3.

5 Radiative heat transfer 69

From (3.36) the total RFD emitted by a black body is


B = B d
0

Standard methods (e.g. see Joos and Freeman, Theoretical Physics, p. 616)
give the result for this integration as

B = B d = T 4 (3.38)
0

where  = 567 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4 is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant,

another fundamental constant.
It follows from (3.33) that the heat flow from a real body of emittance

 < 1, area A and absolute (surface) temperature T is

Pr = AT 4 (3.39)

Note:

a in using radiation formulae, it is essential to convert surface tempera-

tures in, say, degrees Celsius to absolute temperature, Kelvin; i.e. x  C =

x + 273 K,
b the radiant flux dependence on the 4th power of absolute temperature
is highly non-linear and causes radiant heat loss to become a dominant
heat transfer mode as surface temperatures increase more than ∼100  C.

The Stefan–Boltzmann equation (3.39) gives the radiation emitted by the

body. The net radiative flux away from the body may be much less
(e.g. (3.44)). More convenient for calculation than (3.36) is the dimension-
less function D, where
  B d
D= (3.40)
0 T 4
which turns out to be a function of the single variable T . This function is
graphed in Figure 3.12(b).

3.5.6 Radiative exchange between black surfaces

All material bodies, including the sky, emit radiation. However, we do not
need to calculate how much radiation each body emits individually, but
rather what is the net gain (or loss) of radiant energy by each body.
Figure 3.13 shows two surfaces 1 and 2, each exchanging radiation. The
net rate of exchange depends on the surface properties and on the geometry.
In particular we must know the proportion of the radiation emitted by 1
actually reaching 2, and vice versa.
70 Heat transfer

Figure 3.13 Exchange of radiation between two (black) surfaces.

Consider the simplest case with both surfaces diffuse and black, and with
no absorbing medium between them. (A diffuse surface is one which emits
equally in all directions; its radiation is not concentrated into a beam. Most
opaque surfaces, other than mirrors, are diffuse.) The shape factor Fij is the
proportion of radiation emitted by surface i reaching surface j. It depends
only on the geometry and not on the properties of the surfaces. Let B be
the RFD emitted by a black body surface into the hemisphere above it. The
radiant power reaching 2 from 1 is

P12 = A1 B1 F12 (3.41)

Similarly the radiant power reaching 1 from 2 is


P21 = A2 B2 F21 (3.42)

 
If the two surfaces are in thermal equilibrium, P12 = P21 and T1 = T2 : so by
(3.38)

B1 = T14 = T24 = B2

Therefore

A1 F12 = A2 F21 (3.43)

This is a geometrical relationship independent of the surface properties and

temperature.
 3.5 Radiative heat transfer 71

If the surfaces are not at the same temperature, then the net radiative
heat flow from 1 to 2, using (3.43), is
 
P12 = P12 − P21
= B1 A1 F12 − B2 A2 F21
= T14 A1 F12 − T24 A2 F21 (3.44)

=  T14 − T24 A1 F12

Or, if it is easier to calculate F21 ,


P12 =  T14 − T24 A2 F21 (3.45)

In general, the calculation of Fij requires a complicated integration, and

results are tabulated in handbooks (e.g. see Wong 1977). Solar collector
configurations frequently approximate to Figure 3.14, where the shape
factor becomes unity.

3.5.7 Radiative exchange between grey surfaces

A grey body has a diffuse opaque surface with  =  = 1 −  = constant,
independent of surface temperature, wavelength and angle of incidence.

Figure 3.14 Geometries with shape factor F12 = 1. (a) convex or flat surface (1)
completely surrounded by surface (2). (b) One long cylinder (1) inside
another (2). (c) Closely spaced large parallel plates L/D L /D  1 .
72 Heat transfer

This is a reasonable approximation for most opaque surfaces in common

solar energy applications where maximum temperatures are ∼200 C and
wavelengths are between 0.3 and 15m.
The radiation exchange between any number of grey bodies may be anal-
ysed allowing for absorption, re-emission and reflection. The resulting sys-
tem of equations can be solved to yield the heat flow from each body if
the temperatures are known, or vice versa. If there are only two bodies, the
heat flow from body 1 to body 2 can be expressed in the form


 4
P12 = A1 F12 T1 − T24 (3.46)


where the exchange factor F12 depends on the geometric shape factor F12 ,
the area ratio
A1 /A2  and the surface properties 1 , 2 . Comparison with

(3.44) shows that for black bodies only, F12 = F12 .
As in Figure 3.14(c), a common situation is parallel plates with D  L

and L . In which case F12 ≈ 1/
1/1  +
1/2  − 1 . Such an approximation is
acceptable, for instance, in calculating radiative heat exchange in flat plate
solar water heaters.
Exchange factors for the most commonly encountered geometries are
listed in Appendix C. More exhaustive lists are given in specialised texts
(Wong 1977; Rohsenow, Hartnett and Cho 1998).

3.5.8 Thermal resistance formulation

Equation (3.46) can be factorised into the form



P12 = A1 F12  T12 + T22
T1 + T2 
T1 − T2  (3.47)

Comparing this with (3.1) we see that the resistance to radiative heat flow
from body 1 is

 
 −1
Rr = A1 F12  T12 + T22
T1 + T2  (3.48)

In general, Rr depends strongly on temperature. However, T1 and T2 in

(3.48) are absolute temperatures, so that it is often true that
T1 − T2  
T1  T2 . In this case (3.48) can be simplified to

1
Rr ≈ 
(3.49)
4A1 F12
T 3

where T =
T1 + T2 /2 is the mean temperature.

 3.6 Properties of ‘transparent’ materials 73

Example 3.5 Derive typical values of Rr  Pr

Two parallel plates of area 10 m2 have emittances of 0.9 and 0.2 respec-
tively. If T1 = 350 K and T2 = 300 K then, using (3.49) and (C.18),
Appendix C,

1/09 +
1/02 − 1
Rr = = 066 K W−1
4
1 m2 
567 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4 
325 K3

This is comparable to the typical convective resistances of Example 3.2.

The corresponding heat flow is

50 K
Pr = = 75 W
066 K W−1

3.6 Properties of ‘transparent’ materials

An ideal transparent material has transmittance
= 1, reflectance  = 0
and absorptance  = 0. However, in practice ‘transparent’ materials (such
as glass) have
∼ 09 at angles of incidence with the normal of ≤70 , and
rapidly reducing
and increasing  as angles of incidence approach 90 ,
i.e. the grazing incidence. According to Maxwell’s equations of electromag-
netism, the reflectance of a material depends on its refractive index and on
the angle of incidence with the normal. For most common glasses at angles
of incidence less than 40 (the important range in practice)  ≈ 008 for
visible light. Thus with no absorption, the transmittance would be

r = 1 −  ≈ 092 (3.50)

However, some radiation is absorbed as it passes through a partially trans-

parent medium. The proportion reaching a depth x below the surface
decreases with x according to the Bouger–Lambert law: the transmitted
proportion at x is

ax = e−Kx (3.51)

where the extinction coefficient K varies from about 004 cm−1 (for good
quality ‘water white’ glass) to about 030 cm−1 (for common window glass
with iron impurity, having greenish edges). Iron-free glass has a smaller
extinction coefficient than normal window glass, and so is better for solar
energy applications. Using the terms
r from (3.50) and
a for
ax when
the beam emerges from the material the overall transmittance
becomes

=
a
r (3.52)
74 Heat transfer

(a) 1.0
0.8
0.6
τλ 0.9 mm
0.4
0.2 4.8 mm
0
0.3 0.5 0.7 2 4 6 8 10 λ/µm
(b) 1.0

τλ 0.13 mm

Figure 3.15 Monochromatic transmittance of: (a) glass (0.15% Fe2 03 ) of thickness
4.8 mm and 0.9 mm, (b) polythene thickness 0.13 mm. Note the change
of abscissa scale at  = 07 "m. Data from Dietz (1954) and Meinel and
Meinel (1976).

At any particular wavelength , the same reasoning applies to the

monochromatic properties, so

 =
r
a (3.53)

Figure 3.15(a) shows the variation with wavelength and thickness of the
overall monochromatic transmittance,
 =
r
a , for a typical glass. Note
the very low transmittance in the thermal infrared region
 > 3 m. Glass
is a good absorber in this waveband, and hence useful as a greenhouse
or solar collector cover to prevent loss of infrared heat. In contrast,
Figure 3.15(b) shows that polythene is unusual in being transparent in both
the visible and infrared, and hence not a good greenhouse or solar collector
cover. Plastics such as Mylar, with greater molecular complication, have
transmittance characteristics lying between those of glass and polythene.

3.7 Heat transfer by mass transport

Free and forced convection (Section 3.4) is heat transfer by the movement of
fluid mass. Analysis proceeds by considering thermal interactions between a
(solid) surface and the moving fluid. However, there are frequent practical
applications where energy is transported by a moving fluid or solid without
considering heat transfer across a surface – for example, when hot water
is pumped through a pipe from a solar collector to a storage tank. These
 3.7 Heat transfer by mass transport 75

systems of heat transfer by mass transport are analysed by considering the

fluid alone.

3.7.1 Single phase heat transfer

Consider the fluid flow through a heated pipe shown in Figure 3.16. Accord-
ing to (2.6), the net heat flow out of the control volume (i.e. out of the
pipe) is

Pm = ṁc
T3 − T1  (3.54)

where ṁ is the mass flow rate through the pipe (kg/s), c is the specific
−1
heat capacity of the fluid
J kg K−1  and T1  T3 are the temperatures of
the fluid on entry and exit respectively. If both T1 and T3 are measured
experimentally, Pm may be calculated without knowing the details of the
transfer process at the pipe wall. The thermal resistance for this process is
defined as
T 3 − T1 1
Rm = = (3.55)
Pm ṁc

Note here that the heat flow is determined by external factors controlling the
rate of mass flow ṁ, and not by temperature differences. Thus temperature
difference is not a driving function here for the mass-flow heat transfer,
unlike for conduction, radiation and free convection.

3.7.2 Phase change

A most effective means of heat transfer is as latent heat of vaporisa-
tion/condensation. For example, 2.4 MJ of heat vaporises 1.0 kg of water,
which is much greater than the 0.42 MJ to heat 1.0 kg through 100 C. Heat

Figure 3.16 Mass flow through a heated pipe. Heat is taken out by the fluid at a rate
Pm = ṁcT3 − T1 regardless of how the heat enters the fluid at (2).
76 Heat transfer

Figure 3.17 Heat transfer by phase change. Liquid absorbs heat, changes to vapour,
then condenses, so releasing heat.

taken from the heat source (as in Figure 3.17) is carried to wherever the
vapour condenses (the ‘heat sink’). The associated heat flow is

Pm = ṁ (3.56)

where ṁ is the rate at which fluid is being evaporated (or condensed) and
 is the latent heat of vaporisation. This expression is most useful when ṁ
is known (e.g. from experiment).
Theoretical prediction of evaporation rates is very difficult, because of
the multitude of factors involved, such as (i) the density, viscosity, specific
heat and thermal conductivity of both the liquid and the vapour; (ii) the
latent heat, the pressure and the temperature difference; and (iii) the size,
shape and nucleation properties of the surface. Some guidance and specific
empirical formulas are given in the specialised textbooks cited at the end of
the chapter.
Since evaporation and condensation are both nearly isothermal processes,
the heat flow by this mass transport is not determined directly by the
source temperature T1 and the sink temperature T2 . The associated thermal
resistance can, however, be defined as

T 1 − T2
Rm = (3.57)
ṁ

A heat pipe is a device for conducting heat efficiently and relatively cheaply
for short distances, <∼1m, between a separated heat source and heat sink
(Figure 3.18). The closed pipe contains a fluid that evaporates in contact
with the heat source (at A in the diagram). The vapour rises in the tube (B)
and condenses on the upper heat sink (at C). The condensed liquid then
diffuses down a cloth wick inside the pipe (at D), to return to the lower
end (at E) whence it can continue the cycle. The heat is transferred by
mass transfer in the vapour state with very small thermal resistance (high
thermal conductance). Many types of evacuated-tube solar water heaters
 3.8 Multimode transfer and circuit analysis 77

Heat
out

C
Colder

B
D

Heat Hotter
in

Figure 3.18 Schematic diagram of a heat pipe (cut-away view). Heat transfer by evapo-
ration and condensation within the closed pipe gives it a very low thermal
resistance. See text for further description.

use the heat pipe principle for heat transfer from the collector elements to
separately circulating heat transfer fluid.

3.8 Multimode transfer and circuit analysis

3.8.1 Resistances only

Section 3.2 showed in general terms how thermal resistances could be
combined in series or parallel (or indeed in more complicated networks).
The resistances that are combined do not have to refer to the same mode:
conduction, convection, radiation and mass transfer can be integrated by
this method. Many examples will be found in later chapters, especially
Chapter 5.

3.8.2 Thermal capacitance

The circuit analogy can be developed further. Thermal energy can be stored
in bulk materials (‘bodies’) similar to electrical energy stored in capacitors.
78 Heat transfer

Figure 3.19 A hot object loses heat to its surroundings. (a) Physical situation.
(b) Thermal circuit analogue. (c) Electrical circuit analogue.

For example, consider a tank of hot water standing in a constant tempera-

ture environment at T0 (Figure 3.19a). The water (of mass m and specific
heat capacity c is at some temperature T1 above the ambient temperature
T0 . Heat flows from the water to the environment according to the equation

d T − T0
−mc
T − T0  = 1 (3.58)
dt 1 R10

where the minus sign indicates that T1 decreases with time when
T1 − T0  is
positive. R10 is the combined thermal resistance of heat loss by convection,
radiation and conduction (Figure 3.19(b)). Similarly in the electrical circuit
of Figure 3.19(c), electrical current flows from one side of the capacitor (at
voltage V1 ) to the other (at voltage V2 ) according to the equation

dq d V −V
= Ce
V1 − V2  = − 1  2 (3.59)
dt dt R12

where q = Ce
V1 − V2  is the charge held by the capacitor.

Equations (3.58) and (3.59) are exactly analogous; so if the thermal
capacitance of a body is its heat capacity C = mc (unit J K−1 ), the complete
analogy may be listed, as in Table 3.1.
In drawing analogue circuits for thermal systems, care is needed to ensure
that the capacitances connect across the correct temperatures (cf. voltages).
 3.8 Multimode transfer and circuit analysis 79

Table 3.1 Comparable electrical and thermal quantities. Note that there is not a ‘one to
one’ correspondence and that much of the terminology is extremely confusing.
If in doubt, work out the basic units of the parameter

Thermal Electrical

Quantity Symbol Unit Quantity Symbol Unit

temperature T kelvin, K potential V volt, V

heat flow P watt, W current I ampere, A
resistance R K W−1 resistance R ohm  = V A−1
resistivity r m2 K W−1 resistivity r m
(of unit area)
‘R value’ = 1/U = r r m2 K W−1 .
U value U = 1/r W m−2 K−1 conductance 1/R −1 (also
(conductance) siemens)
conductivity k W m−1 K−1 conductivity 1/r −1 m−1
capacitance C J K−1 capacitance C farad F = A s V−1

Check that the differential equations, e.g. (3.58), (3.59), correspond exactly
with the circuit.

3.8.3 Heat exchangers

A heat exchanger transfers heat efficiently from one fluid to another, with-
out allowing them to mix. The so-called ‘radiator’ in vehicles for extracting
heat from the engine cooling-water is probably the most common example.
Most solar water heaters have a separate fluid circuit through the collector,
with a heat exchanger within the storage tank to transfer the collected heat
to the potable water. Figure 3.20 shows the principle of a counter-flow
heat exchanger. However, in general there are many different and sophisti-
cated designs, as described in engineering handbooks, e.g. the shell-and-tube
design (Figure 14.5).

Cool T3 T4
fluid(B)
T2 T1
Hot
fluid(A)

Figure 3.20 Sketch of counter-flow heat exchanger principle. Heat is conducted through
the wall of the inner tube, thereby cooling the hot inner fluid and heating the
cold outer fluid. T1 > T2 > T4 > T3 .
80 Heat transfer

In Figure 3.20, consider a fluid, A, losing heat in the inner tube, and fluid,
B, gaining heat in the outer tube. Using symbols  for density, c for heat
capacity and V for rate of volume flow, if these are considered constants
with the relatively small changes of temperature:

heat lost by fluid A = heat gained by fluid B + losses

A cA VA
T1 − T2  = B cB VB
T4 − T3  + L (3.60)

The efficiency is

B cB VB
T4 − T3 
= (3.61)
A cA VA
T1 − T2 

The simplest air-to-air heat recovery heat-exchangers operate as ventilation

units for rooms in buildings. In which case, usually VA = VB . With air as the
common fluid, and changes in temperature <50 C, the fluid density and
heat capacity are common. So

 =
T4 − T3 /
T1 − T2  (3.62)

In winter, the incoming fresh air is pre-heated by the outgoing stale air. If
the external fresh air is at temperature T0 , and the internal stale air at T1 ,
and if, in practice, T2 ≈ T3 ≈ T0 , then

 ≈
T4 − T0 /
T1 − T0  (3.63)

Commonly T0 ≈ 5 C, T1 ≈ 22 C and, in practice, T4 ≈ 17 C, so

 ≈
17 − 5/
22 − 5 ≈ 70% (3.64)

In summer, in hot weather, the same flows can pre-cool incoming ventilation
air. Such counter-flow heat exchangers are relatively cheap to purchase
and to operate as compared with primary energy plant. They provide an
excellent example of energy saving and more efficient use of energy.

Problems
3.1 Show explicitly that for thermal resistances in series, as in Figure 3.2(b),
R13 = R12 + R23 .
Hint: what is the relation between the heat flows in the various resis-
tances?
3.2 Verify from the definitions (3.20) and (3.25) that  and
are indeed
dimensionless.