Equations of Orbits, Deflection of Light,

Mercury’s Perihelion Shift, Period of Revolution

and Time Delay of Signals
in Schwarzchild’s Geometry.
Some closed-form solutions using Weinberg’s approach.
New Version (19/08/2016)

Solomon M. Antoniou

SKEMSYS
Scientific Knowledge Engineering
and Management Systems
Corinthos 20100, Greece
solomon_antoniou@yahoo.com

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 Abstract
We present some exact solutions of the differential equations of motion connected
to Schwarzchild’s solution of Einstein field equations in General Relativity. The
exact solutions are expressed in terms of Jacobi’s or Weirstrass’s Elliptic
Functions or in terms of Elliptic Integrals.
The topics which are covered are the following:
I) Deflection of light in the Sun’s gravitational field
II) Equation of a closed orbit
III) Mercury’s perihelion shift
IV) Trajectory of a light signal
V) Period of revolution
VI) Time delay of radio signals in the Sun’s gravitational field

We use Weinberg’s approach in addressing the above topics and most of the
results of this paper appear for the first time in the literature.

Keywords: General Relativity, Einstein’s Equations, Schwarzchild Solution,

Equations of Orbits, Mercury’s Perihelion Shift, Deflection of Light, Period of
Revolution, Time Delay of Signals, Weirstrass Elliptic Functions, Jacobi Elliptic
Functions, Elliptic Integrals, Exact Solutions, Weinberg’s approach.

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Contents
1. Introduction
2. The Schwarzchild Solution
3. Equations of the Geodesic Curves
4. Simplification of the Equations of Motion
5. Differential Equations. Elliptic Functions
5.1 Differential Equation of the Orbit
5.2 Differential Equation for the Calculation of the Time
6. Deflection of Light in the Sun’s Gravitational Field
7. Equation of Closed Orbit
7.1 Equation of Closed Orbit using Weirstrass Elliptic
Function
7.2 Equation of Closed Orbit using Jacobi’s Elliptic
Function
7.3 Equation of Closed Orbit. Third Method
8. Mercury’s Perihelion Shift
9. Trajectory of Light Signal
9.1 Trajectory of Light Signal using Weirstrass Elliptic
Function
9.2 Trajectory of Light Signal using Jacobi’s Elliptic
Function
10. Period of Revolution
11. Time Delay of Radio Signals in the Sun’s Gravitational Field.

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1. Introduction
We analyze the problem of motion of test particles in the gravitational field
created by a heavy spherically symmetric object of mass M, which produces the
Schwarzchild geometry. We study different types of orbits, which mainly fall into
two categories: bound and unbound. We also consider the period of a test body
describing a cycle around a heavy object (i.e. the Sun) and the time delay of radio
signals in the Sun’s gravitational field.
There is a number of different approaches and approximation schemes in solving
the geodesic equations corresponding to the Schwarzchild geometry. In our case
we use the Weinberg approach (Weinberg [7]). However instead of trying
approximate solutions, we find closed-form solutions, which have not appeared
elsewhere since the first publication of Weinberg’s book. In all the cases we
express the final solutions in terms of Elliptic Functions (Jacobi’s or Weirstrass’s)
or Elliptic Integrals. We use a number of different methods, which are then proved
to lead to equivalent solutions.
Some other approaches, quite different from Weinberg’s are given by L. D.
Landau and E. M. Lifshitz (Landau and Lifshitz [6]) and by S. Chandrasekhar
(Chandrasekhar [3]).

2. The Schwarzchild Solution.

Einstein’s field equations in empty space are (Weinberg [1])
R μν  0

where R μν is Ricci’s tensor.

By solving Einstein’s equations for the general static isotropic metric

dτ 2  B(r ) dt 2  A ( r ) dr 2  r 2 dθ 2  r 2 sin 2 θ dφ 2 (2.1)

we can determine the functions B(r ) and A( r ) .

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These functions can be determined by imposing the boundary condition that for
r   the metric tensor must approach the Minkowski tensor in spherical
coordinates:
lim A ( r )  lim B(r )  1
r  r

A constant of integration which appears in the solution, can be fixed considering

that at great distances from a central mass M, the component g tt   B must

MG
approach to the quantity  1 2 φ , where φ is the Newtonian potential 
r
where M is the mass of the object producing the field and G is Newton’s
constant. Under these circumstances, we find that the functions B(r ) and A( r ) are
given by
2MG
B( r )  1  (2.2)
r
and
1
 2MG 
A ( r )  1   (2.3)
 r 
respectively.
The solution of Einstein’s equations for the metric (2.1) with B(r ) and A( r ) given
by (2.2) and (2.3) respectively, is the very-well known Schwarzchild solution.
It is obvious that
A( r ) B( r )  1 (2.4)
The non-vanishing Christoffel symbols associated to the metric (2.1) are given by

A (r )
rr r r r r sin 2 θ
Γ φ Γ θθ   Γ φφ  
2 A (r ) A (r ) A (r )

B(r ) 1
Γ r tt  Γ θ rθ  Γ θ θr  Γ θ φφ   sin θ cos θ (2.5)
2 A( r ) r

1 B( r )
Γ φ φr  Γ φ rφ  Γ φ φθ  Γ φ θφ  cot θ Γ t tr  Γ t rt 
r 2 B( r )

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where the prime denotes differentiation with respect to r.

3. Equations of the Geodesic Curves

The differential equations of the geodesic curves in a curved space have the form

d2xμ dx ν dx λ
μ
 Γ νλ 0 (3.1)
dp 2 dp dp

where p is an affine parameter and summation over repeated indices is always

understood.
Using the non-vanishing components of the Christoffel symbols (relations (2.5)),
we find from equation (3.1) the equations
2 2 2
d2r A (r )  dr  r  dθ  sin 2 θ  dφ 
       r   
dp 2 2A ( r )  dp  A( r )  dp  A( r )  dp 
2
B(r )  dt 
   0 (3.2)
2A (r )  dp 
2
d 2θ 2 dθ dr  dφ 
  sin θ cos θ   0 (3.3)
dp 2 r dp dp  dp 

d 2φ 2 dφ dr dφ dθ
  2 cot θ 0 (3.4)
2 r dp dp dp dp
dp

d2t B( r ) dt dr
 0 (3.5)
dp 2 B( r ) dp dp

Since the field is isotropic, we may consider the orbit of our particle to be confined
to the equatorial plane, that is
π
θ (3.6)
2

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Equation (3.3) is then immediately satisfied and we can forget about θ as a
dynamical variable. Under this assumption, the system of equations (3.2)-(3.5) is
equivalent to the system
2 2 2
d2r A ( r )  dr  r  dφ  B(r )  dt 
         0 (3.7)
dp 2 2A (r )  dp  A (r )  dp  2A (r )  dp 

d 2φ 2 dφ dr
 0 (3.8)
2 r dp dp
dp

d2t B( r ) dt dr
 0 (3.9)
2 B( r ) dp dp
dp

4. Simplification of the Equations of Motion

We can further simplify the equations of motion (3.7)-(3.9) we have derived. Full
details are given in Appendix A. The new equations are the following:
dt 1
 (4.1)
dp B(r )
dφ
r2 J (4.2)
dp
2
 dr  J2 1
A( r )      E (4.3)
 dφ  r 2 B( r )
where J is a constant having dimensions of angular momentum per unit mass and
E is a constant. We follow closely S. Weinberg (Weinberg [7]).
The relation between proper time τ and affine parameter p is given by

dτ 2  E  dp 2 (4.4)
where
E  0 for particles
E  0 for photons

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The equation of the orbit r  r (φ) is obtained by eliminating dp between
equations (4.2) and (4.3). We find
2
A( r )  dr  1 1 E
     (4.5)
r 4  dφ  r 2 J 2 B( r ) J2
which can be put in one of the following equivalent forms:
2
 dr  r 4  1 E 1 
     (4.6)
 dφ  A (r )  J 2 B(r ) J 2 r 2 

or
2
 J dr  1  J 2 
   E 1 (4.7)
 r 2 dφ  A( r )  r 2 
We can also determine the value of the constant J as follows:
If the orbit is an unbounded curve, at the closest distance from the object which
dr
produces the gravitational field, we have r  r 0 and so  0 , and equation (4.5)
dφ
gives
 1 
J 2  r 20   E (4.8)
 B(r 0 ) 
 
In case the path is a closed curve, we find another expression for J (Appendix D):

2 2MG (r  r ) 2
J  (4.9)
( r  2MG )(r  2MG )(r  r )
where r and r are the aphelion and perihelion respectively.
Finally, since dp  B( r ) dt , as follows from equation (4.1), we can eliminate dp
from equation (4.3) and we get
2
A( r )  dr  J2 1
2
   2  E (4.10)
B (r )  dt  r B( r )

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5. Differential Equations. Elliptic Functions
5.1. Differential Equation of the Orbit.
The differential equation of the orbit can be expressed in the form
2
 dr 
   f (r ) (5.1)
 dφ 
where f ( r ) is a fourth degree polynomial, which can easily be integrated.
1
Under the substitution u  , equation (5.1) is being converted into an equation of
r
the form
2
 du 
   g (u ) (5.2)
 dφ 
where g (u ) is a third degree polynomial. The resulting equation can then be
integrated. The resulting integral is then converted to an elliptic integral or to a
linear combination of elliptic integrals of various types.
We can also transform the differential equation (5.2) into a Weirstrass or Jacobi
differential equation. In fact, under a linear transformation u  λ  U  μ , the
differential equation is converted to
2
 dU 
   4 U 3  g 2 U  g 3 (5.3)
 dφ 
The above differential equation admits the general solution (Davis [4])
U  (φ  s ; g 2 , g 3 ) (5.4)
where  is Weirstrass elliptic function and s is a constant which can be
determined from the initial conditions.
Since, on the other hand,
2
 dU 
   4( U  e1 )( U  e 2 )( U  e 3 ) (5.5)
 dφ 
where e1  e 2  e 3 , under the substitution

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 U  e3 e e
z2  , k2  2 3 ( 0  k2  1) (5.6)
e 2  e3 e1  e 3
the differential equation is transformed to
2
 dz  2 2 2
   (1  z )(1  k z ) (5.7)
 dx 
where x  e1  e 3  φ and admits the general solution (Davis [4])

z  sn ( x  c ; k ) (5.8)
where sn ( x ) is Jacobi’s elliptic function.

5.2. Differential equation for the calculation of time.

The differential equation for the calculation of time in terms of the distance is
given by (Appendix A, equation (A.19))
dt
 R (r) (5.9)
dr
where
x x x
R ( x)   (5.10)
x  2MG [ x 3  J 2 x B( x )  E x 3 B( x )]1 / 2

The above differential equation can be integrated by separation of variables and its
solution can be expressed as a combination of Elliptic Integrals of various types.

6. Deflection of Light in the Sun’s Gravitational Field.

We start with equation (4.6) where J 2 is given by equation (A.11) of Appendix A.
Since
1/ 2
dr r 2  1 E 1 
  
dφ A( r )  J 2 B(r ) J 2 r 2 

we obtain, by separation of variables

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 A(r)
dφ   dr (6.1)
1/ 2
 1 E 1 
r2   
 J 2 B( r ) J 2 r 2 
 
Denoting by r0 is the closest distance from the object which produces the
gravitational field, we have
1 E 1 1  1  1
     E   
J 2 B(r ) J2 r2 J 2  B( r )  r2
1
1  1   1  1
   E   E   (6.2)
r 20  B(r 0 ) 
  B(r )  r2

where we have used equation (A.11) in the second line of the above equation.
We thus find that equation (6.1) can be written as
A( r )
dφ   dr (6.3)
1 1/ 2
 
1  1   1  1
r2    E   E  
 r 2  B(r 0 )   B( r )  r 2 
 0   
Integrating the previous equation, we obtain the equation of the orbit

A (r )
φ(r )  φ( )   dr (6.4)
1 1/ 2
r  
1  1   1  1
r2    E   E  
 r 2  B( r 0 )   B( r )  r 2 
 0   
This is the general equation of the orbit of a particle, which approaches the
gravitational field produced by an object of mass M.
If the particle is a photon, then E  0 and equation (6.4) takes the form

A( r )
φ(r )  φ ()   dr 
1/ 2
r  1 
2  B(r 0 )
r 
 r 20 B( r ) r 2 
 

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 
A (r )
 φ ()   dr 
1/ 2
r  r 2 B(r 0 )  r 20 B( r ) 
2
r  

 r 20 r 2 B( r ) 

 r 0 A ( r )B(r )
 φ ()   dr
2 2 1/ 2
r r [r B( r 0 )  r 0 B( r )]

and since A( r ) B( r )  1 , we get finally


1
φ(r )  φ( )  r 0  dx (6.5)
2 2 1/ 2
r x [ x B(r 0 )  r 0 B( x )]

The integral which appears in (6.5) can be transformed as follows. First of all we
have to transform the quantity under the integration. In Appendix B we find that

x [ x 2 B(r 0 )  r 20 B( x )] 1 / 2 

r 0  2MG
  x ( x  r 0 )( x  r 1 )( x  r 2 ) (6.6)
r0

where

1  r 0  6MG  
 and r   1 r 1 
r 0  6MG 
r 1   r 0 1  2 0
 (6.7)
2  r 0  2MG  2  r 0  2MG 
   
Collecting everything together, we have
r0 
1
φ(r )  φ( )  r 0  dx (6.8)
r 0  2MG r x ( x  r 0 )( x  r 1 )( x  r 2 )

We put
G ( x )  x ( x  r 0 )( x  r 1 )( x  r 2 ) (6.9)

We have to calculate the difference

r0 
1
φ(r 0 )  φ ()  r 0  dx (6.10)
r 0  2MG r G (x )
0

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In Appendix C it is proved that
 a
1 2 dφ
 dx  
r0
G (x ) r 0 (r2  r1 ) 0 1  k 2 sin 2 φ

where
r r  r r r
a  sin 1  2 1  and k 2  2  0 1
 r0  r1  r0 r2  r1

Equation (6.10) is then equivalent to

r0 a
2 dφ
φ(r 0 )  φ ()  r 0  
r 0  2MG r 0 ( r2  r1 ) 0 1  k 2 sin 2 φ

2r0
 F(a ; k ) (6.11)
(r 0  2MG )( r2  r1 )

where F(a ; k ) is the Elliptic Integral of the first kind.

We also have
r 0  6MG
r 2  r1  r 0 (6.12)
r 0  2MG

and thus equation (6.11) is equivalent to

1/ 4
 r 20 
φ ( r 0 )  φ ( )  2   F(a ; k ) (6.13)
 (r 0  2MG )( r2  r1 ) 
 
The deflection Δφ of the light is given by the expression
Δφ  2 | φ( r 0 )  φ() |  π (6.14)

and using (6.13), we get the expression

1/ 4
 r 20 
Δφ  4   F(a ; k )  π (6.15)
 (r 0  2MG )( r2  r1 ) 
 
Using (6.12), i.e. substituting the difference r 2  r1 , we obtain from (6.15) the

final expression for Δφ :

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 1/ 4
 r0 r 0  2MG 
Δφ  4   F(a ; k )  π (6.16)
 r 0  2MG r 0  6MG 


7. Equation of Closed Orbits.

7.1 Equation of Closed Orbit using Weirstrass Elliptic Function
We start with equation (4.6):
2
 dr  1 4 E r4 r2
   r    (7.1)
 dφ  J2 J 2 A( r ) A( r )

Using (7.55), (7.56) (i.e. J 2  b / c , E  a / c ) and the expression for A( r )

(equation (2.3)), equation (7.1) can be converted to the equation
2
 dr  c  a 4 2a M G 3 2
   r  r  r  2MG r (7.2)
 dφ  b b
The quantities a, b and c are defined by (7.52), (7.53) and (7.54) respectively.
Under the substitution
1 dr 1 du
u ,  (7.3)
r dφ u 2 dφ
equation (7.2) can be transformed to the equation
2
 du  c  a 2a M G
    u  u 2  2MG u 3 (7.4)
 dφ  b b
We try a linear transformation
u  λU μ (7.5)
so as to convert (7.4) into the standard form:
2
 dU 
   4 U 3  g 2 U  g 3 (7.6)
 dφ 

Page 14
Under (7.5), equation (7.4) is being transformed into
2
2  dU  c  a 2a M G
λ     (λ U  μ )  (λ U  μ ) 2  2MG ( λ U  μ ) 3
 dφ  b b
which is equivalent to
2
 dU  1  2aMG 
   2MG λ U 3  (1  6μ MG ) U 2    2μ  6 μ 2 MG  U 
 dφ  λ b 
1  c  a 2aμMG 
    μ 2  2μ 3 MG  (7.7)
2 b b 
λ

The coefficients λ and μ are to be determined so as the coefficient of U 3 to

be 4 and the coefficient of U 2 to be zero:

2MG λ  4 and  1  6μ MG  0
Solving the previous system we find the values of the constants λ and μ :
2
λ (7.8)
MG
and
1
μ (7.9)
6MG
Thus the linear transformation (7.5) has the form
2 1
u U (7.10)
MG 6MG
After substituting the values of λ and μ into (7.7) we arrive at the equation
2
 dU 
   4 U 3  g 2 U  g 3 (7.11)
 dφ 
where

1 a M 2G 2
g2   (7.12)
12 b
and

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 1 a M 2G 2 c  a M 2 G 2
g3    (7.13)
216 b 12 b 4
The solution to (7.11) is given by (Davis [4])
U  (φ  s ; g 2 , g 3 ) (7.14)
where  is the Weirstrass elliptic function and s is a constant which can be
determined from the initial conditions.
We thus arrive at the following solution of equation (7.1):
1 2 1
 (φ  s ; g 2 , g 3 )  (7.15)
r MG 6 MG
We can determine the constant s by imposing the initial condition:
1 2 1
φ  0 for r  r where  (s ; g 2 , g 3 ) 
r MG 6 MG
from which there follows:
6 MG  r
(s ; g 2 , g 3 )  (7.16)
12 r
On the other hand, it is a very well-known fact (Whittaker and Watson [8]) that

dx
if ζ  ( z ; g 2 , g 3 ) then z  
ζ 4x 3  g 2 x  g 3

6 MG  r
which means that (s ; g 2 , g 3 )  implies that
12 r

dx
s 
~
e2 4x 3  g 2 x  g 3

where ~e2 is one of the roots of the polynomial 4x 3  g 2 x  g 3 where g 2 and g 3

are given by (7.12) and (7.13) respectively. We also have

4x 3  g 2 x  g 3  4( x  ~e1 )( x  ~e2 )( x  ~e3 )

where

Page 16
 ~ r r  3MG (r  r ) ~ 6MG  r ~ 6MG  r
e1    , e2  , e3 
r r 12 r 12 r
are the three roots of the polynomial with ordering ~e  ~e  ~e . 1 2 3

Using (17.4.65) of Abramowitz and Stegun [1], we get


dx 1
s   F(φ; m ) (7.17)
~
e2
4( x  ~e1 )( x  ~e2 )( x  ~e3 ) ~e  ~
1 e2

where
φ
dθ
F(φ; m)   (7.18)
2 2
0 1  m sin θ
with
~e  ~e ~ ~
2 2 3 1  e1  e3 
m  ~ ~ and φ  sin  ~ ~  (7.19)
e1  e3  e2  e3 
Conclusion: The equation of the closed orbit is given by (7.15), where s is given
by (7.17).
7.2 Equation of Closed Orbit using Jacobi Elliptic Function.
First Case. Solution of the Equation (7.4):
Equation (7.4) is equivalent to
2
 du 
   2MG (u  e1 )(u  e 2 )(u  e 3 ) (7.20)
 dφ 
where e1 , e 2 , e 3 are the three roots of the cubic equation

c  a 2a M G
 u  u 2  2MG u 3  0 (7.21)
b b
We can find that these roots are given by
r r  2 MG ( r  r ) 1 1 1
e1     , e 2  , e3  (7.22)
2MG r r h r r
We remind the assumption (see Appendix E, (E.3))
r  r  h  2MG and r  6MG (7.23)

Page 17
from which there follows the ordering e1  e 2  e 3 .
Under the substitution
u  e3 e e
z2  , k 2  2 3 ( 0  k 2  1 ), λ2  e1  e 3 (7.24)
e 2  e3 e1  e 3
we get

u  e 3  (e 2  e 3 ) z 2 (7.25)
and thus

u  e1  λ2 (1  k 2 z 2 ) , u  e 2  (e 2  e 3 ) (1  z 2 ) ,

du dz
u  e 3  (e 2  e 3 ) z 2 , du  2(e 2  e 3 ) z dz ,  2(e 2  e 3 ) z
dφ dφ
The lhs of equation (7.20) is being transformed into
2 2
 du   dz 
   4 (e 2  e 3 ) 2 z 2  
 dφ   dφ 
The rhs of equation (7.20) is being transformed into
2MG ( u  e1 )(u  e 2 )(u  e 3 ) 

 2MG [  λ2 (1  k 2 z 2 )] [ (e 2  e 3 ) (1  z 2 )] [(e 2  e 3 ) z 2 ] 

 2MG λ2 (e 2  e 3 ) 2 z 2 (1  z 2 ) (1  k 2 z 2 )
Therefore the original equation (7.4) is being transformed into the equation
2
 dz 
4    2MG λ2 (1  z 2 ) (1  k 2 z 2 )
 dφ 
which is equivalent to
2
 dz 
   (1  z 2 ) (1  k 2 z 2 )
 μ dφ 
or
2
 dz  2 2 2
   (1  z ) (1  k z ) (7.26)
 dx 

Page 18
where
MG MG (e1  e 3 )
x  μ φ and μ  λ (7.27)
2 2
The general solution of the equation (7.26) is given by (Davis [4])
z  sn ( x  σ ; k ) , σ  constant
and so

u  e 3  (e 2  e 3 ) sn 2 (μ φ  σ ; k )
The equation of the orbit is thus written by
1
r (7.28)
e 3  (e 2  e 3 ) sn 2 (μ φ  σ ; k )
We may calculate the constant σ in the above formula by imposing some initial
conditions:
i) If we impose φ  0 for r  r then from the equation of the orbit (7.28) we have

1 1
r  
e 3 e 3  (e 2  e 3 ) sn 2 (σ ; k )

from which we get sn 2 (σ ; k )  0 and then σ  0 .

In this case the equation of the orbit is
1
r (7.29)
e 3  (e 2  e 3 ) sn 2 (μ φ ; k )
We can now transform this equation in a more standard form.
It is known that if μφ  F(a ; k ) then sn (μφ; k )  sin a . We then have
1  cos 2a
sn 2 (μφ; k )  sin 2 a 
2
Introducing the angle θ by θ  | π  2a | , we find cos θ   cos 2a and so

1  cos θ
sn 2 (μφ; k ) 
2
We obtain in this way

Page 19
 1
r
1  cos θ
e 3  (e 2  e 3 )
2
from which there follows that
R
r (7.30)
1  e  cos θ
where
2 e e
R and e  2 3 (7.31)
e2  e3 e 2  e3
Since
2 2 1 1 1 1 
R  and    ,
e2  e3 1 1 R 2  r r 

r r
we may identify R to the semi-latus rectum.
We also have
e e r r
e 2 3    (7.32)
e 2  e 3 r  r
Therefore if a is the semi-major axis, then
r  (1  e) a and r  (1  e) a (7.33)
ii) If we impose φ  0 for r  r , then from the equation of the orbit (7.28) we
have
1 1
r  
e 2 e 3  (e 2  e 3 ) sn 2 (σ ; k )

from which we get

π
sn 2 (σ ; k )  1  sn (σ ; k )  1  sin
2
and then
σ  F( π / 2, k )  K ( k )
In this case the equation of the orbit is

Page 20
 1
r (7.34)
e 3  (e 2  e 3 ) sn 2 (μφ  K ; k )
Since
cn ( u )
sn (u  K ( k ) ; k )  (7.35)
dn (u )
the previous equation of the orbit can be expressed as
1
r
cn 2 (μφ ; k )
e 3  (e 2  e 3 )
dn 2 (μφ ; k )
or in equivalent form

dn 2 (μφ ; k )
r (7.36)
e 3 dn 2 (μφ ; k )  (e 2  e 3 ) cn 2 (μφ ; k )
Second Case: Solution of the equation (7.11)
Equation (7.11) is equivalent to
2
 dU 
   4( U  ~e1 )( U  ~e2 )( U  ~
e3 )
 dφ 

where ~
e1 , ~e2 , ~e3 are the three roots of the equation 4 u 3  g 2 U  g 3  0
We can find that these roots are given by

~ r r  3MG (r  r ) ~ 6MG  r ~ 6MG  r

e1    , e2  , e3  (7.37)
r r 12 r 12 r
with the ordering ~
e1  ~e2  ~e3 .
Under the substitution
U  ~e ~e  ~e
z 2  ~ ~3 , k 2  ~2 ~3 ( 0  k 2  1 ), λ2  ~e1  ~e3 (7.38)
e2  e3 e1  e3
we get

U  ~e3  ( ~
e2  ~
e3 ) z 2 (7.39)
and thus

Page 21
 U  ~e1   λ2 (1  k 2 z 2 ) , U  ~e2   (~e2  ~e3 ) (1  z 2 )

dU dz
U  ~e3  ( ~e2  ~e3 ) z 2 , dU  2( ~e2  ~e3 ) z dz ,  2(~e2  ~e3 ) z
dφ dφ
The lhs of equation (7.11) is being transformed into
2 2
 dU   dz 
   4 ( ~e2  ~e3 ) 2 z 2  
 dφ   dφ 
The rhs of equation (7.11) is being transformed into
4( U  ~e )( U  ~e )( U  ~e ) 
1 2 3

 4 [  λ2 (1  k 2 z 2 )] [ ( ~e2  ~e3 ) (1  z 2 )] [(~e2  ~e3 ) z 2 ] 

 4 λ2 ( ~e2  ~e3 ) 2 z 2 (1  z 2 ) (1  k 2 z 2 )
Therefore the original equation (7.11) is being transformed into the equation
2
 dz 
   λ2 (1  z 2 ) (1  k 2 z 2 )
 dφ 
which is equivalent to
2
 dz 
   (1  z 2 ) (1  k 2 z 2 )
 λ dφ 
or
2
 dz  2 2 2
   (1  z ) (1  k z ) (7.40)
 dx 
where
x  λ φ and λ  ~
e1  ~e3 (7.41)

The general solution of the equation (7.40) is given by (Davis [4])

z  sn ( x  σ ; k ) , σ  constant (7.42)
and then

U  ~e3  (~e2  ~e3 ) sn 2 ( λ φ  σ ; k ) (7.43)

Page 22
Using (7.10), we arrive at the following equation for the orbit:
1 2 ~ 1
 [ e3  (~e2  ~e3 ) sn 2 (λ φ  σ ; k )]  (7.44)
r MG 6MG
7.3 Equation of Closed Orbit. Third Method.
dr
Since the path is a closed curve, there are only two points at which  0.
dφ
Let us call r these two points. Using equation (4.5) in the form
2
J 2 A ( r )  dr  J2 1
    E 0
r 4  dφ  r 2 B( r )
we get in this case (since dr / dφ  0 )

J2 1
 E0 (7.45)
(r ) 2 B( r )

In other words

J2 1
 E0 (7.46a)
(r ) 2 B( r )

J2 1
 E 0 (7.46b)
(r ) 2 B( r )

Equations (7.46) constitute a system of two equations with two unknowns:

J 2 and E. This system is solved in Appendix D. We find

2 2MG (r r ) 2
J  (7.47)
( r  2MG )(r  2MG )(r  r )
and

(r ) 2 (r  2MG )  ( r ) 2 (r  2MG )  2MG r r

E (7.48)
( r  2MG )(r  2MG )(r  r )
The angle φ( r ) through which the radius vector of the particle rotates can be
calculated using (6.1), by the formula

Page 23
 r
A( r )
φ(r )  φ( r )   dr (7.49)
1/ 2
r  1 E 1 
r2   
 J 2 B(r ) J 2 r 2 
 
For r  r we find
r
A( r )
φ(r )  φ(r )   dr (7.50)
1/ 2
r  1 E 1 
r2    
 J 2 B( r ) J 2 r 2 
 
We now have simplify the expression under the integral sign of (7.49). We have
A( x ) A(x )
 
1/ 2 2 2 1/ 2
 1 E 1   x Ex 
x2    x   1
 J 2 B( x ) J 2 x 2   J 2 B( x ) J2 
   

J A( x ) B( x )
 
( x  E B( x ) x 4  J 2 B( x ) x 2 )1 / 2
4

J
 (7.51)
3 3 2 1/ 2
x ( x  E B( x ) x  J B( x ) x )
Using the substitutions

a : ( r ) 2 (r  2MG)  (r ) 2 (r  2MG)  2MG ( r r ) (7.52)

b : 2MG( r r ) 2 (7.53)
c : (r  2MG )(r  2MG )( r  r ) (7.54)
expressions (7.47) and (7.48) become
b
J2  (7.55)
c
and
a
E (7.56)
c
respectively.

Page 24
The expression x 3  E B( x ) x 3  J 2 B( x ) x which appears in (7.51) can be further
transformed (Appendix E). We find

x 3  E B( x ) x 3  J 2 B( x ) x 
2MG ( r r  2MG r  2MG r )
 {( x  r )( x  r )( x  h )} (7.57)
(r  r )(r  2MG )(r  2MG )
where
2MG (r r )
h (7.58)
r r  2MG (r  r )
Using now (7.51) and (7.57), we get
A( x)

1/ 2
 1 E 1 
x2   
 J 2 B( x ) J 2 x 2 
 
(r r ) 1
 (7.59)
r r  2MG r  2MG r  ( x  r )( x  r )( x  h )

Therefore equation (7.49) takes on the final form

φ(r )  φ(r ) 
r
( r r ) dx
  (7.60)
r r  2MG r  2MG r r  ( x  r )( x  r )( x  h )


The conversion of the integral in (7.60) into an elliptic integral is performed in

Appendix F. We have found that (see (F.15))
r a
dx 2 dφ
   (7.61)
r
 ( x  r )( x  r )( x  h ) (r  h ) r 0 2
1  m sin φ 2

where

1/ 2
 r  h r  r 
a  sin 1     (7.62)
 r  r r  h 

Page 25
 (r  r )h
m2    (7.63)
( r  h ) r
Introducing the notation
(r r ) 2
T( r , r , h )   (7.64)
r r  2MG r  2MG r (r  h ) r

we obtain from (7.60) the expression

a
dφ
φ(r )  φ( r )  T (r , r , h )  (7.65)
2 2
0 1  m sin φ

8. Mercury’s Perihelion Shift

Mercury’s perihelion shift (per revolution) is given by (Weinberg [7])
Δφ  2 | φ(r )  φ (r ) | 2 π (8.1)
π
From (7.65) we obtain for r  r , since in this case a  (which comes from
2
(7.62) for r  r )
π/2
dφ
φ(r )  φ( r )  T( r , r , h )   T (r , r , h ) K (m) (8.2)
2 2
0 1  m sin φ
We thus find the following closed-form expression for the perihelion shift
Δφ  2 | φ( r )  φ(r ) | 2π  2 T (r , r , h ) K ( m)  2 π (8.3)

9. Trajectory of a Light Signal.

9.1 Trajectory of Light Signal using Weirstrass Elliptic Function.
For a light signal we have E  0 . We get from equation (4.6)
2
 dr  r4 r2
    (9.1)
 dφ  J 2 A( r )
where

Page 26
 2 r 20 2MG  2MG 
1
J  , B(r 0 )  1  , A ( r )  1   (9.2)
B( r 0 ) r0  r 

Using relations (9.2), we get from (9.1)

2
 dr  B(r 0 ) 4  2MG  2
   r  1  r
 dφ  r 20  r 

which is equivalent to
2
 dr  r 0  2MG 4 2
   r  r  2MG r (9.3)
 dφ  r 30

The change of variables

1 dr 1 du
u ,  (9.4)
r dφ u 2 dφ
transforms equation (9.3) into
2
 1 du  r 0  2MG 1 1 2MG
     
2 dφ 3 4 2 u
 u  r0 u u

which is equivalent to
2
 du  r 0  2MG
   2MG u 3  u 2  (9.5)
 dφ  r 30

Using the linear transformation

2 1 du 2 dU
u U ,  (9.6)
MG 6MG dφ MG dφ
equation (9.5) becomes
2 3
 2 dU   2 1 
   2MG  U  
 MG dφ   MG 6MG 
2 r  2MG
 2 1  0
 U  
 MG 6MG  r 30

which is equivalent to

Page 27
 2
 dU 
   4 U 3  g 2 U  g 3 (9.7)
 dφ 
where
1
g2  (9.8)
12

1 M 2 G 2 ( r 0  2MG )
g3   (9.9)
216 4 r 30

The solution of (9.7) is given by (Davis [4])

U  (φ  s ; g 2 , g 3 ) (9.10)
where  is the Weirstrass elliptic function and s is a constant. We thus arrive at
the following solution of equation (9.1), using (9.6) and the above expression for
the function U:
1 2 1
 (φ  s ; g 2 , g 3 )  (9.11)
r MG 6MG
9.2 Trajectory of Light Signal using Jacobi’s Elliptic Function.
First Case: Solution of the equation (9.5)
Equation (9.5) is equivalent to
2
 du 
   2MG ( u  e1 )(u  e 2 )(u  e 3 ) (9.12)
 dφ 
where e1 , e 2 , e 3 are the three roots of the equation
r 0  2MG
2MG u 3  u 2  0
r 30

given by
r  2MG  ( r0  2MG )(r0  6MG )
e1  0
4MG r0

1
e2 
r0

Page 28
 r  2MG  (r0  2MG )(r0  6MG )
e3  0
4MG r0
with the ordering e1  e 2  e 3 .
Using the substitution
u  e3 e e
z2  , h 2  2 3 ( 0  h 2  1 ), ξ 2  e1  e 3 (9.13)
e 2  e3 e1  e 3
i.e.

u  e 3  (e 2  e 3 ) z 2 (9.14)
equation (9.12) becomes
2
 dz  2 2 2
   (1  z )(1  h z ) (9.15)
 dx 
where
MG MG (e1  e 3 )
x  τφ , τ  ξ (9.16)
2 2
The general solution of the equation (9.15) is given by (Davis [4])
z  sn ( x  σ ; h ) , σ  constant (9.17)
and so using (9.14)

u  e 3  (e 2  e 3 ) sn 2 ( τ φ  σ ; h ) (9.18)
The equation of the orbit is thus written as
1 1
r  (9.19)
u e 3  (e 2  e 3 ) sn 2 ( τ φ  σ ; h )

We may calculate the constant σ in the above formula by imposing some initial
conditions.
Second Case: Solution of the equation (9.7)
Equation (9.7) is equivalent to
2
 dU 
   4MG ( U  ~e1 )( U  ~e2 )( U  ~
e3 ) (9.20)
 dφ 

Page 29
where ~e1 , ~
e2 , ~e3 are the three roots of the equation 4 U 3  g 2 U  g 3  0 , given
by

~ r  6MG  3 (r0  2MG )(r0  6MG )

e1  0
24 r0

~ 6 MG  r0
e2 
12 r0

~ r  6MG  3 ( r0  2MG )(r0  6MG )

e3  0
24 r0
with the ordering ~
e1  ~e2  ~e3 , under the further assumption r0  6MG .
Under the substitution
U  ~e3 ~e  ~e
z  ~ ~ , g  ~2 ~3 ( 0  g 2  1 ), υ 2  ~e1  ~e3
2 2
(9.21)
e2  e3 e1  e3
i.e.

U  ~e3  ( ~
e2  ~
e3 ) z 2 (9.22)
equation (9.20) becomes
2
 dz  2 2 2
   (1  z )(1  g z ) (9.23)
 dx 
where
x  υφ , υ  ~e  ~e (9.24)
1 3

The general solution of the equation (9.23) is given by (Davis [4])

z  sn ( x  σ ; g ) , σ  constant (9.25)
and thus using (9.22) and the above solution, we have

U  ~e3  ( ~e2  ~e3 ) sn 2 ( υ φ  σ ; g) (9.26)

Using (9.6) and the above expression for the function U, we arrive at the following
equation of the orbit:
1 2 ~ 1
 [ e3  (~e2  ~e3 ) sn 2 ( υ φ  σ ; g)]  (9.27)
r MG 6MG

Page 30
10. Period of Revolution
We shall now calculate the period of revolution of a test body describing a closed
orbit around a heavy object of mass M producing the gravitational field. We start
with equation (A.14) of Appendix A, written in equivalent form
dt
 R (x ) (10.1)
dr
where
x x x
R ( x)   (10.2)
x  2MG [ x 3  J 2 B( x ) x  E B( x ) x 3 ]1 / 2

The period of revolution is being expressed as

r ρ
T  2  R ( x ) dx   R ( x) dx (10.3)
r r

where
ρ  r ( φ  2 π) (10.4)
The parameter ρ can be determined using the equation of the orbit (7.29) (see
next, equation (10.30)).
We have, according to (7.57):

x 3  J 2 B( x ) x  E B( x ) x 3 
2MG ( r r  2MG r  2MG r )
 { ( x  r )( x  r )( x  h )} (10.5)
(r  r )(r  2MG )(r  2MG )
Because of (10.5), we get from (10.2) that

x2 x
R ( x )  P( r , r ) (10.6)
( x  2MG )  ( x  r )( x  r )( x  h )

where
( r  r )(r  2MG )(r  2MG )
P(r , r )  (10.7)
2MG (r r  2MG r  2MG r )

Page 31
We observe that

x3
R ( x )  P( r , r ) (10.8)
( x  2MG ) H ( x )

where
H( x )   x ( x  r )( x  r )( x  h ) (10.9)
According to Appendix F, under the substitution
r  h x  r
sin 2 φ    (10.10)
r  r x  h

r (r  h )  h ( r  r ) sin 2 φ
x (10.11)
( r  h )  (r  r ) sin 2 φ
we have
dx 2 dφ
  (10.12)
H(x ) ( r  h ) r 1  m 2 sin 2 φ

where
(r  r ) h
m2    (10.13)
(r  h ) r
In Appendix G, under the same substitution (10.11) and introducing further the
notation
r r
k2    (10.14)
r  h
and
(r  r )(h  2MG )
q   (0  q  1) (10.15)
(r  h )( r  2MG )
we find that

x3
dx 
( x  2MG ) H ( x )

Page 32
 2( r ) 2 r (1  m 2 sin 2 φ) 3
 dφ (10.16)
r  2MG r  h (1  k 2 sin 2 φ) 2 (1  q  sin 2 φ) 1  m 2 sin 2 φ

and finally (see (G.8)-(G.10))

R ( x ) dx  Q( r , r , h ) S(φ) dφ (10.17)
where

Q(r , r , h )  2(r ) 2 

(r  r )(r  2MG ) r

 (10.18)
2MG ( r  2MG )(r  h )(r r  2MG r  2MG r )

(1  m 2 sin 2 φ) 3
S(φ) dφ  dφ (10.19)
(1  k 2 sin 2 φ) 2 (1  q  sin 2 φ) 1  m 2 sin 2 φ

We now find the new limits of the integrals. Since

2 r  h x  r r (r  h )  h ( r  r ) sin 2 φ
sin φ    and x 
r  r x  h ( r  h )  (r  r ) sin 2 φ
we find
π
for x  r we have sin 2 φ  1  φ 
2

for x  r we have sin 2 φ  0  φ  0

and
for x  ρ we have
1/ 2
r  h ρ  r  r  h ρ  r 
2
sin φ     φ  sin 1     a
r  r ρ  h  r  r ρ  h 
for x  r we have φ  0 .
Using (10.3) and (10.17) we get the following formula for the period:
 π/2 a 
T  2  S(φ) dφ   S(φ) dφ  Q( r , r , h ) (10.20)
 0 0 

Page 33
In order to calculate the period, we have to calculate the two integrals appearing in
(10.20). For this purpose, we first have to use the identity (Appendix H)

(1  m 2 sin 2 φ) 3

(1  k 2 sin 2 φ) 2 (1  q  sin 2 φ)

m6  2 2 2 2 2
2 2 m q  2k m  2k q  k 
4
1
  ( m  k )  
k 4 q  k 4 (q  k 2 ) 2  2
1  k sin φ 2

( m 2  k 2 ) 3   1 
 (m 2  q) 3
  (10.21)
k 2 (q  k 2 )  k 2  1  k 2 sin 2 φ  q (q  k 2 ) 2 (1  q sin 2 φ)
Using the previous partial fraction decomposition we find, using equation (10.20) ,
that the period is given by
 π/2 a  dφ
T  Q1 2     
 0 0  1  m 2 sin 2 φ

 π/2 a  dφ
 Q 2 2     
 0 0  (1  k 2 sin 2 φ) 1  m 2 sin 2 φ

π/2 a
   dφ
 Q3 2     
 k 2  0 0  (1  k 2 sin 2 φ) 1  m 2 sin 2 φ

 π/2 a  dφ
 Q 4 2     (10.22)
 0 0  (1  q sin 2 φ) 1  m 2 sin 2 φ

where

m6
Q1  Q( r , r , h )
k 4q

m 2 q  2k 2 m 2  2k 2 q  k 4
Q 2  (m 2  k 2 ) 2 Q( r , r , h )
k 4 (q  k 2 ) 2

(m 2  k 2 )3
Q3  Q(r , r , h )
k 2 (q  k 2 )

Page 34
 (m 2  q)3
Q4  Q(r , r , h )
2 2
q (q  k )
We make further use of the substitutions
π/2
dφ
K (m )   (10.23)
2 2
0 1  m sin φ
a
dφ
F(a; m)   (10.24)
2 2
0 1  m sin φ
π/2
π dφ
Π( , k 2 ; m )   (10.25)
2 2 2 2 2
0 (1  k sin φ) 1  m sin φ

a
dφ
Π(a , k 2 ; m )   (10.26)
2 2 2 2
0 (1  k sin φ) 1  m sin φ

π/2
π dφ
Π( , q ; m)   (10.27)
2 2 2 2
0 (1  q sin φ ) 1  m sin φ

a
dφ
Π(a , q ; m)   (10.28)
2 2 2
0 (1  q sin φ) 1  m sin φ

to convert equation (10.22) into a more compact form:

T  Q1 { 2 K ( m)  F(a; m)} 
π
 Q 2 { 2 Π ( , k 2 ; m)  Π (a , k 2 ; m)} 
2
 π
 Q3 { 2 Π ( , k 2 ; m)  Π (a , k 2 ; m)} 
 k2 2

π
 Q 4 { 2 Π( , q ; m)  Π (a , q ; m )} (10.29)
2

Page 35
We now have to find the quantity ρ  r (φ  2π) which appears in the upper limit
of the elliptic integrals introduced above. In section (7.2) we have found that the
equation of the orbit is given by (7.29)
1
r
e 3  (e 2  e 3 ) sn 2 (μ φ; k )
where (see equations (7.22))
r r  2MG ( r  r ) 1 1 1
e1     , e 2  , e3  ( e1  e 2  e 3 )
2MG ( r r ) h r r
c  a 2aMG
are the three roots of the equation  u  u 2  2MG u 3  0
b b
MG (e1  e 3 )
and μ  . We thus obtain that
2
1
ρ  r (φ  2π )  (10.30)
e 3  (e 2  e 3 ) sn 2 ( 2μ π; k )

11. Time Delay of Radio Signals in the Sun’s

Gravitational Field.
The time taken for the light to reach a star P whose distance from the Sun is rP
and received back to Earth by the emitting device, is given by
T  2{ t ( r , r0 )  t ( rP , r0 )} (11.1)
where r is Earth’s distance from the Sun and r0 is the closest approach of the
orbit of light from the Sun (Berry [2]).
We are going now to calculate the quantity t ( r0 , r ) which represents the time
taken by the light to go from a point whose distance is r to a point whose
distance is r0 from a massive point of mass M, which produces the gravitational
field.
Since for radio signals E  0 , we get from equation (4.10)

Page 36
 2
 dr  B 2 ( r )  1 J 2 
     
 dt  A( r )  B( r ) r 2 

which is equivalent to
2 2
 dt  r
   2
 dr  B (r ) [r 2  J 2 B(r )]
from which we get
dt r
 (11.2)
dr B( r ) [ r 2  J 2 B( r )]1 / 2

Since

2 r 20
J  (11.3)
B(r0 )
we finally get from (11.2):

dt r B(r0 )
 (11.4)
dr B( r ) [ r 2 B(r0 )  r 20 B(r )]1 / 2

Separating the variables in the previous equation and integrating, we get

r
x B(r0 )
t ( r0 , r )   B( x) [x 2 B(r dx (11.5)
2 1/ 2
r0 0 )  r 0 B( x )]

Since, as follows from (6.6)

x [ x 2 B(r 0 )  r 20 B( x )] 1 / 2 

r 0  2MG
  x ( x  r 0 )( x  r 1 )( x  r 2 ) (11.6)
r0

and
2MG
1
B( r0 ) r0 r0  2MG x
   (11.7)
B( x ) 2MG r0 x  2MG
1
x
we get from (11.5)

Page 37
 r
x3
t ( r0 , r )   (x  2MG) x (x  r )(x  r )(x  r ) dx (11.8)
r0 0 1 2

In Appendix I we find, under the substitution

r ( r  r )  r2 ( r0  r1 ) sin 2 φ
x 0 2 1
(r2  r1 )  (r0  r1 ) sin 2 φ
that

x3

( x  2MG ) x ( x  r 0 )( x  r 1 )( x  r 2 )

(1  k 2 sin 2 φ) 3
 U (r0 )  dφ (11.9)
2 2 2 2 2 2
(1  m sin φ) (1  p sin φ) 1  k sin φ

where
r (r  r )
k2  2 0 1 (11.10)
r0 (r2  r1 )
r r
m2  0 1 (11.11)
r2  r1
r  2MG r0  r1
p 2  (11.12)
r0  2MG r2  r1
and
1/ 4
2 r 20 r0
2
2 r 0  r0  2 MG 
U ( r0 )     (11.13)
r0  2MG r2  r1 r0  2MG  r0  6 MG 

We calculate now the new limits of integration using (I.12) (Appendix I)

For x  r0 we have sin 2 φ  0  φ  0

For x  r we have
1/ 2
r  r r  r0  r  r r  r0 
2
sin φ  2 1   φ  sin 1  2 1   a (11.14)
r0  r1 r  r2 r 
 0 1 r r  r2

The integral in (11.8) is converted into

Page 38
 r
x3
t ( r0 , r )   (x  2MG) x ( x  r )(x  r )(x  r ) dx 
r0 0 1 2
a
(1  k 2 sin 2 φ) 3
 U (r0 )   dφ (11.15)
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 (1  m sin φ) (1  p sin φ) 1  k sin φ

We can convert the integral in (11.15) into a combination of Elliptic Integrals. For
this purpose we use the identity (J.4), Appendix J.

(1  k 2 sin 2 φ) 3

(1  m 2 sin 2 φ ) 2 (1  p  sin 2 φ)

k6 (k 2  m 2 ) 2 ( m 4  2k 2 m 2  p k 2  2m 2 p) 1
   
4 4 2 2 2 2
m p m ( m  p) 1  m sin φ

(k 2  m 2 ) 3   1  (k 2  p) 3
 1
   (11.16)
m 2 ( m 2  p)  m 2  1  m 2 sin 2 φ  p ( m 2  p) 2 1  p sin 2 φ
We thus find the following expression
a
dφ
t ( r0 , r )  U1   
2 2
0 1  k sin φ
a
dφ
 U2   
2 2 2 2
0 (1  m sin φ ) 1  k sin φ

a
 dφ
 U3  
2
 m 0 (1  m 2 sin 2 φ) 1  k 2 sin 2 φ

a
dφ
 U4   (11.17)
2 2 2
0 (1  p sin φ) 1  k sin φ

where

k6
U1  U( r0 )
m4p

Page 39
  2 4 2 2 2 2 
2 2 m  2k m  pk  2 m p 
U 2  (k  m ) U ( r0 )
 m 4 ( m 2  p) 2 

1 (m 2  k 2 ) 3
U3   U ( r0 )
m 2 (m 2  p)

(p  k 2 ) 3
U4  U (r0 )
2 2
p( m  p)
Introducing the notation
a
dφ
F(a; k )  
0 1  k 2 sin 2 φ
a
2 dφ
Π(a , m ; k )  
2 2 2 2
0 (1  m sin φ) 1  k sin φ

a
dφ
Π(a , p ; k )  
2 2 2
0 (1  p sin φ) 1  k sin φ

we obtain the expression

t ( r0 , r )  U1  F(a ; k )  U 2  Π(a , m 2 ; k ) 

 U3 Π(a , m 2 ; k )  U 4  Π(a , p ; k ) (11.18)
2
m
Using (11.1) and (11.18), and after substituting successively r  r , r  rP and
then a  ζ , a  η , we obtain the following formula for the time delay:
T  2{ t (r , r0 )  t (rP , r0 )} 
 2 U1{ F(ζ ; k )  F(η ; k )} 

 2U 2 { Π(ζ, m 2 ; k )  Π(η, m 2 ; k )} 

 2U 3 { Π (ζ, m 2 ; k )  Π( η, m 2 ; k )} 
2
m
 2 U 4 { Π(ζ, p ; k )  Π (η, p ; k )} (11.19)

Page 40
where
1/ 2
1  r2  r1 r  r0 
ζ  sin    (11.20)
 r0  r1 r  r2 
and
1/ 2
1  r2  r1 rP  r0 
η  sin    (11.21)
 r0  r1 rP  r2 
Appendix A. Simplification of the Equations of Motion.
dt
Step 1. We divide equation (3.9) by and we find
dp

1 d 2 t B(r ) dr
 0
dt dp 2 B( r ) dp
dp
which is successively equivalent to
d dt d d  dt 
ln  ln B  0   ln  ln B   0 
dp dp dp dp  dp 
d  dt   dt 
 ln  B   0  ln  B   C1 
dp  dp   dp 
dt
 B  C
dp
We choose to normalize p so that the solution of the last equation should look
as
dt 1
 (A.1)
dp B( r )
dφ
Step 2. We divide equation (3.8) by and we find
dp

1 d 2 φ 2 dr
 0
dφ dp 2 r dp
dp

Page 41
which is successively equivalent to
d dφ d d  dφ 
ln  ln r 2  0   ln  ln r 2   0 
dp dp dp dp  dp 
d  dφ 2   dφ 
 ln   r   0  ln   r 2   C 2 
dp  dp   dp 
dφ
 r2  J (A.2)
dp
where J is a constant having dimensions of angular momentum per unit mass.
dt dφ
Step 3. We substitute and as given by equations (A.1) and (A.2) into
dp dp
equation (3.7) and we find
2 2 2
d2r A (r )  dr  r  J  B(r )  1 
         0
dp 2 2A ( r )  dp  A( r )  r 2  2A (r )  B(r ) 

dr
and multiplying by 2A( r ) we find
dp
3
dr d 2 r  dr  J 2 dr B( r ) dr
2 A( r )  A (r )    2  0
dp dp 2  dp  r 3 dp B 2 ( r ) dp
which is successively equivalent to
2
d   dr  2
  d  J   d   1   0 
A (r )  
dp   dp   dp  r 2  dp  B(r ) 
   
2
d   dr  J2 1 
 A( r )     0
dp  dp
  r 2 B(r ) 
 
2
 dr  J2 1
 A (r )      E (A.3)
2
 dp  r B( r )
where E is a constant.
Step 4. Relation between proper time and affine parameter p.
We start from

Page 42
 dτ 2  B(r ) dt 2  A(r ) dr 2  r 2 dθ 2  r 2 sin 2 θ dφ 2 (2.1)

π
and use the fact that θ  so as equation (2.1) takes the form
2

dτ 2  B( r ) dt 2  A( r ) dr 2  r 2 dφ 2
which can be written as
2 2 2
dτ 2  dt   dr   dφ 
 B( r )    A ( r )    r 2   (A.4)
dp 2  dp   dp   dp 
dt dφ
We substitute in the above equation the derivatives and as given by
dp dp
equations (A.1) and (A.2) respectively. We obtain the equation
2
dτ 2 1  dr  J2
  A (r )    (A.5)
dp 2 B(r )  dp  r2
We easily recognize that the rhs of the above equation is E, because of equation
(A.3). This means that

dτ 2  E dp 2 (A.6)
where
E  0 for particles
E  0 for photons
Step 5. Equation of the orbit r  r (φ) .
The equation of the orbit is obtained by eliminating dp from the equations (A.2)

r2
and (A.3). In fact using dp  dφ , equation (A.3) takes one of the following
J
equivalent forms
2
A( r )  dr  1 1 E
     (A.7)
r 4  dφ  r 2 J 2 B( r ) J2
or

Page 43
 2
 dr  r 4  1 E 1 
      (A.8)
 dφ  A (r )  J 2 B(r ) J 2 r 2 

or
2
 J dr  1  J2 
   E   1 (A.9)
 r 2 dφ  A( r )  r 2 
Step 6. The value of J.
6.1 Suppose the orbit is an unbounded curve. At the closest distance from the
dr
object which produces the gravitational field, we have r  r0 and so  0.
dφ
Therefore equation (A.7) gives
1 1 E
  (A.10)
r02 2
J B(r0 ) J2
from which we get

 1 
J 2  r02   E  (A.11)
 B(r0 ) 
6.2 When the path is a closed curve, the value of J is not longer given by
dr
equation (A.11), because in this case there are two points for which  0.
dφ
Let us call r these points. Using equation (A.7) we get

J2 1
 E 0 (A.12)
r2 B(r )

In other words we have the system

J2 1
 E 0 (A.13a)
r2 B(r )

J2 1
 E0 (A.13b)
r2 B(r )

which is solved in Appendix D.

Page 44
Step 7.
Since dp  B(r ) dt (equation (A.1)), equation (A.3) gives us
2
 dr 1  J2 1
A( r )      E (A.14)
 dt B( r )  r 2 B( r )
We may simplify further equation (A.14). We find
2
 dt  r 2 A( r )
  
 dr  B(r ) [ r 2  J 2 B(r )  E r 2 B( r )]
from which we obtain
dt A (r ) r r
  (A.15)
dr B( r ) [ r 3  J 2 r B(r )  E r 3B(r )]1 / 2

We put
A( x ) x x
R(x)   (A.16)
B( x ) [ x 3  J 2 x B( x )  E x 3B( x )]1 / 2

We also have

A( x ) A ( x )B( x ) 1 x2
  
B( x ) B2 (x )  2MG 
2
( x  2MG ) 2
1  
 x 
from which we get
A( x ) x
 (A.17)
B( x ) x  2MG
Therefore the expression for R ( x) is given by

x x x
R ( x)   (A.18)
x  2MG [ x 3  J 2 x B( x )  E x 3B( x )]1 / 2

Equation (A.15) is equivalent to

dt
 R (r) (A.19)
dr
with R ( x) given by (A.18).

Page 45
Appendix B.
In this Appendix we prove identity (6.6). We have

x [ x 2 B(r0 )  r02 B( x )]1 / 2  x 2 [ x 2 B(r0 )  r02 B( x )] 

  2MG  2  2MG 
 x  x 3 1    r0 x 1   
  r0   x 

  r  2MG  3 2 
 x   0  x  r0 x  2MG r02  
 r0  

r  2MG 
3 r03 2MG r03 
 0 
x x  x  (B.1)
r0  r0  2MG r0  2MG 
 
One of the roots of the cubic polynomial which appears in the bracket under the
square root of (B.1) is r0 and so

3 r03 2MG r03  2 2MG r02 

x  x 
 ( x  r0 ) x  r0 x 
r0  2MG r0  2MG  r0  2MG 

The discriminant of the quadratic trinomial inside the parenthesis is

2 8MG r02 r02 (r0  6MG )

D  r0  
r0  2MG r0  2MG
Suppose that r0  2MG and thus the real roots are given by

1  r0  6MG  
 and r2   1 r0 1 
r0  6MG 
r 1   r0 1  

2  r0  2MG  2  r0  2MG 

Therefore we have

x [ x 2 B( r0 )  r02 B( x)] 1 / 2 

r0  2MG
 x ( x  r0 ) ( x  r1 ) ( x  r2 ) (B.2)
r0

Page 46
We have to mention that r0  r2 if r0  3MG . So instead of r0  2MG we may
impose the stronger condition r0  3MG . Furthermore, under the assumption

r02  32 M 3 G 3 we have the ordering

r0  3MG  2MG  r2  r1 (B.3)

Appendix C. In this Appendix we shall express the integral in (6.10) in terms

of elliptic integrals. We put
a1  r0 , a 2  r2 , a 3  0 and a 4  r1 (C.1)
Since r0  r2 and 0  r1 , we have
a1  a 2 and a 3  a 4 (C.2)
Under these assumptions, the substitution (Korn and Korn [5])

a1 a 42  a 2 a 41 sin 2 φ
x (C.3)
a 42  a 41 sin 2 φ
implies the relation
dx dφ
μ (C.4)
G( x) 1  k 2 sin 2 φ
where
a  a4 a2  a3
k2  1  (C.5)
a1  a 3 a 2  a 4
and
2
μ (C.6)
a 31 a 42

Since
a 42  a 2  a 4  r2  r1 , a 41  a1  a 4  r0  r1 (C.7)
and
a 31  a1  a 3  r0 (C.8)
we find

Page 47
 2
μ (C.9)
r0 ( r2  r1 )

and
r r r
k2  2  0 1 (C.10)
r0 r2  r1

r0 ( r2  r1 )  r2 ( r0  r1 ) sin 2 φ
x (C.11)
(r2  r1 )  (r0  r1 ) sin 2 φ
We have thus found that
dx 2 dφ

G(x ) r0 (r2  r1 ) 1  k 2 sin 2 φ

We also have the following relation

a x  a1 r2  r1 x  r0
sin 2 φ  42    (C.12)
a 41 x  a 2 r0  r1 x  r2

From the previous equation we can determine the new limits of the integral:

x  r0  sin 2 φ  0  φ  0
1/ 2
2 r2  r1  
1  r2  r1 
x    sin φ   φ  sin a (C.13)
r0  r1  r0  r1 
 
In this way we find that
 a
dx 2 dφ
   (C.14)
r0
G( x) r0 (r2  r1 ) 0 1  k 2 sin 2 φ

Appendix D. In this Appendix we solve the system of equations (7.46).

Subtracting the two equations (7.46) we get
 1 1  1 1
J2    
 r 2 r 2  B( r ) B(r )
   

from which we obtain

Page 48
 2 B(r )  B( r ) (r r ) 2
J   (D.1)
B(r )B( r ) ( r  r )(r  r )
Adding the two equations (7.46) we get

1 1  1 1 
2E    J2  
B( r ) B( r )  r2 r2 
   

from which, using the expression (D.1) for J 2 , we find

B( r ) r2  B( r ) r2
E (D.2)
B( r ) B( r )(r2  r2 )
We have now to simplify further the two expressions we have derived above for

J 2 and E. Using the expression (2.2) for B( r ) , we obtain

2 2MG (r r ) 2
J  (D.3)
( r  2MG )(r  2MG )(r  r )
and

( r ) 2 (r  2MG)  (r ) 2 ( r  2MG)  2MG ( r r )

E (D.4)
(r  2MG)( r  2MG )(r  r )

Appendix E. In this Appendix we prove (7.57).

Using (7.55) and (7.56), we have

x 3  E B( x ) x 3  J 2 B( x ) x 

a  2MG  3 b  2MG 
 x 3  1   x  1  x 
c x  c x 

 a 2a MG 2 b 2bMG
 1   x 3  x  x (E.1)
 c c c c
The roots of the cubic polynomial which appears in (E.1) are
2MG (r r )
r , r and h : (E.2)
(r r )  2MG r  2MG r
We also make the assumption

Page 49
 r  r  h  2MG and r  6MG (E.3)
Since
c  a  2MG (r r  2MG r  2MG r )
using (E.1) and (E.2) we obtain

x 3  E B( x ) x 3  J 2 B( x ) x 
2MG ( r r  2MG r  2MG r )
 { ( x  r )( x  r )( x  h )} (E.4)
( r  r ) (r  2MG ) ( r  2MG )

Appendix F.
We shall express the integral in (7.60) in terms of an elliptic integral.
We put
a1  r , a 2  r , a 3  h and a 4  0 (F.1)
Since r  r and h  0 , we have
a1  a 2 and a 3  a 4 (F.2)
Under these assumptions, the substitution (Korn and Korn [5])

a a  a a sin 2 φ
x  2 31 3 21 (F.3)
a 31  a 21 sin 2 φ
implies the relation
dx dφ
μ (F.4)
H(x ) 2 2
1  m sin φ

where
H( x )   x ( x  r ) ( x  r ) ( x  h ) (F.5)

a  a 4 a 2  a1
m2  3  (F.6)
a 3  a1 a 2  a 4

2
μ (F.7)
a 31 a 42

We also have

Page 50
 a x a2
sin 2 φ  31  (F.8)
a 21 x  a 3
Since
a 31  a1  a 3  r  h
a 21  a1  a 2  r  r (F.9)
a 42  a 2  a 4  r
we find
2
μ (F.10)
( r  h ) r

r  h x  r
sin 2 φ    (F.11)
r  r x  h
(r  r ) h
m2    (F.12)
(r  h ) r

( r  h ) r  h ( r  r ) sin 2 φ
x (F.13)
( r  h )  ( r  r ) sin 2 φ
We thus arrive at
dx 2 dφ
 (F.14)
 x ( x  r ) ( x  r ) ( x  h ) (r  h ) r 2 2
1  m sin φ
For the limits we find

x  r  sin 2 φ  0  φ  0
1/ 2
r  h r  r  r  h r  r 
x  r  sin φ   2
  φ  sin 1     a
r  r r  h  r  r r  h 
We thus find that
r a
dx 2 dφ
   (F.15)
r
 x ( x  r ) ( x  r ) ( x  h ) (r  h ) r 0 2 2
1  m sin φ

Page 51
Appendix G. Introducing the notation
r r
k2    (G.1)
r  h
we get from (10.11) that

(1  m 2 sin 2 φ) r
x (G.2)
2 2
1  k sin φ
and then

(r  2MG )  (m 2 r  2MG k 2 ) sin 2 φ

x  2MG   (G.3)
1  k 2 sin 2 φ
We have further
(r  r ) h r r
m 2 r  2MG k 2    r  2MG   
(r  h ) r r  h
( r  r ) (h  2MG )
   (G.4)
r  h
and then we get from (G.3) that

1  q  sin 2 φ
x  2MG  ( r  2 MG ) (G.5)
2 2
1  k sin φ
where
(r  r )(h  2MG )
q   (0  q  1) (G.6)
(r  h )( r  2MG )
Using (10.12), (G.2) and (G.5), we obtain

x3
dx 
( x  2MG ) H( x )

2(r ) 2 r (1  m 2 sin 2 φ) 3 dφ
 (G.7)
r  2MG r  h (1  k 2 sin 2 φ) 2 (1  q  sin 2 φ) 1  m 2 sin 2 φ

Using (10.8) and (10.16), we have

Page 52
 x3
R ( x ) dx  P( r , r )  dx
( x  2MG ) H( x )
and using (G.7) we arrive at
R ( x ) dx  Q( r , r , h )  S(φ) dφ (G.8)
where

Q(r , r , h )  2( r ) 2 

( r  r )( r  2MG ) r
 (G.9)
2MG ( r  2MG ) (r  h )( r r  2MG r  2MG r )

and

(1  m 2 sin 2 φ) 3 dφ
S(φ) dφ  (G.10)
2 2 2 2 2 2
(1  k sin φ) (1  q  sin φ) 1  m sin φ

Appendix H. In this Appendix we prove the identity (10.21).

For this purpose, we first have to make the partial fraction expansion

(1  m 2 x ) 3

(1  k 2 x ) 2 (1  q  x )

m6 ( m 2  k 2 ) 2 ( 2 m 2 q  3k 2 m 2  k 2 q ) 1
   
4 4 2 2 2
k q k (q  k ) 1 k x

(m 2  k 2 )3 1 (m 2  q ) 3 1
    (H.1)
k 4 (q  k 2 ) (1  k 2 x ) 2 q (q  k 2 ) 2 1  q x
Using the identity
1 1   1 
  k2   (H.2)
(1  k 2 x ) 2 1 k2x  k 2 1 k 2x 
relation (H.1) becomes

(1  m 2 x ) 3

(1  k 2 x ) 2 (1  q  x )

Page 53
 m6 ( m 2  k 2 ) 2 ( k 4  2 k 2 m 2  m 2 q  2k 2 q ) 1
   
4 4 2 2
k q k (q  k ) 1 k 2x

(m 2  k 2 )3   1  (m 2  q)3 1
      (H.3)
k 2 (q  k 2 )  k 2  1  k 2 x  q ( q  k 2 ) 2 1  q x

Substituting x  sin 2 φ in (H.3) we arrive at the identity (10.21).

Appendix I.
We put
a1  r0 , a 2  r2 , a 3  0 and a 4  r1 (I.1)
Since r0  r2 and 0  r1 , we have
a1  a 2 and a 3  a 4 (I.2)
Under these assumptions, the substitution (Korn and Korn [5])

a1 a 42  a 2 a 41 sin 2 φ
x (I.3)
a 42  a 41 sin 2 φ
implies the relation
dx dφ
μ (I.4)
G(x ) 1  k 2 sin 2 φ
where
a  a4 a2  a3
k2  1  (I.5)
a1  a 3 a 2  a 4
and
2
μ (I.6)
a 31 a 42

Since
a 42  a 2  a 4  r2  r1 , a 41  a1  a 4  r0  r1 (I.7)
and
a 31  a1  a 3  r0 (I.8)

Page 54
we find
2
μ (I.9)
r0 ( r2  r1 )

r r r
k2  2  0 1 (I.10)
r0 r2  r1

r0 (r2  r1 )  r2 ( r0  r1 ) sin 2 φ
x (I.11)
( r2  r1 )  (r0  r1 ) sin 2 φ
We also have the following relation
a x  a1 r2  r1 x  r0
sin 2 φ  42    (I.12)
a 41 x  a 2 r0  r1 x  r2
Relation (I.4) takes on the final form
dx 2 dφ
 (I.13)
G(x ) r0 ( r2  r1 ) 2 2
1  k sin φ
We make the substitutions

G(φ)  r0 (r2  r1 )  r2 ( r0  r1 ) sin 2 φ 

 r0 ( r2  r1 )(1  k 2 sin 2 φ) (I.14)

and

F(φ)  (r2  r1 )  ( r0  r1 ) sin 2 φ 

 ( r2  r1 )(1  m 2 sin 2 φ) (I.15)

where
r (r  r )
k2  2 0 1 (I.16)
r0 (r2  r1 )
r r
m2  0 1 (I.17)
r2  r1
Because of the previous substitutions (I.14) and (I.15), we get, using (I.14)-(I.17)
that (I.11) becomes

Page 55
 r0 (1  k 2 sin 2 φ )
x (I.18)
1  m 2 sin 2 φ
Under the substitution (I.18), we find

x3 r03 (1  k 2 sin 2 φ) 3
 
x  2MG  2 2 
2 2 3 r0 (1  k sin φ)
(1  m sin φ )   2MG 
 1  m 2 sin 2 φ 

r03 (1  k 2 sin 2 φ) 3
 (I.19)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(1  m sin φ) [r0 (1  k sin φ)  2MG (1  m sin φ)]
We have further

r0 (1  k 2 sin 2 φ)  2MG (1  m 2 sin 2 φ) 

 ( r 0  2MG )  (r 0 k 2  2MG m 2 ) sin 2 φ 

 r 0 k 2  2MG m 2 
 2 
 ( r 0  2MG ) 1  sin φ  (I.20)
 r 0  2MG 

and since
r (r  r ) r r
r0 k 2  2MG m 2  2 0 1  2MG 0 1 
r2  r1 r2  r1
r r
 0 1 ( r2  2MG )
r2  r1
we get from (I.20)

r0 (1  k 2 sin 2 φ)  2MG (1  m 2 sin 2 φ) 

 ( r 0  2 MG )(1  p  sin 2 φ) (I.21)

where
r  2MG r0  r1
p 2  (I.22)
r0  2MG r2  r1
Using (I.21), we get from (I.19):

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 x3 r03 (1  k 2 sin 2 φ) 3
 
x  2MG r0  2MG (1  m 2 sin 2 φ) 3 (1  p  sin 2 φ )

Finally, collecting everything together, we have

x3

( x  2MG ) x ( x  r0 )( x  r1 )( x  r2 )

(1  k 2 sin 2 φ) 3
 U (r0 )  dφ (I.23)
2 2 2 2 2 2
(1  m sin φ) (1  p  sin φ) 1  k sin φ

where

2 r02 r0
U ( r0 )  (I.24)
r0  2MG r2  r1

Appendix J. In this Appendix we prove identity (11.16).

For this purpose we use the partial fraction decomposition

(1  k 2 x ) 3

(1  m 2 x ) 2 (1  p  x )

k6 ( k 2  m 2 ) 2 (3 k 2 m 2  2 p k 2  m 2 p ) 1
   
4 4 2 2
m p m (m  p) 1 m2x

(k 2  m 2 ) 3 1 (k 2  p) 3 1
    (J.1)
m 4 ( m 2  p) (1  m 2 x ) 2 p ( m 2  p) 2 1  p x
Using the identity
1 1   1 
  m2    (J.2)
(1  m 2 x ) 2 1  m2x  m2 1  m2x 
relation (J.1) takes the form

(1  k 2 x ) 3

(1  m 2 x ) 2 (1  p  x )

k6 ( k 2  m 2 ) 2 (m 4  2k 2 m 2  pk 2  2m 2 p) 1
   
m 4p m 4 ( m 2  p) 2 1 m2x

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 (k 2  m 2 ) 3
  1  (k 2  p) 3 1
     (J.3)
2 2 2 2  2 2 1 p x
m ( m  p)  m  1  m x  p ( m  p)

After the substitution x  sin 2 φ we arrive at the identity

(1  k 2 sin 2 φ) 3

(1  m 2 sin 2 φ ) 2 (1  p  sin 2 φ)

k6 (k 2  m 2 ) 2 (m 4  2k 2 m 2  pk 2  2m 2 p) 1
   
m 4p m 4 ( m 2  p) 2 1  m 2 sin 2 φ

(k 2  m 2 ) 3   1  (k 2  p) 3
 1
   (J.4)
m 2 ( m 2  p)  m 2  1  m 2 sin 2 φ  p ( m 2  p) 2 1  p sin 2 φ

Appendix K. Elliptic Integrals and their Series Expansions.

The Elliptic Integral of the First Kind, denoted by F(a , m) , is defined by
a
dφ
F(a , m)  
0 1  m 2 sin 2 φ
and has the power series expansion
1
Γ( n  )

F(a , m)   2 m 2 n S (a )
2n
n  0 n ! Γ(1 / 2)

where

1  2n    2n  sin 2pa 
S 2n (a )    a     
2 2n  n  p 1  n  p  p 

π
The complete Elliptic Integral of the First Kind, denoted by K ( m)  F( , m) is
2
defined by
π/2
π dφ
K ( m)  F( , m)  
2 0 1  m 2 sin 2 φ
and has the series expansion

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  2 2 2 
π   1  2  1 3  4  ( 2n  1)!!  2n
K ( m)  1    m    m      m  
2   2  24  2  
  2 n!  
The Elliptic Integral of the Third Kind, denoted by Π(a , n ; m) is defined by
a
dφ
Π(a , n ; m)  
2
0 (1  n sin φ ) 1  m 2 sin 2 φ
For this integral we have the expansions
(i) For | n |  1 ,

Π(a , n ; k )   n p B(p1 / 2) (x ) S2n (a )
p 0

where
p
 1/ 2  m
B(p1 / 2) ( x )  
  x ,
m0  m 

k2
x
n

  1 / 2  ( 1) m (2m) !
  
 m  4 m ( m !) 2
(ii) For n  1

1  (1  m) m 
Π(a , n ; k )   Π (a , m ; k ) 
nm  m  k2 
  
1  k2 1  m n sin 2k  
  F(a , k )  tan 
n m  nm  2 1  n k 2
  
where

n  k2
m ( m  1)
1 n

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Appendix L. The Weirstrass and Jacobi Elliptic Functions.
The relation between Weirstrass and Jacobi elliptic functions is given by
e1  e 3
( x )  e 3  where λ  e1  e 3
sn 2 (λx ; m)
Using the above relation, the reader can easily establish the equivalence between
the solutions expressed in terms of Weirstrass elliptic functions and those
expressed in terms of Jacobi elliptic functions.
We also have the following expansions:

x3 x5
sn ( x ; m)  x  (1  m 2 )  (1  14m 2  m 4 ) 
3! 5!
and

1 
( x )    c k x 2k  2
x2 k 2

where

g2 g3 3 k 2
c2 
20
, c3 
28
and c k   cm ck m ( k  4 )
( k  3)(2k  1) m  2

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 References
[1] M. Abramowitz and I. Stegun: “Handbook of Mathematical Functions”.
Dover 1965
[2] M. V. Berry: “Principles of Cosmology and Gravitation”.
Institute of Physics Publishing, Bristol and Philadelphia, 1993
[3] S. Chandrasekhar: “The Mathematical Theory of Black Holes”. Oxford 1992
[4] H. T. Davis: “Introduction to Nonlinear Differential and Integral Equations”.
Dover 1962
[5] C. A. Korn and T. M. Korn: “Mathematical Handbook”.
Second Edition, McGraw-Hill 1968
[6] L. D. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz: “The Classical Theory of Fields”.
Pergamon 1971
[7] S. Weinberg: “Gravitation and Cosmology”. Wiley 1972
[8] E. T. Whittaker and G. N. Watson: “A Course of Modern Analysis”.
Cambridge University Press, 4th Edition 1927

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