterior axis increases with the
simultaneous contraction of the external intercostal muscles.
 This causes the ribs and the sternum to move out, thereby increasing the
volume of the thoracic chamber in the dorsoventral axis.
 The overall increase in the thoracic volume leads to a similar increase in the pulmonary
volume.
 Now, as a result of this increase, the intra-pulmonary pressure becomes
lesser than the atmospheric pressure. This causes the air from outside
the body to move into the lungs.
59
DEFINITION

Expiration
 It occurs due to reverse movements of the ribs and diaphragm.
 The external intercostal muscles relax and thus the ribs becomes depressed.
 The diaphragm is relaxed and moves upward to its original position.
 Thus the thoracic cavity becomes small and lungs are compressed, which forces air out of
the lungs.
60
DEFINITION

Experiment to demonstrate that carbon dioxide is given out in breathing

Method-

 Air is sucked in by mouth, through the tube at the centre.

 Atmospheric air rushes into the flask, bubbling through the lime water.
 Air cannot get in through B as that end is closed.
 Then open end B and close A, and breath out the air. The exhaled air cannot escape out of
A. So, it has to pass through the limewater.
 The lime water in b turns milky, much faster than in A. This proves the much higher
percentage of carbon dioxide in exhaled air than inhaled air.

61
DEFINITION

Exchange of gases in aquatic animals

 The aquatic animals need to utilize oxygen present in the water.
 Air contains more oxygen as compared to water. The rate of breathing in aquatic animals
is faster.
 Gills are the organs that take up dissolved oxygen into the blood by diffusion.
62
DEFINITION

Exchange of gases in terrestrial animals

 Terrestrial organism take up oxygen from the atmosphere.
 Their respiratory organs have special structure which increases the surface area that is in
contact with the oxygen rich atmosphere.