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Article history: Swine waste storage is a major source of agricultural ammonia (NH3 ) emissions. Understanding the
Received 10 March 2016 factors that influence the magnitude of emissions is important to our understanding of NH3 loading of the
Received in revised form 22 June 2016 atmosphere and it’s deposition on the landscape. Since swine operations occur across the United States, a
Accepted 27 June 2016
better understanding of how differing climates influence NH3 emissions and how future climate change
Available online 13 July 2016
in might impact emissions is needed. Ammonia was measured from 2007 through 2009 at five swine
farms using anaerobic lagoons for manure storage and processing. Three farms, located in North Carolina
Keywords:
(NC), Indiana (IN), and Oklahoma (OK), handled the breeding to weaning of the pigs (sow farm). These
Ammonia emissions
Livestock emissions
farms had an annual mean sow live mass-specific emissions ranging from 62 g d−1 AU−1 (AU = 500 kg live
Climate change mass) to 120 g d−1 AU−1 . Two farms, located in NC and OK, handled the growing of the pigs to market
size (finisher farm). These farms had annual mean live mass-specific emissions of36 g d−1 AU−1 (OK) and
104 g d−1 AU−1 (NC). An emissions model incorporating the influence of winds and temperature accounted
for 74% of the measured emissions variability. A second emissions model including the influence of pH,
suspended organic matter, and farm type-specific nitrogen excretion rates accounted for 66% of the
measured emissions variability. An evaluation of the influence of warmer or cooler winters and summers
using the second model shows that a 1 ◦ C increase in maximum daily mean temperature results in a 6.9%
increase in annual emissions and a 9.5% increase in maximum emissions. Additional detailed studies
focused on better estimating the loading of the lagoons and chemistry of the surface of the lagoons are
needed to improve the estimation of NH3 emissions.
© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction facility emissions across the USA under different farm management
plans.
Measurements of ammonia (NH3 ) emissions from anaerobic Since NH3 emissions from swine lagoons are influenced by
treatment lagoons for swine manure (waste) are of interest because atmospheric turbulence, the emissions need to be measured using
farms are required to report emissions in excess of 220 kg/day micrometeorological approaches. However, there have been only
(100 lb/day) for the “Right-to-Know” regulations (Emergency Plan- a few studies of NH3 emissions using such methods from lagoons
ning and Community Right-to-Know Act) of the United States (USA) at sow farms. Harper and Sharpe (1998), using a micrometeoro-
(Centner and Patel, 2010). From a community and producer’s point logical method over an unspecified number of days, determined a
of view, it is important to know the corresponding size of farm that mean emission of 4.2 g hd−1 d−1 (hd, head representing1 finishing
would be expected to reach this threshold of emissions. However, hog, gestating sow, or sow and litter). Harper et al. (2004), from
it is difficult to accurately determine the threshold size since emis- twenty daily measurements over two years, determined an annual
sions are related to climate so that the threshold size in one part emission of 6.0 g hd−1 d−1 (hd representing unstated combination
of the country will not be the same as that in another warmer or of sow, litter and hogs) at a breed-to-wean sow farm in North Car-
colder part of the country. The National Air Emissions Monitoring olina. Grant et al. (2013a) observed an average daily mean emission
Study (NAEMS) was conducted to assist in characterizing livestock from a sow lagoon in Oklahoma of 69 g hd−1 d−1 over 181 d of
measurements across two years.
There have been more NH3 emission studies using micromete-
orological methods at finisher farms than at sow farms. Szögi et al.
∗ Corresponding author.
(2005) measured emissions of 9.75 g NH3 hd−1 d−1 during nine
E-mail address: rgrant@purdue.edu (R.H. Grant).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2016.06.018
0168-1923/© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
74 R.H. Grant et al. / Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 228–229 (2016) 73–84
Table 1
Summary of farm characteristics. Loading rates based on nominal farm capacity, farm-reported pig weights, and manure production estimates (ASAE, 2005).
1: Nitrogen.
2: Rotz (2004).
3: ASAE (2005).
measurement days distributed across a year. Shores et al. (2005) 2-m wind measurement. As a result of the proximity of the barns,
measured a NH3 emission of 44.1 g hd−1 d−1 during one day of mea- all measurements taken when the wind direction between 135◦
surements during July at a finishing farm in North Carolina. Zahn and 225◦ were excluded from analysis. The only significant pro-
et al. (2001) measured an average emissions of 22.7 g NH3 hd−1 d−1 ducer events at the farms during the measurement periods were a
during a 14-day measurement campaign in late summer and early pump-out of the lagoon and a period of empty barns (Table 3).
fall at a Missouri finishing operation. Grant et al. (2013a) found an The western swine finishing facility (OK3; Table 1) consisted
average daily mean emission from a finishing farm in Oklahoma of of three barns (Fig. 1d). Manure from the barns along with lagoon
18 g hd−1 d−1 over 155 d of measurements across two years. water recharge was transferred three times a week to the lagoon by
The NH3 emissions from lagoons have been modeled using pulling drain plugs in the barns’ underfloor pits. The waste lagoon
statistical regressions (Harper and Sharpe, 1998), semi-empirical was rectangular and located to the west of the barns (separated by
functions (Grant et al., 2013a), and detailed theoretical schemes a drainage swale). The clay-lined lagoon was oriented north-south.
(DeVisscher et al., 2002; Bajwa et al., 2006; and Sommer et al., Liquid was typically removed from the lagoon approximately every
2006). Statistical emissions models have little transportability since six months. Sludge from the bottom of the lagoon had not been
the statistical regressions depend on the location- and time-specific removed since construction in 1998. The barns resulted in a fetch
variations of the variables used in the regressions. Detailed theo- ratio of 10:6 for the east side of the lagoon. Fetches in all other direc-
retical models provide the greatest transportability across climates, tions were better than 100:1 (Fig. 1d). Due to the proximity of the
but typically require extensive information about the lagoon. Fur- barns, emissions from wind directions of 90◦ to 135◦ were excluded
thermore, ambient atmospheric turbulence introduces a significant from analysis. All fans exhausted barn ventilation air from the east
amount of chaos into the mixing and exchange processes within side of the barns and therefore did not influence the lagoon PIC
the liquid and between the liquid and air. Consequently modeling measurements except under easterly winds (which were not the
of the emissions into the turbulent atmosphere requires adequate prevailing winds at any time of the year). The nominal 120 day cycle
understanding so that the dominant processes can be theoretically of hogs through the farm was evident in the producer-reported
described and a wide range of conditions to evaluate the model. activity during the study (Table 3).
The objective of this study was the development of a theoretically- The southeastern sow farm (NC4; Table 1) consisted of three
based NH3 emissions model for swine lagoons across the USA. Five barns (Fig. 1a). Manure was transferred once a week from the barns
hog operations, including sow farms and finisher farms located to the clay-lined lagoon by pull plug with lagoon water recharge of
in the southeastern, mid-western, and southwestern USA were the pits. Wastewater pipes from all three buildings combined into
included in this analysis. one inlet pipe that discharged into the SW corner of the lagoon
(Fig. 1a. Sludge from the lagoon had not been removed since con-
struction in 1994. The sludge depth was approximately 0.7 m at the
2. Methods beginning of the study. Liquid was removed as weather permitted.
The fetch ratio of 10:3 to the south of the lagoon resulted in the
2.1. Farms exclusion of emissions when wind directions were between 225◦
and 315◦ . Fetches for wind measurements from the east (cropland)
The southeastern swine finishing lagoon facility (NC3; Table 1) and north were greater than 100:1 for all measurement heights.
consisted of five barns (Fig. 1c), an office, and an anaerobic treat- Fetch for wind measurements to the west was 100:1, 100:2.4, and
ment lagoon. Manure from the barns was drained by gravity daily 100:2 for wind measurements at the 2-m, 4-m, and 16-m heights.
to the lagoon by a pull plug and lagoon water recharge system in Consequently, all wind measurements were relatively unaffected
the barns. The clay-lined lagoon was oriented east-west and sepa- by upwind conditions. The fan exhaust blew from the northern-
rated by a drainage swale from the barns (Fig. 1c). Lagoon effluent most barn to the east and west. Ventilation fans exhausted from the
was removed for irrigation as weather permitted. Sludge from the west wall of the middle barn. The lagoon was pumped out several
lagoon had not been removed since construction in 1996. The barns times during the study (Table 2).
to the south of the lagoon resulted in a fetch ratio (distance: rise) The Midwestern sow farm (IN4; Table 1) consisted of nine barns
of 10:3 to the lagoon. Fetch ratio to the east for the wind mea- and a lagoon (Fig. 1e). In 1998 the facility was converted from a
surements was more than 4:1 for all measurement heights. While finisher farm to a sow farm. Liquid waste from the deep pits of
the 16-m measurement height was above the tops of the barns, the the barns was gravity drained once every two weeks to the lagoon
fetch ratio was 33:1 for the 4-m measurement height and 6:1 for the
R.H. Grant et al. / Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 228–229 (2016) 73–84 75
Fig. 1. (a) Configuration of the NC4A farm. Image from GoogleEarthTM . Proximity of the buildings to the S restricted valid wind directions for calculating emissions estimates.
(b) Configuration of the OK4A farm. Image from GoogleEarthTM . Proximity of the building to the W restricted valid wind directions for calculating emissions estimates.
(c) Configuration of the NC3A farm. Image from GoogleEarthTM . Proximity of the buildings to the S restricted valid wind directions for calculating emissions estimates. (d)
Configuration of the OK3A farm. Image from GoogleEarthTM . Proximity of the buildings to the E restricted valid wind directions for calculating emissions estimates. (e)
Configuration of the IN4A farm. Image from GoogleEarthTM .
through a single inlet on the east side of the lagoon (Fig. 1e). The only producer-related change during the study was a shift from
surface of the clay-lined lagoon was 2–3 m above the surround- grain sorghum to corn in the feed ration (Table 2).
ing cropland. Sludge had not been removed from the lagoon. No Since the manure at these farms was stored in the lagoon for
reported lagoon pump out occurred during the study (Table 2). Corn multiple months as it decomposed, it was assumed that the number
completely surrounded the lagoon during its growing season. of animals contributing to the atmospheric emissions of the lagoon
The western sow farm (OK4; Table 1) consisted of three build- was the maximum capacity of the farm. The farm inventories were
ings (Fig. 1b): two gestation barns, and a 16-room farrowing at or near capacity during the study.
building. Manure from the barns was transferred weekly from the
two gestation units and every 21-d from the farrowing unit to
the lagoon by pull plug and lagoon water recharge. The clay-lined 2.2. Measurements
lagoon was separated from the barns by a drainage swale (Fig. 1b).
Sludge from the lagoon had not been removed since construction Continuous measurements of pH, oxidation-reduction poten-
in 1994. The nearest building obstruction resulted in a fetch ratio to tial, and temperature of the liquid were conducted from a float
the west of 100:8. Fetches in all other directions were better than located in the NE corner of the NC3, NC4, and OK4 lagoons, the
100:1 (Fig. 1b). Due to the proximity of the barns, emissions from SE corner of the IN4 lagoon, and the NW corner of the OK3 lagoon.
wind direction of 225◦ to 315◦ were excluded from analysis. The Analyses of the nitrogen (N) components of the lagoon liquid at the
OK4 and OK3 lagoons were provided by the producers every year.
76 R.H. Grant et al. / Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 228–229 (2016) 73–84
Table 2
Measurement periods at each breed to wean farm.
The starting dates and number of days of emissions measurements after that date and the producer-supplied information on farm management events are indicated.
Year Start date # days Producer events Start date # days Producer Start date # days Producer events
events
Table 3
Measurement periods at each swine finishing farm. The starting dates and number of days of emissions measurements after that date and the producer-supplied information
on farm management events are indicated.
OK3 NC3
year Start date # days Producer events Start date # days Producer
events
2007 30 Aug 19 08/30 feed: Paylean 4.5 g 09/13 feed: 24 Oct 14 No events
Paylean 6.5 g 09/25 Barns emptied
09/27 and 10/04 Restocked
Table 4
Climate conditions.
Farm Days Mean Daily (◦ C) Maximum Minimum 1/2 Range of Mean Daily (◦ C) Annual Days Mean Daily Maximum
Mean Daily (◦ C) Mean Daily (◦ C) Mean Daily (◦ C) Amplitude (◦ C) Wind Speed Daily Wind
(m/s) Speed (m/s)
IN4 385 11.2 26.7 −15.2 21.0 9.9 13.4 275 3.76 13.7
NC3 198 15.2 28.5 −2.9 15.7 16.4 9.0 135 1.44 7.5
NC4 135 18.2 32.4 −5.2 18.8 17.0 9.5 125 2.16 11.2
OK3 150 13.0 34.3 −13.4 23.9 13.1 12.9 128 4.44 16.1
OK4 183 15.4 37.2 −11.6 24.4 13.2 14.1 152 4.78 17.5
Additional analyses of the lagoon liquid at the time of field applica- Diode Laser Absorption Spectrometer (TDLAS) open-path instru-
tions at OK3, NC3, and NC4 were provided by the producers; liquid ments and 3-dimensional (3D) sonic anemometers in conjunction
was applied to cropland by a center-pivot irrigation system when with meteorological measurements and vertical radial plume map-
levels reached the minimum freeboard of the lagoon (maximum ping (VRPM) and backward Lagrangian Stochastic (bLS) emission
capacity). The mean concentration of N in the liquid of each lagoon models. The path-integrated concentrations (PICs) of NH3 were
is indicated in Table 5. measured by TDLAS along optical paths defined by scanning TDLAS
The NH3 emissions from each lagoon were monitored during instruments (TDLAS/scanner) and retro-reflectors. The general con-
every quarter for two years (Tables 2 and 3) using scanning Tunable figuration of the TDLAS/scanners and retro-reflectors is illustrated
R.H. Grant et al. / Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 228–229 (2016) 73–84 77
Table 5
Lagoon conditions during measurements.
Farm na Mean N Days Mean daily (◦ C) Maximum Minimum daily Days Mean daily pH Maximum Minimum daily
concentration daily (◦ C) (◦ C) daily pH pH
(% wet weight)
IN4 0 0.29b 279 16.5 35.1 −0.6 218 7.9 8.3 7.5
NC3 19 0.43 131 18.2 31.6 5.6 161 7.7 8.4 6.9
NC4 19 0.29 130 20.7 35.7 2.3 112 7.8 8.2 7.5
OK3 3 0.57 116 16.0 31.9 0.6 104 7.9 8.2 7.3
OK4 1 0.44 128 19.7 36.2 2.6 108 7.8 8.4 6.5
a
n = number of samples.
b
set equal to NC4.
Fig. 2. Typical measurement configuration. Retro-reflectors indicated by squares with TDL OP indicated by solid lines. Sonic anemometers are indicated by bow-ties.
in Fig. 2. The TDLAS/scanners were mounted at 1-m heights above all instruments were also conducted. Inter-comparisons of sonic
the lagoon berm at the NE and SW corners of the NC3, NC4 and anemometers showed that all were within 0.1 ms−1 for any mean
OK4 lagoons (Figs. 1a–c) and at the NW and SE corners of the IN4 wind velocity component. No corrections or adjustments were
and OK3 lagoons (Figs. 1d, e). Towers for mounting retro-reflectors required for the sonic anemometer measurements. Calibration
were located on the NW and SE corners of the NC3, NC4, and OK4 checks assured that the TDLAS NH3 PIC measurements were main-
lagoons (Figs. 1a–c) and NE and SW corners of the IN4 and OK3 tained to a precision of ±10% (relative standard deviation) and an
lagoons (Figs. 1d, e). accuracy of 10% at 50 ppm-m. Atmospheric moisture interfered
Meteorological measurements (barometric pressure, air tem- with the NH3 measurements from 23 April, 2008 to 6 May, 2008 at
perature and relative humidity, solar radiation, and surface the OK4 sow farm, from 24 January, 2008 to 19 February, 2008 and 7
wetness) and 3D wind velocities (2.5 m height) were made near May, 2008 to 10 June, 2008 at the OK3 finisher farm, and throughout
the lagoon NE corner at NC3, NC4 and OK4, near the lagoon SW the study period at the IN4 sow farm. Inter-comparisons between
corner at IN4, and near the NW corner at OK3 (Fig. 1). The 3D sonic various TDLAS units experiencing atmospheric moisture interfer-
anemometers were located at nominal heights of 4 m and 16 m on ence and units without apparent interference revealed reduced
each tower on the SE towers at NC3, NC4, and OK4 and the SW responses by the moisture-affected units of 28%, 68%, 36% and 31%
towers at IN4 and OK3. for atmospheric moisture represented by dew point temperatures
Calibration verification checks of the TDLAS, sonic anemome- between −2 ◦ C and 20 ◦ C. The interference negatively affecting both
ters, and lagoon pH instruments were made at the beginning the magnitude of TDLAS response as well as the probability of the
and end of each measurement period. Semi-annual calibrations of measurement being NH3 (valid measurements had a coefficient of
78 R.H. Grant et al. / Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 228–229 (2016) 73–84
Table 6
Comparison of emission methods.
Farm Median NH3 Median total N bLS emissions VRPM emissions bLS emissions VRPM emissions VRPM adjustmenta Combined
Cbg Cliq estimates estimates estimates estimates emissions
estimates
Fig. 7. Daily mean emissions distributions. The measured emissions (panel A) are compared against the estimated emissions based on Eq. (2) (panel B) and Eq. (3) (panelC).
Table 7
Mean annual ammonia emissions.
Farm Measured emissions days Model Biasa (Eq. (2)) RMSE days Model bias (Eq. (3)) RMSE
−1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −2
g NH3 d AU g NH3 d hd g NH3 d m # g NH3 d−1 AU−1 g NH3 d−1 AU−1 # g NH3 d−1 AU−1 g NH3 d−1 AU−1
Table 8
Predicted change in mean annual emissions for all sow farms with change in maximum and minimum annual daily mean temperature.
-2 o C -1 o C Nominal +1 o C +2 o C Mean
Minimum daily o
+2 C −10.6% −2.80% 4.40% 11.20% 17.60% 4.00%
temperature +1 o C −13.3% −5.30% 2.20% 9.20% 15.80% 1.70%
Nominal −16.00% −7.70% 0.00% 7.20% 14.00% −0.50%
-1 o C −18.5% −10.00% −2.10% 5.30% 12.30% −2.60%
-2 o C −21.1% −12.40% −4.30% 3.40% 10.50% −4.80%
mean −15.90% −7.70% 0.10% 7.30% 14.00%
occurred on 12 February, 2009 (day of year 43, Fig. 6); the first The Eq. (3) emissions model utilizing the pH models of Eq. (5)
valid daily mean emissions measurement after all animals were and (6) tended to underestimate the annual NH3 emissions. The
removed from the farm due to a disease outbreak (Table 3). The annual NH3 emissions at the IN, NC, and OK sow farms were esti-
lagoon pH during this period was relatively high (approx. 8.3), but mated by Eq. (3) at 9.6 kg NH3 AU−1 , 19.3 kg NH3 AU−1 , and 12.7 kg
not atypical for the time of year and the lagoon temperatures were NH3 AU−1 respectively. The corresponding mean measured emis-
not unusual. The theoretical model estimated a high fNH3 based on sions over the entire period of measurements was 22.6 kg NH3
the high pH and consequently estimated high emissions. Actual AU−1 , 31.4 kg NH3 AU−1 , and 43.8 kg NH3 AU−1 for the IN, NC, and
emissions were low and similar for the three other measurement OK sow farms respectively. The higher annualized mean measured
days with no hogs on site. Large underestimates of the emissions emissions compared to the modeled emissions was in part due to
at the OK3 lagoon occurred on 15 and 17 September 2007 (day of the variability in winds and the greater range in air temperatures
year 258 and 260; Fig. 6). Between 30 August and 18 September, during the measurements than modeled (Table 4). The emissions
2007 (Table 3), the lagoon temperature increased but the measured estimate for the OK sow farm is much lower than the estimate of
emissions were not correlated with lagoon temperature, pH, or fNH3 55.1 kg NH3 AU−1 for the same farms using different methodology
(Correlation coefficient, R < = 0.1). The theoretically-modeled emis- (Grant et al., 2013a). This may be in part due to narrower ranges
sions were of course correlated with all three variables through in modeled temperatures (maximum temperatures measured at
Eqs. (3) and (4). These measurements were made during a period 37.2 ◦ C and modeled at 26 ◦ C), modeled pH (modeled 7.9–8.1 versus
of feed change to Paylean® prior to the market weight finishing measured 6.5–8.4), and no range in modeled winds (Table 4), and/or
hogs being loaded out (Table 3). The addition of Paylean® enhances due to error in the assumed N excretion rate versus unknown actual
N retention in the feed and decreases swine manure N entering the rate associated with the specific diet used at the OK farm (Lynch
lagoon (DeCamp et al., 2001). Consequently, the effect of the feed et al., 2007).
change should be a decrease, not increase in emissions and does not The annual NH3 emissions at the NC and OK finisher farms
explain the modeled emissions discrepancy. Unfortunately there were estimated at 19.9 kg NH3 AU−1 and 32.3 kg NH3 AU−1 respec-
were no other measurement periods during which Paylean® was tively. The corresponding mean measured emissions over the entire
added to the feed. Unlike the theoretically-modeled emissions for period of measurements was 13.2 kg NH3 AU−1 , and 38.0 kg NH3
the swine finishing farms, there were no distinct outliers in the AU−1 for the NC, and OK sow farms respectively. The higher OK farm
errors in modeled emission for the sow farms. annualized mean measured emissions compared to the modeled
emissions was in part due to the variability in winds and the greater
range in air temperatures during the measurements (Table 4). The
estimated annual emission estimate for the NC finisher farm is
3.3. Climate impacts
much lower than the estimated 27.9 kg NH3 AU−1 for another NC
finishing farm (Szögi et al., 2005). This may be due to the limited
The impact of differing air temperatures and winds on maxi-
emission measurements by Szögi et al. (2005), a narrower range
mum and mean emissions of each farm was evaluated based on
in modeled pH (modeled 7.7–8.0 versus measured 6.9–8.4), and/or
the annual modeled daily emissions. The annual variation in daily
due to error in the assumed N excretion rate versus unknown actual
mean temperature at the five farms was modeled as a first-order
rate associated with the specific diet used at the NC farm (Lynch
Fourier series function of the measured daily mean temperatures
et al., 2007). The annual emission estimate for the OK finisher farm
using TableCurve 2D® . The modeled annual temperature regimes
is similar to the 38.4 kg NH3 AU−1 for the same farms using different
were typically similar in mean temperature but much different in
methodology (Grant et al., 2013a).
temperature range (Table 4). Mean wind speeds were assumed
Ammonia emissions is strongly influenced by the lagoon tem-
as constant throughout the year (Table 4). Lagoon temperature
perature, so year to year variations in air temperatures will strongly
at 0.3 m depth was modeled as a power function of air tempera-
influence predicted NH3 emissions. A warmer summer (increasing
ture (Fig. 3). The NH3 − NH4 + dissociation constant Ka was modeled
the annual maximum daily air temperature by 1 ◦ C) would increase
according to DeVisscher et al. (2002) utilizing the modeled lagoon
the maximum daily NH3 emission at both sow and finisher farms by
temperature.
R.H. Grant et al. / Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 228–229 (2016) 73–84 83
Table 9
Predicted change in mean annual emissions for all finisher farms with change in maximum and minimum annual daily mean temperature.
-2 o C -1 oC Nominal +1 oC +2 oC Mean
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4. Summary and conclusions
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