Regenerative Braking System

Regenerative Braking System
ABSTRACT
As the basic law of Physics says ‘energy can neither be created nor be destroyed it can
only be converted from one form to another’. During huge amount of energy is lost to
atmosphere as heat. It will be good if we could store this energy somehow which is
otherwise getting wasted out and reuse it next time we started to accelerate. Regenerative
braking refers to a system in which the kinetic energy of the vehicle is stored temporarily,
as an accumulative energy, during deceleration, and is reused as kinetic energy during
acceleration or running. Regenerative braking is a small, yet very important, step toward
our eventual independence from fossil fuels. These kinds of brakes allow batteries to be
used for longer periods of time without the need to be plugged into an external charger.
These types of brakes also extend the driving range of fully electric vehicles. Regenerative
braking is a way to extend range of the electric vehicles. In many hybrid vehicles cases,
this system is also applied hybrid vehicles to improve fuel economy. A normal car is only
about 20% efficient, meaning some 80% of the energy it expends is wasted as heat created
by friction.
Regenerative braking could reclaim as much as half of that wasted energy, which equates
into more motion produced by the fuel we are paying for instead of using that fuel to
create heat that is being dissipated uselessly into the environment.
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Index
CHAPTER1. Introduction
1.1 Need for regenerative brakes
CHAPTER2. Basic idea of Regenerative brakes

2.1 The Motor as a generator
CHAPTER3. Basic elements of the system

3.1 Energy Storage Unit (ESU)
3.2 Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT)
3.3 Controller
3.4 Regenerative Brake Controllers
CHAPTER4. Different types of Regenerative braking

4.1. Electric Regenerative Braking
4.2. Hydraulic Regenerative Brakes
4.3. Fly Wheels
4.4. Use in compressed air
4.5. Regenerative Braking Using Nitilon Spring
CHAPTER5. Applications
CHAPTER6. Comparisons
6.1 Advantages of regenerative braking over conventional braking
6.2 Comparison of Dynamic brakes and Regenerative brakes
6.3 Why Regenerative Brakes are assisted with the Frictional Brake??
CHAPTER7. Conclusion
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CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION
Brakes are employed to stop or retard the motion of any moving body. Thus, in automobiles the
brakes are having the most important function to perform. In conventional braking system the
motion is retarded or stopped by absorbing kinetic energy by friction, by making the contact of the
moving body with frictional rubber pad (called brake liner) which causes the absorption of kinetic
energy, and this is wasted in form of heat in surroundings. Each time we brake, the momentum of
vehicle is absorbed that it has gained by it and to re-accelerate the vehicle we have to start from
the scratch to redevelop that momentum by using the more power from an engine .Thus, it will
ultimately result in huge waste of energy. As the basic law of Physics says ‘energy can neither be
created nor be destroyed it can only be converted from one form to another’. It will be good if we
could store this energy somehow which is otherwise getting wasted out and reuse it next time we
started to accelerate. That's the basic concept of regenerative ("regent") brakes, which provide
braking for the system when needed by converting the available energy to some usable form. These
are widely used in electric trains and the latest electric cars.
Regenerative brake is an energy recovery mechanism which slows a vehicle by converting its
kinetic energy into another form, which can be either used immediately or stored until needed.
Thus, the generated electricity during the braking is fed back into the supply system (in case of
electric trains), whereas in battery electric and hybrid electric vehicles, the energy is stored in a
battery or bank of capacitors for later use. Energy may also be stored by compressing air or in a
rotating flywheel.
An Energy Regeneration Brake was developed in 1967 for the AMC Amitron. This was a
completely battery powered urban concept car whose batteries were recharged by regenerative
braking, thus increasing the range of the automobile.
Many modern hybrid and electric vehicles use this technique to extend the range of the battery
pack. Examples include the Toyota Prius, Honda Insight, the Vectrix electric maxi-scooter, and
the Chevrolet Volt.
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1.1 Need For Regenerative Brakes
The regenerative braking system delivers a number of significant advantages over a car that only
has friction brakes. In low-speed, stop- and-go traffic where little deceleration is required; the
regenerative braking system can provide the majority of the total braking force. This vastly
improves fuel economy with a vehicle, and further enhances the attractiveness of vehicles using
regenerative braking for city driving. At higher speeds, too, regenerative braking has been shown
to contribute to improved fuel economy – by as much as 20%.
Consider a heavy loaded truck having very few stops on the road. It is operated near maximum
engine efficiency. The 80% of the energy produced is utilized to overcome the rolling and
aerodynamic road forces. The energy wasted in applying brake is about 2%. Also its brake specific
fuel consumption is 5%.
Now consider a vehicle, which is operated in the main city where traffic is a major problem here
one has to apply brake frequently. For such vehicles the wastage of energy by application of brake
is about 60% to 65%.
Fig:1.1 (a): Graphical Representation of Energy usage of two vehicles
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CHAPTER 2
2. BASIC IDEA OF REGENERATIVE BRAKES
Concept of this regenerative brake is better understood from bicycle fitted with Dynamo. If our
bicycle has a dynamo (a small electricity generator) on it for powering the lights, we'll know it's
harder to peddle when the dynamo is engaged than when it's switched off. That's because some of
our peddling energy is being "stolen" by the dynamo and turned into electrical energy in the lights.
If we're going along at speed and we suddenly stop peddling and turn on the dynamo, it'll bring us
to a stop more quickly than we would normally, for the same reason: it's stealing our kinetic energy.
Now imagine a bicycle with a dynamo that's 100 times bigger and more powerful. In theory, it
could bring our bike to a halt relatively quickly by converting our kinetic energy into electricity
which we could store in a battery and use again later. And that's the basic idea behind regenerative
brakes.
Electric trains, cars, and other electric vehicles are powered by electric motors connected to
batteries. When we're driving along, energy flows from the batteries to the motors, turning the
wheels and providing us with the kinetic energy we need to move. When we stop and hit the brakes,
the whole process goes into reverse: electronic circuits cut the power to the motors. Now, our
kinetic energy and momentum makes the wheels turn the motors, so the motors work like
generators and start producing electricity instead of consuming it. Power flows back from these
motor-generators to the batteries, charging them up. So a good proportion of the energy we lose
by braking is returned to the batteries and can be reused when we start off again. In practice,
regenerative brakes take time to slow things down, so most vehicles that use them also have
ordinary (friction) brakes working alongside (that's also a good idea in case the regenerative brakes
fail).That's one reason why regenerative brakes don't save 100 percent of our braking energy.
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Fig : 2.1 (b): Basic idea of Regenerative brakes
2.1 The Motor as a generator
Vehicles driven by electric motors use the motor as a generator when using regenerative braking,
it is operated as a generator during braking and its output is supplied to an electrical load; the
transfer of energy to the load provides the braking effect.
Regenerative braking is used on hybrid gas/electric automobiles to recoup some of the energy lost
during stopping. This energy is saved in a storage battery and used later to power the motor
whenever the car is in electric mode.
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CHAPTER 3
3. BASIC ELEMENTS OF THE SYSTEM
There are four elements required which are necessary for the working of regenerative braking
system, these are:
3.1 Energy Storage Unit (ESU):

The ESU performs two primary functions
1) To recover & store braking energy
2) To absorb excess engine energy during light load operation
The selection criteria for effective energy storage include:
I. High specific energy storage density
II. High energy transfer rate
III. Small space requirement
The energy recaptured by regenerative braking might be stored in one of three devices:
1) An electrochemical battery
2) A flywheel
3) Compressed air
1) Batteries:
With this system as we know, the electric motor of a car becomes a generator when the brake pedal
is applied. The kinetic energy of the car is used to generate electricity that is then used to recharge
the batteries. With this system, traditional friction brakes must also be used to ensure that the car
slows down as much as necessary. Thus, not all of the kinetic energy of the car can be harnessed
for the batteries because some of it is "lost" to waste heat. Some energy is also lost to resistance as
the energy travels from the wheel and axle, through the drive train and electric motor, and into the
battery.
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When the brake pedal is depressed, the battery receives a higher charge, which slows the vehicle
down faster. The further the brake pedal is depressed, the more the conventional friction brakes
are employed.
The motor/generator produces AC, which is converted into DC, which is then used to charge the
Battery Module. So, the regenerative systems must have an electric controller that regulates how
much charge the battery receives and how much the friction brakes are used.
2) Fly wheels:
In this system, the translational energy of the vehicle is transferred into rotational energy in the
flywheel, which stores the energy until it is needed to accelerate the vehicle.
The benefit of using flywheel technology is that more of the forward inertial energy of the car can
be captured than in batteries, because the flywheel can be engaged even during relatively short
intervals of braking and acceleration. In the case of batteries, they are not able to accept charge at
these rapid intervals, and thus more energy is lost to friction.
Another advantage of flywheel technology is that the additional power supplied by the flywheel
during acceleration substantially supplements the power output of the small engine that hybrid
vehicles are equipped with.
3.2 Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT):
The energy storage unit requires a transmission that can handle torque and speed demands in a
steeples manner and smoothly control energy flow to and from the vehicle wheels.
3.3 Controller:
An “ON-OFF” engine control system is used. That means that the engine is “ON” until the energy
storage unit has been reached the desired charge capacity and then is decoupled and stopped until
the energy storage unit charge fall below its minimum requirement.
3.4 Regenerative Brake Controllers
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Brake controllers are electronic devices that can control brakes remotely, deciding when braking
begins ends, and how quickly the brakes need to be applied. During the braking operation, the
brake controller directs the electricity produced by the motor into the batteries or capacitors. It
makes sure that an optimal amount of power is received by the batteries, but also ensures that the
inflow of electricity isn't more than the batteries can handle.
The most important function of the brake controller, however, may be deciding whether the motor
is currently capable of handling the force necessary for stopping the car. If it isn't, the brake
controller turns the job over to the friction brakes. In vehicles that use these types of brakes, as
much as any other piece of electronics on board a hybrid or electric car, the brake controller makes
the entire regenerative braking process possible.
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CHAPTER 4
4. Different Types Of Regenerative Braking System
Based on the mode of storage of energy some of the system developed can be listed they are:-
4.1. Electric Regenerative braking
In an electric system which is driven only by means of electric motor the system
consists of an electric motor which acts both as generator and motor. Initially when the system is
cruising the power is supplied by the motor and when the there is a necessity for braking depending
upon driver’s applied force on the brake pedal the electronic unit controls the charge flowing
through the motor and due to the resistance offered motor rotates back to act as a generator and
the energy is energy is stored in a battery or bank of twin layer capacitors for later use.
In hybrid system motor will be coupled to another power source normally I.C
Engines as shown in the fig (1)
Fig: 4.1 The main components of this system Engine Motor/Generator
Batteries
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4.2 Electronic control system
During acceleration, the Motor/generator unit acts as electric motor drawing electrical energy from
the batteries to provide extra driving force to move the car as (Shown in fig2). With this help from
the motor, the car’s internal combustion engine that is smaller and with lower peak power can
achieve high efficiency. During braking electric supply from the battery is cut off by the electronic
system. As the car is still moving forward, the Motor/ Generator unit is acts as electric generator
converting kinetic energy into electrical and store in the batteries (shown in fig 3) for later use.
Fig: 4.2 showing energy consumption from battery.
Fig :4.3 showing charging of battery when brake applied.
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4.3. Hydraulic Regenerative Brakes
Hydrostatic Regenerative Braking (HRB) system uses electrical/electronic

Components as well as hydraulics to improve vehicle fuel economy. An alternative
regenerative braking system is being developed by the Ford Motor Company and the Eaton
Corporation. It's called Hydraulic Power Assist or HPA. With HPA, when the driver steps
on the brake, the vehicle's kinetic energy is used to power a reversible pump, which sends
hydraulic fluid from a low pressure accumulator (a kind of storage tank) inside the vehicle
into a high pressure accumulator. The pressure is created by nitrogen gas in the accumulator,
which is compressed as the fluid is pumped into the space the gas formerly occupied. This
slows the vehicle and helps bring it to a stop. The fluid remains under pressure in the
accumulator until the driver pushes the accelerator again, at which point the pump is reversed
and the pressurized fluid is used to accelerate the vehicle, effectively translating the kinetic
energy that the car had before braking into the mechanical energy that helps get the vehicle
back up to speed. It's predicted that a system like this could store 80 percent of the momentum
lost by a vehicle during deceleration and use it to get the vehicle moving again.
The Hydrostatic Regenerative Braking (HRB) system is intended for commercial vehicles and
mobile equipment. The company says that initial measurements show that the HRB system reduces
the fuel consumption in these vehicles by up to 25%.
In the HRB system, braking energy is converted to hydraulic pressure and stored in a high-pressure
hydraulic accumulator. When the vehicle accelerates, the stored hydraulic energy is applied to the
transmission reducing the energy that the combustion engine has to provide. An electronic
controller and a hydraulic valve manifold control the process.
At present, these hydraulic regenerative brakes are noisy and prone to leaks;
however, once all of the details are ironed out, such systems will probably be most useful in large
trucks.
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Fig. 4.4 (d) Hydraulic Regenerative Brake (HRB)
4.4 Function:
If a conventional vehicle decelerates, a large part of the kinetic energy is converted to heat by the
friction brake and emitted into the environment without being used.
Hybrid and electric vehicles can recuperate some of the kinetic energy. When braking in a hybrid
or electric vehicle, the electric motor switches to generator mode. The wheels transfer kinetic
energy via the drivetrain to the generator. The generator turns in a similar way to a bicycle light
generator transforming part of the kinetic energy into electrical energy, which is then stored in a
high-voltage battery. At the same time, generator resistance produced from the electricity created,
slows the vehicle. When more braking torque is required than the generator alone can provide,
additional braking is accomplished by friction brakes. The electrical energy stored in the vehicle’s
high-voltage battery is available to the electric motor to be used for driving off or accelerating.
In many cases, the generator's braking power is sufficient to slow the vehicle as desired by the
driver. The friction brake is used less often, for example, for very rapid deceleration, at very low
speeds and when stationary.
Regenerative braking contributes toward increasing the range of electrical vehicles. It helps to save
fuel in hybrid vehicles and to reduce emissions of CO2 and pollutants, particularly in urban traffic
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situations involving frequent braking and acceleration. In addition, using the generator for braking
also reduces brake wear and the build-up of brake dust.
4.5 Regenerative Braking
Everything has inertia; if it has a mass, it has inertia. A hybrid reclaims energy through the
fundamentals of physics. Do you remember any high school or college physics?
You apply a force to move an object. The equation for this is:
F=ma
“F” being the force, “m” being the mass, and
“a” being the acceleration
The faster you want an object to accelerate, the more force you have to apply.
Let’s just look at the electric motor for now. Energy from the battery (Watts) is applied to the coil
windings in the motor. These windings then produce a magnetic force on the rotor of the motor,
which produces torque on the output shaft. This torque is then applied to the wheels of the car via
a coupling of gears and shafts. When the wheel turns, it applies a force to the ground, which due
to friction between the wheel and the ground causes the vehicle to move along the surface. This is
like if you were in a boat at a dock, and you grabbed the dock and pushed with your arm. The force
you are generating is moving the boat relative to the location of the dock. The more force you
apply, the fast you get the boat to move.
4.6 Friction in Hybrids
There is friction everywhere in the hybrid system. There is electrical friction between the atoms
and electrons moving in the wires between the battery and the motor and through the motor itself.
There is magnetic friction in the metal laminations that make up the magnetic circuit of the motor,
as well as in the magnets again on the atomic level. Then, there is mechanical friction between
every moving part, such as the bearings, seals, gears, chains, and so on. The by-product of friction
is heat. Take your hands and rub them together and your palms get warm. The faster you do it, the
faster they heat up. Also, the harder they are pressed together, the faster they will heat. Friction is
energy lost to heat. When all of these losses are added up, that is what determines the efficiency
of the vehicle.
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4.7 Frictional Losses in Conventional Cars
A standard car generates torque to move the wheels to drive the vehicle down the road. During
this time, it is generating friction and losses. When you apply standard brakes, it is just another
friction device that has specially designed material to handle the heat from friction, which is
applied to the drums and rotors that stop the wheel from turning. The friction between the wheel
and the ground stops the vehicle. This standard vehicle has frictional losses to move the vehicle—
and uses the fundamental behind frictional losses to stop the vehicle. So it’s a lose-lose situation.
Fig 4.5 Frictional Losses in Conventional Cars
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Fig: 4.6 Conventional Cars
4.8 Reclaiming Energy in a Hybrid
On a hybrid that has regenerative brakes, you can reclaim some of this energy that would normally
be lost due to braking. Using the vehicle's inertia is the key. What is inertia? It is basically what
makes something difficult to start moving and what makes something hard to stop moving. Let’s
review the boat at the dock. If you begin to push, you have to accelerate the mass of the boat and
you. The heavier the boat, the more force it takes to get the boat to move. Also, you notice that the
heavier the boat, the longer you have to apply this force to get the boat to move. The same thing
happens when you try to stop the boat. Once the boat is moving, you find it takes a similar amount
of force to stop the boat and also it takes about the same amount of time to make it stop.
This is all about inertia—the amount of energy that is required to change the direction and speed
of the boat.
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4.9 Transferring Torque Back to the Motor
This inertia is the fundamental property of physics that is used to reclaim energy from the vehicle.
Instead of using 100% of the foundation brakes of the vehicle, which are the friction brakes, we
now let the linkages back to the motor such as the drive shafts, chains, and gears transfer the torque
from the wheels back into the motor shaft. One of the unique things about most electric motors is
that electrical energy can be transferred into mechanical energy and also mechanical energy can
be transferred back into electrical energy. In both cases, this can be done very efficiently.
Thus, through the technology of the motor and motor controller, the force at the wheels becomes
torque on the electric motor shaft. The magnets on the shaft of the motor (called the rotor—the
moving part of the motor) move past the electric coils on the stator (the stationary part of the
motor), passing the magnetic fields of the magnets through the coils, producing electricity. This
electricity becomes electrical energy, which is pumped back to the battery. This, in turn, charges
the hybrid battery pack. This is where the comment “regeneration” or “reclaiming energy” comes
from.
That is the basics of how regeneration works. How much energy you can reclaim depends on a lot
of factors. There are different regeneration theories and designs, which fall into two groups: one
being called parallel regen and the other called series regen, which are different from the parallel
and series hybrids. These regen groups strictly are design topologies for braking systems. It also
matters how many wheels you are using to reclaim energy. Most vehicles to date are front wheel
drive so you can only reclaim energy from the front wheels. The back wheels still waste energy to
standard friction brakes unless they are somehow connected back to the electric motor. The other
factor is battery state of charge and how hard you can drive that energy back into the battery.
Every time you step on your car's brakes, you're wasting energy. Physics tells us that energy can
not be destroyed. So when your car slows down, the kinetic energy that was propelling it forward
has to go somewhere. Most of it simply dissipates as heat and becomes useless. That energy, which
could have been used to do work, is essentially wasted.
Is there anything that you, the driver, can do to stop wasting this energy? Not really. In most cars
it's the inevitable byproduct of braking and there's no way you can drive a car without occasionally
hitting the brakes. But automotive engineers have given this problem a lot of thought and have
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come up with a kind of braking system that can recapture much of the car's kinetic energy and
convert it into electricity, so that it can be used to recharge the car's batteries. This system is called
regenerative braking.
At present, these kinds of brakes are primarily found in hybrid vehicles like the Toyota Prius, and
in fully electric cars, like the Tesla Roadster. In vehicles like these, keeping the battery charged is
of considerable importance. However, the technology was first used in trolley cars and has
subsequently found its way into such unlikely places as electric bicycles and even Formula One
race cars.
In a traditional braking system, brake pads produce friction with the brake rotors to slow or stop
the vehicle. Additional friction is produced between the slowed wheels and the surface of the road.
This friction is what turns the car's kinetic energy into heat. With regenerative brakes, on the other
hand, the system that drives the vehicle does the majority of the braking. When the driver steps on
the brake pedal of an electric or hybrid vehicle, these types of brakes put the vehicle's electric
motor into reverse mode, causing it to run backwards, thus slowing the car's wheels. While running
backwards, the motor also acts as an electric generator, producing electricity that's then fed into
the vehicle's batteries. These types of brakes work better at certain speeds than at others. In fact,
they're most effective in stop-and-go driving situations. However, hybrids and fully electric cars
also have friction brakes, as a kind of back-up system in situations where regenerative braking
simply won't supply enough stopping power. In these instances, it’s important for drivers to be
aware of the fact that the brake pedal might respond differently to pressure. The pedal will
sometimes depress farther towards the floor than it normally does and this sensation can cause
momentary panic in drivers.
In the following pages, we'll take a more detailed look at how a regenerative braking system works,
and we'll discuss reasons why regenerative braking is more efficient than a typical friction brake
system.
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Fig: 4.7 why regenerative braking is more efficient than a typical friction brake system.
4.10 Regenerative Braking Circuits
Regenerative braking is used in vehicles that make use of electric motors, primarily fully electric
vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles. One of the more interesting properties of an electric motor is
that, when it's run in one direction, it converts electrical energy into mechanical energy that can be
used to perform work (such as turning the wheels of a car), but when the motor is run in the
opposite direction, a properly designed motor becomes an electric generator, converting
mechanical energy into electrical energy. This electrical energy can then be fed into a charging
system for the car's batteries.
In a regenerative braking system, the trick to getting the motor to run backwards is to use the
vehicle's momentum as the mechanical energy that puts the motor into reverse. Momentum is the
property that keeps the vehicle moving forward once it's been brought up to speed. Once the motor
has been reversed, the electricity generated by the motor is fed back into the batteries, where it can
be used to accelerate the car again after it stops. Sophisticated electronic circuitry is necessary to
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decide when the motor should reverse, while specialized electric circuits route the electricity
generated by the motor into the vehicle's batteries. In some cases, the energy produced by these
types of brakes is stored in a series of capacitors for later use. In addition, since vehicles using
these kinds of brakes also have a standard friction braking system, the vehicle's electronics must
decide which braking system is appropriate at which time. Because so much is controlled
electronically in a regenerative braking system, it's even possible for the driver to select certain
presets that determine how the vehicle reacts in different situations. For instance, in some vehicles
a driver can select whether regenerative braking should begin immediately whenever the driver's
foot comes off the accelerator pedal and whether the braking system will take the car all the way
to 0 mph (0 kilometers per hour) or will let the car coast slightly.
There's a general movement in the automotive industry toward so-called brake-by-wire systems
where many of the functions of brakes that have traditionally been performed mechanically will
be performed electronically. Hybrids and electric cars will probably be early adopters of these
brake types. At present, different automotive engineers have come up with differing circuit designs
to handle the complexities of regenerative braking; however, in all cases, the single most important
part of the braking circuitry is the braking controller, which we'll discuss in the next section.
4.12 Regenerative Braking Controllers
Brake controllers are electronic devices that can control brakes remotely, deciding when braking
begins, ends, and how quickly the brakes need to be applied. In towing situations, for instance,
brake controllers can provide a means of coordinating the brakes on a trailer with the brakes on
the vehicle doing the towing.
Regenerative braking is implemented in conjunction with anti-lock braking systems (ABS), so the
regenerative braking controller is similar to an ABS controller, which monitors the rotational speed
of the wheels and the difference in that speed from
one wheel to another. In vehicles that use these kinds of brakes, the brake controller not only
monitors the speed of the wheels, but it can calculate how much torque -- rotational force -- is
available to generate electricity to be fed back into the batteries. During the braking operation, the
brake controller directs the electricity produced by the motor into the batteries or capacitors. It
makes sure that an optimal amount of power is received by the batteries, but also ensures that the
inflow of electricity isn't more than the batteries can handle.
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The most important function of the brake controller, however, may be deciding whether the motor
is currently capable of handling the force necessary for stopping the car. If it isn't, the brake
controller turns the job over to the friction brakes, averting possible catastrophe. In vehicles that
use these types of brakes, as much as any other piece of electronics on board a hybrid or electric
car, the brake controller makes the entire regenerative braking process possible.
4.13 Regenerative Braking And Flywheels
 The translational energy of the vehicle is transferred into rotational energy in the flywheel,
which stores the energy until it is needed to accelerate the vehicle.
 The benefit of using flywheel technology is that more of the forward inertial energy of the
car can be captured than in batteries, because the flywheel can be engaged even during
relatively short intervals of braking and acceleration.
 In the case of batteries, they are not able to accept charge at these rapid intervals, and thus
more energy is lost to friction.
 Another advantage of flywheel technology is that the additional power supplied by the
flywheel during acceleration substantially supplements the power output of the small
engine that hybrid vehicles are equipped with.
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Fig: 4.8 translational energy of the vehicle is transferred into rotational energy
4.14 Hybrid Regenerative Braking
How is a hybrid vehicle different from a fully electric vehicle? Well, hybrid electric vehicles use
both an electric motor and an internal combustion engine to provide a best-of-both-worlds driving
experience. They combine the driving range of an internal combustion engine with the fuel
efficiency and emissions-free characteristics of an electric motor. If a hybrid is to have maximum
fuel efficiency and produce as few carbon emissions as possible, it's important that the battery
remain charged as long as possible. If a hybrid vehicle battery were to lose its charge, the internal
combustion engine would be entirely responsible for powering the vehicle. At that point, the
vehicle is no longer acting as a hybrid but rather just another car burning fossil fuels.
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Automotive engineers have come up with a number of tricks to wring the maximum efficiency out
of hybrids, like aerodynamic streamlining of the bodies and use of lightweight materials, but
arguably, one the most important is regenerative braking. In a hybrid setup, however, these types
of brakes can provide power only to the electric motor part of the drivetrain via the vehicle's
battery. The internal combustion engine gains no advantage from these kinds of brakes.
In part, these efficiencies are necessary due to the extreme difficulty in finding a place to recharge
a hybrid. This makes longer trips difficult without relying on the hybrid's internal combustion
engine, which actually cancels out some of the advantage of owning a hybrid.
Up next, we'll learn about a new take on this idea of regenerative braking.
Fig:4.9 idea of regenerative braking
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4.15 Hydraulic Regenerative Braking
An alternative regenerative braking system is being developed by the Ford Motor Company and
the Eaton Corporation. It's called Hydraulic Power Assist or HPA. With HPA, when the driver
steps on the brake, the vehicle's kinetic energy is used to power a reversible pump, which sends
hydraulic fluid from a low pressure accumulator (a kind of storage tank) inside the vehicle into a
high pressure accumulator. The pressure is created by nitrogen gas in the accumulator, which is
compressed as the fluid is pumped into the space the gas formerly occupied. This slows the vehicle
and helps bring it to a stop. The fluid remains under pressure in the accumulator until the driver
pushes the accelerator again, at which point the pump is reversed and the pressurized fluid is used
to accelerate the vehicle, effectively translating the kinetic energy that the car had before braking
into the mechanical energy that helps get the vehicle back up to speed. It's predicted that a system
like this could store 80 percent of the momentum lost by a vehicle during deceleration and use it
to get the vehicle moving again [source: HybridCars.com]. This percentage represents an even
more impressive gain than what is produced by current regenerative braking systems. Like
electronic regenerative braking, these kinds of brakes -- HPA systems -- are best used for city
driving, where stop-and-go traffic is common.
So far, HPA systems have been used primarily as proofs of concept and in demonstration projects
only. They aren't quite ready for production models just yet. At present, these hydraulic brakes are
noisy and prone to leaks; however, once all of the details are ironed out, such systems will probably
be most useful in large trucks weighing 10,000 pounds (4,536 kilograms) or more, where these
types of brakes may prove to be a more optimal system than electronically controlled regenerative
brakes.
Eventually, this technology may trickle down to smaller vehicles. One company, Hybrid-Drive
Systems, LLC, of Michigan, has retrofitted a 1968 Volkswagen Beetle with a hydraulic
regenerative braking system. However, the accumulators take up a considerable amount of space,
and future production plans are focused more on using the technology in larger vehicles, like vans.
Meanwhile, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has partnered with Eaton
Corporation to install hydraulic regenerative braking systems on UPS delivery trucks.
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4,16 Regenerative Braking Efficiency
The energy efficiency of a conventional car is only about 20 percent, with the remaining 80 percent
of its energy being converted to heat through friction. The miraculous thing about regenerative
braking is that it may be able to capture as much as half of that wasted energy and put it back to
work. This could reduce fuel consumption by 10 to 25 percent. Hydraulic regenerative braking
systems could provide even more impressive gains, potentially reducing fuel use by 25 to 45
percent [source: HybridCars.com]. In a century that may see the end
of the vast fossil fuel reserves that have provided us with energy for automotive and other
technologies for many years, and in which fears about carbon emissions are coming to a peak, this
added efficiency is becoming increasingly important.
The beginning of the 21st century could very well mark the final period in which internal
combustion engines are commonly used in cars. Already automakers are moving toward
alternative energy carriers,
such as electric batteries, hydrogen fuel and even compressed air. Regenerative braking is a small,
yet very important, step toward our eventual independence from fossil fuels. These kinds of brakes
allow batteries to be used for longer periods of time without the need to be plugged into an external
charger. These types of brakes also extend the driving range of fully electric vehicles. In fact, this
technology has already helped bring us cars like the Tesla Roadster, which runs entirely on battery
power. Sure, these cars may use fossil fuels at the recharging stage -- that is, if the source of the
electricity comes from a fossil fuel such as coal -- but when they're out there on the road, they can
operate with no use of fossil fuels at all, and that's a big step forward.
The added efficiency of regenerative braking also means less pain at the pump, since hybrids with
electric motors and regenerative brakes can travel considerably farther on a gallon of gas, some
achieving more than 50 miles per gallon at this point. And that's something that most drivers can
really appreciate.
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Fig: 4.10 regenerative braking
4.17 Regenerative Braking Diagram
This simple diagram shows how a regenerative braking system is able to recapture some of the
vehicle's kinetic energy and convert it into electricity. This electricity is then used to recharge the
vehicle's batteries.
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Fig: 4.11 Brake system components
We all know that pushing down on the brake pedal slows a car to a stop. But how does this happen?
How does your car transmit the force from your leg to its wheels? How does it multiply the force
so that it is enough to stop something as big as a car?
When you depress your brake pedal, your car transmits the force from your foot to its brakes
through a fluid. Since the actual brakes require a much greater force than you could apply with
your leg, your car must also multiply the force of your foot. It does this in two ways:
 Mechanical advantage (leverage)

 Hydraulic force multiplication
The brakes transmit the force to the tires using friction, and the tires transmit that force to the road
using friction also. Before we begin our discussion on the components of the brake system, we'll
cover these three principles:
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 Leverage
 Hydraulics
 Friction
4.18 How Disc Brakes Work
Fig: 4.12 Disc Brakes
Most modern cars have disc brakes on the front wheels, and some have disc brakes on all four
wheels. This is the part of the brake system that does the actual work of stopping the car.
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The most common type of disc brake on modern cars is the single-piston floating caliper. In this
article, we will learn all about this type of disc brake design.
4.19 Disc Brake Basics
Here is the location of the disc brakes in a car:
The main components of a disc brake are:
 The brake pads

 The caliper, which contains a piston
 The rotor, which is mounted to the hub
Fig:4.13 Disc Brake Basics
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4.20 Parts of a disc brake
The disc brake is a lot like the brakes on a bicycle. Bicycle brakes have a caliper, which squeezes
the brake pads against the wheel. In a disc brake, the brake pads squeeze the rotor instead of the
wheel, and the force is transmitted hydraulically instead of through a cable. Friction between the
pads and the disc slows the disc down.
A moving car has a certain amount of kinetic energy, and the brakes have to remove this energy
from the car in order to stop it. How do the brakes do this? Each time you stop your car, your
brakes convert the kinetic energy to heat generated by the friction between the pads and the disc.
Most car disc brakes are vented.
4.14 Disc brake vents
Vented disc brakes have a set of vanes, between the two sides of the disc, that pumps air through
the disc to provide cooling.
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4.15 Disc Brake
4.22 What Are Hybrid Vehicles
Hybrid vehicles are called hybrids because they use both a small internal combustion engine (ICE)
and an electric motor to obtain maximum power and fuel economy with minimum emissions. How
they do this varies from one model to another, with varying success.
What all hybrids have in common is the ability to generate electric current, store it in a large
battery, and use that current to help drive the car. Hybrids capture electrical energy produced by a
regenerative braking system, and their engines can power a generator, too. Hybrids can also
conserve energy by shutting down the ICE when the vehicle is in Park, idling at a light, or stopped
in traffic, or when the electric motor’s energy is sufficient to drive the vehicle without assistance
from the ICE.
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Hybrids have regenerative braking systems that generate electric power to help keep the batteries
charged. When the driver applies the brakes, the electric motor turns into a generator, and the
magnetic drag slows the vehicle down. For safety, however, there is also a normal hydraulic
braking system that can stop the car when regenerative braking isn’t sufficient. There’s no
difference in maintenance or repair except that the brake pads tend to last much longer because
they don’t get used as much. In fact, if you drive a hybrid in a moderate manner, you almost never
actually use the disc brakes on the wheels and may be able to go the life of the car without changing
pads. The big difference is that regenerative brakes capture energy and turn it into electricity to
charge the battery that provides power to an electric motor.
4.23 Parallel hybrids
A parallel hybrid uses both an electric motor and an ICE for propulsion. They can run in tandem,
or one can be used as the primary power source with the other kicking in to assist when extra
power is needed for starting off, climbing hills, and accelerating to pass other vehicles. Because
both are connected to the drive train, they’re said to run “in parallel.”
Fig: 4.15 How a parallel hybrid works.
4.24 Series hybrids
A series hybrid uses a gasoline or diesel ICE, coupled with a generator, to generate electricity but
not to drive the car. The engine can send the electric current directly to the electric motor or charge
a large battery that stores the electricity and delivers it to an electric motor on-demand. The electric
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motor propels the vehicle, using its power to rotate a driveshaft or a set of drive axles that turn the
wheels.
Fig: 4.16 A series hybrid.
4.25 Plug-in hybrids
Because plug-in hybrids feature larger batteries that can be charged at any ordinary 110-volt
electrical socket, they have the capacity to extend the ability of the electric motor to drive the car
farther without the need for starting the ICE and therefore substantially increase the vehicle’s fuel
efficiency. Estimates have ranged as high as 100 mpg!
Some technologically savvy individuals have adapted their hybrid vehicles into plug-in hybrids,
and automakers are in the process of developing and producing them (sometimes in cooperation
with major utility companies). The development of new, smaller, high-capacity lithium-ion
batteries that can be recharged many times is the key to making plug-in hybrids available to the
general public. Estimates are that plug-in hybrids equipped with these more powerful batteries will
have a range of as much as 125 miles before the charge is depleted and the vehicle reverts to
standard hybrid mode.
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Fig: 4.17 A plug-in hybrid.
The main environmental problem with plug-in hybrids is that the electric current they draw is
usually generated by utility companies powered by fossil fuels. The good news is that some major
chains have committed to establishing charging stations powered by solar panels or wind energy,
and many hybrid owners are willing to install solar panels to recharge these vehicles at home.
Plug-in hybrids charged by commercial sources of electricity or solar panels will be less dependent
on the ICE, but will still need it for long trips, climbing hills, and so on. Future hybrids may use a
small fuel cell to make electricity from hydrogen, which would mean the ICE would have to run
even less frequently.
4.26 Two-mode hybrids
Two-mode hybrids may be the key to a competitive place for the U.S. in the hybrid market. Instead
of the large storage battery found on conventional hybrids, two-mode hybrids use smaller batteries
and two electric motors located inside an automatic transmission with two sets of gears — one for
the ICE and the other to amplify the power of the electric motors. The transmission can function
as a continuously variable transmission, as well. In one mode, at lower speeds, the vehicle can run
with one or both electric motors, with or without the ICE, or on the ICE alone. At higher speeds,
the second mode kicks in, and the ICE runs continuously in its higher gear ratios.
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Fig: 4.18 A two-mode hybrid.
Stealth or Electric-Only or Reverse
When power to the wheels is supplied entirely by

the large motor using only the battery-pack, it is
called “Electric-Only”. This can occur at any speed.
The only requirement is that the use of gas by the
engine must cease; however, the motion of the
engine may still continue. When engine activity
stops entirely, the mode is referred to as “Stealth”.
This is an ability that is possible due to the PSD, a
special device that “assist” hybrids do not have.
Lastly, since there is no transmission or even any
gears that shift, this is how reverse is provided. The
large motor simply rotates backward.
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Regeneration (Braking)
When the driver moderately steps on the brake-

pedal, some energy that is normally wasted through
friction from brake shoes & pads is instead routed
backward through the hybrid system. This causes
the large motor to now operate as a generator,
which creates electricity to recharge the battery-
pack with.
When the driver slams on the brake-pedal to

emergency stop, the regeneration cycle is bypassed
entirely. All energy is dealt with via the traditional
shoe & pad method along with the anti-lock system.
Regeneration (Excess Capture)
Did you know that the “full” hybrid design provides

regeneration electricity even when you don’t step
on the brake-pedal? Most have no idea this
efficiency gain exists. But it does. It works
remarkably well too, and happens far more often
than you’d expect. Whenever the vehicle slows
down a little bit or it encounters a decline in the
road, the small motor works as a generator powered
by the wheels rather than the engine to capture that
excess energy.
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Engine & Motor Drive
This is when all components of the “full” hybrid

system except the battery-pack provide power. The
engine spins the PSD, which then distributes 72 %
of that thrust to the wheels and 28 % to the small
motor. The spinning of the small motor generates
electricity, which is immediately used by the large
motor to supply additional thrust to the wheels. The
benefit of this seemingly cumbersome distribution
comes from the engine operating at a very efficient
RPM while at the same time allowing the powerful
yet efficient motor to contribute thrust. It also
ensures longer battery-pack life by simply not using
it.
Engine Drive + Charge
Sometimes the electricity being generated by the

small motor isn’t needed. In that case, which
happens frequently while cruising on a highway, it
is sent to the battery-pack for recharging.
Additionally, note that the A/C system is powered
only by electricity, meaning it can take advantage
of this situation… a design benefit that is often
overlooked.
Engine & Motor Drive + Charge
When the small motor is generating more electricity

than what is needed by the large motor at that
moment, the surplus is sent to the battery-pack.
This is a benefit often overlooked, an efficiency
gain due to running the engine at an optimal RPM
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(which also provides an efficiency gain). This is

also the most common method in which hills are
climbed, resulting in more stored electricity
available at the top than when the climb began.
Full Power or Gradual Slowing
At times when maximum thrust is required, like

when merging onto a busy highway, the battery-
pack will join in. This additional power is used by
the large motor to produce even more thrust to the
wheels than is normal needed. The same activity
also occurs when slowing down gradually, allowing
the engine to significantly reduce gas use without
the driver noticing a power distribution change.
Engine Heat
When the hybrid system is cold, it will run the

engine to create heat for the catalytic-converter.
This is required to enable the chemical reaction that
cleanses emissions before leaving the tailpipe.
Rather than allowing that power from the engine to
be wasted while the vehicle is not moving, it is used
by the small motor to generate electricity to
recharge battery-pack. This same method will also
occur when more heat is needed for the heater to
keep you warm.
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Stand-By or Gliding
This is the state of the system at rest but still on.

You’ll see it when power to the wheels isn’t
needed; that’s both when the vehicle is stopped and
when it is gliding. The engine may be idling or off.
4.27 Brake Systems in Cars
Over the last few weeks, we have covered various parts of the car, including transmission,
suspensions and engine fluids. While transmission is connected to accelerating and moving the
car, and suspensions are related to a smooth drive, another key system is the braking system, which
as we all know serves to stop the car. Today we check out the car’s braking system. Do share your
comments and feedback.
Brakes are one the key parts of any vehicle, without which it is virtually not possible to use the
vehicle for travel. Clearly, a brake, which serves to slow down the vehicle, should not be too weak.
But interestingly, when designing a brake system, it should also be taken care that it’s not too
efficient. A too strong a brake would expose us continuously to the ill effects of a sudden brake
application in bus or car. If a vehicle is stopped abruptly or strongly, the passenger may hit the
front seat or whatever is there. Hence, too efficient a brake system is not required!
The braking system is strongly relation to Newton’s laws of motion. Indeed, the above
phenomenon is linked to Newton’s second law of motion, which states “A body continues to be in
its state of rest or of motion unless external force acts on the same”.
On the other hand, if a brake system is too weak, the stopping distance would increase and hence
may lead to accidents. Thus, a brake system should be perfect enough to stop the vehicle at
minimum safe distance, without affecting the comfort of the passenger. In an endeavour to achieve
this there have been a lot of developments in the brake system technology, right from Mechanical
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brakes to Air brakes in automobiles. In this article we would like provide the relevant information
regarding the same
4.28 Braking – fundamentals: friction and how it applies to automobiles
A brake system is designed to slow and halt the motion of vehicle. To do this, various components
within the brake system must convert vehicle’s moving energy into heat. This is done by using
friction.
Friction is the resistance to movement exerted by two objects on each other. Two forms of friction
play a part in controlling a vehicle: Kinetic or moving, and static or stationary. The amount of
friction or resistance to movement depends upon the type of material in contact, the smoothness
of their rubbing surfaces and the pressure holding them together.
Thus, in a nutshell a car brake works by applying a static surface to a moving surface of a vehicle,
thus causing friction and converting kinetic energy into heat energy. The high-level mechanics are
as follows.
As the brakes on a moving automobile are put into motion, rough-textures brake pads or brake
shoes are pressed against the rotating parts of vehicle, be it disc or drum. The kinetic energy or
momentum of the vehicle is then converted into heat energy by kinetic friction of the rubbing
surfaces and the car or truck slows down.
When vehicle comes to stop, it is held in place by static friction. The friction between surfaces of
brakes as well as the friction between tires and roads resist any movement. To overcome the static
friction that holds the car motionless, brakes are released. The heat energy of combustion of in
engine is converted into kinetic energy by transmission and drive train, and the vehicle moves.
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Fig: 4.19typical automotive
4.29 Types of brakes
There are basically three types of brakes used in automobiles
1. Mechanical brakes
2. Hydraulic brakes
3. Air Brakes and related type of brakes
Mechanical brakes
Mechanical brakes are used in Hand brakes (or parking brakes). Here, a lever is provided near the
driver seat and through steel wire connections it is connected to brakes at the rear of the vehicle.
When the hand brake is engaged, tension is created at the brakes and the brake shoe holds the drum
from rotating and hence the movement of the vehicle is restricted, even if parked in a slightly
inclined surface.
Hydraulic brakes
The hydraulic brake system uses brake fluid to transfer pressure from the brake pedal to the pads
or shoe. By exercising the pedal, brake fluid transfers this pressure to the brake pads. This transfer
of pressure is reliable and consistent because liquids are not compressible, i.e. pressure applied to
liquid in a closed system is transmitted by the liquid equally to every other part of system.
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Fig: 4.20 A hydraulic brake system
A hydraulic brake system apart from liquid pipes mainly consists of Brake pedal, Master cylinder,
wheel cylinder and brake pads/shoe connected at the wheel. The function of the Master cylinder is
to distribute pressure to lines leading to front or rear wheels as required. At the wheel cylinder, a
small piston is provided which is operated due to pressure application through brake fluid. The
operation of the piston is converted to movement of brake liners.
In brief, when a driver applies pressure at the brake pedal, the mechanical force (stepping of driver
on pedal) is changed to hydraulic pressure which is transmitted through liquid to respective wheel
cylinder and changed back to mechanical force (operation of brake pads, shoe).
4.30 Power Brakes
Power brakes are nothing more than a standard hydraulic brake system with a booster located
between the brake pedal and master cylinder to help activate the brakes. This could be in case the
fluid pressure required would be too high.
There are two basic types of power assisted mechanisms used, vacuum assisted and hydraulic
assisted.
Vacuum assisted system use engine vacuum pressure to help apply the brakes.
Hydraulic assist is largely found on heavy vehicles. This system uses hydraulic pressure developed
by the power steering pump or other external pump to help apply the brakes.
Air brakes
Air brake system consist of components like air compressor, air reserve tank, check valves, safety
valves etc. The working is very similar to the working of hydraulic brakes. The key difference is
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that mechanical force is transmitted to wheel ends through air pressure, instead of fluid pressure.
Airbrakes are most preferred in heavy vehicles.
4.31 Disc vs Drum Brakes
Another brake classification is in terms of disc and drum. This refers to the actual mechanics of
slowing down the vehicle. Let us take a look at these two systems.
4.32 Drum brakes
A drum brake assembly consists of a cast-iron drum which is bolted to and rotates with the
vehicle’s wheel, and a fixed backing plate to which the shoes, wheel cylinder, automatic adjusters
and linkages are attached. Additionally, there might be some extra hardware for parking brakes.
Fig: 4 21 Drum brakes
The shoes are surfaced with friction linings, which contact the inside of drum when brakes are
applied. The shoes are forced outward by piston located inside the wheel cylinder. As drum rubs
against shoes, the energy of the moving drum is transformed to heat. This heat energy is passed
into the atmosphere. When brake pedal is released, hydraulic pressure drops and the shoes are
pulled back to their unapplied position by return springs.
4.33 Disc brakes
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In disc brakes the friction elements are in the form of pads, which are squeezed or clamped about
the edge of a rotating wheel. With automotive disc brakes, there is a separate wheel unit called the
Rotor (commonly called as disc) alongside the vehicle’s wheel. This rotor is made of cast iron.
Since pads clamp against both sides of it, both sides are machined smooth. Usually the two surfaces
are separated by a finned center section for better cooling (such rotors are called ventilated rotors
or in common words as ventilated discs).The pads are attached to metal shoes, which are actuated
by pistons, the same as with drum brakes.
The pistons are contained within a caliper assembly, housing the wraps around the edge of the
rotor. The caliper is kept from rotating by way of bolts holding it to the car’s suspension frame
work.
Fig: 4.22 Disc brakes
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Unlike shoes in a drum brake, the pads here act perpendicular to the rotation of disc when brakes
are applied. The effect is different from that produced in a brake drum, where frictional drag
actually pulls the shoe in to drum. Disc brakes are said to be non-energised and so require more
force to achieve the same braking effort. For this reason, they are ordinarily used in conjunction
with power brake unit.
In general, disc brakes are considered to be more effective than drum brakes. However, they are
more complicated and hence come at a higher cost
4.34Stop Light Switches
When ex ercising a brake, light starts burning on the back of the vehicle. The stop light switch and
mounting bracket assembly is attached to the brake pedal bracket and is thus activated by pressing
the brake pedal.
4.35 Brake bleeding
Fluids cannot be compressed, however gases are compressible. If there is any air in a fluid brake
hydraulic system, this will be compressed as pressure increases. This action reduces the amount of
force that can be transmitted by the fluid. This is why it is important to keep all bubbles out of the
hydraulic system. To do this, air must be released from brakes. This procedure is called bleeding
of brake system.
The simple procedure involves forcing of fluid through brake lines and out through a bleeder valve
or bleeder screw. The fluid eliminates any air that may be in the system. Bleeder screws and valves
are fastened to wheel cylinder or caliper. The bleeder must be cleaned. A drain hose is then
connected from bleeder to glass jar where the fluid coming out from bleeder valve is collected.
Bleeding involves repetition of procedure at each wheel to ensure complete bleeding.
Meanwhile, one person should also be assigned to top up the fluid level in container over master
cylinder to compensate for the fluid taken out through valves. If top up is not continued, then there
are chances of air bubbles being developed in system which further delays the process.
4.36 Antilock Braking system
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When a driver quickly and firmly applies the brake and holds the pedal down, the brakes of a
vehicle that is not equipped with ABS will almost immediately lock the wheels. The vehicle slides
rather than rolls to a stop. During this time, the driver also has a difficult time keeping the vehicle
straight and the vehicle might skid out of control. Here, the skidding and lack of control is caused
by locking the wheels. If the driver could release the brake pedal just before the wheel locked up
and then reapply brakes, the skidding could be avoided.
This last thing is exactly what an antilock system does. When the brake pedal is pumped or pushed,
the pressure is quickly applied and released at the wheels. This is called Pressure Modulation.
Pressure modulation works to prevent wheel locking. Antilock brake systems can modulate
pressure to the brakes as often as 15 times per second. By modulating the pressure to brakes, the
friction between tires and road is maintained and vehicle is able to come to a controllable stop.
Steering is another important consideration for the use of ABS. As long as a tire does not slip, it
goes only in the direction in which it is tilted. But once it skids, it has little or no directional
stability. One big advantage of ABS, therefore is the ability to keep control of vehicle under all
conditions.
3.37 Trouble shooting
The table below gives the list of frequent troubles with brake systems, cause and remedy for the
same.
Sl
Problem Probable cause Remedy
no
Check and replace wheel

Oil soaked Brake drum/liner
cylinder,liners
Loss of brake
1
efficiency Worn out brake lining Replace
Defective master cylinder Service/replace
Brake shoe retracting springs weak Replace

2 Brake binding
Defective wheel cylinder Replace
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As in brake binding and with

3 Brake overheating Replace
prolonged usage
Wrong brake adjustment Adjust

4 Brake Judder
Loose lining rivets Replace
Improper adjustment of linings Adjust

Vehicle pulling to
5
one side
Oil or grease settled onliners Replace
Hand brakes
6 Stretching of operating cable Replace
ineffective
Excessive loss of Leaking master cylinder or wheel

7 Service/replace
brake fluid cylinder or hose joints
Excessive air
8 Defective master cylinder Replace
bubbles
4.38 Fly Wheels
Regenerative brakes may seem very hi-tech, but the idea of having "energy-saving Reservoirs" in
machines is nothing new. Engines have been using energy-storing devices called flywheels
virtually since they were invented.
The basic idea is that the rotating part of the engine incorporates a wheel with a very heavy metal
rim, and this drives whatever machine or device the engine is connected to. It takes much more
time to get a flywheel-engine turning but, once it's up to speed, the flywheel stores a huge amount
of rotational energy. A heavy spinning flywheel is a bit like a truck going at speed: it has huge
momentum so it takes a great deal of stopping and changing its speed takes a lot of effort. That
may sound like a drawback, but it's actually very useful. If an engine supplies power erratically,
the flywheel compensates, absorbing extra power and making up for temporary lulls, so the
machine or equipment it's connected to is driven more smoothly.
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It's easy to see how a flywheel could be used for regenerative braking. In something like a bus or
a truck, you could have a heavy flywheel that could be engaged or disengaged from the
transmission at different times. You could engage the flywheel every time you want to brake so it
soaked up some of your kinetic energy and brought you to a halt. Next time you started off, you'd
use the flywheel to return the energy and get you moving again, before disengaging it during
normal driving. The main drawback of using flywheels in moving vehicles is, of course, their extra
weight. They save you energy by storing power you'd otherwise squander in brakes, but they also
cost you energy because you have to carry them around all the time.
The transfer of energy in both directions (captured from the driveline during coasting and braking,
and released to the driveline for boost) is managed through a CVT (Continuously Variable
Transmission) gear box. Packaged inside a single housing is a shaft mounted flywheel that is
connected via a chain/gear or belt/pulley drive to a series of discs and rollers (the CVT). During
braking and coasting, the flywheel spools-up (accelerates as it spins) and absorbs a storehouse of
otherwise wasted energy (heat from friction brakes). During power delivery, as the vehicle begins
to accelerate, the pent-up energy in the flywheel is released and it turns the shaft. The rollers within
the CVT can change position across the discs and either retard or augment the torque of the
spinning flywheel shaft much like a conventional step-up or step-down gear box. This “gearing”
is necessary, because unlike aircraft, and to a certain extent watercraft, which travel at a relatively
constant load and speed, earth-bound vehicles travel at regularly and greatly varying speeds and
loads as they negotiate traffic and topography. It is this variable output velocity that allows for
smooth power transmission from the flywheel to the driveline as the vehicle travels over the
roadway.
Advanced transmissions that incorporate hi-tech flywheels are now being used as regenerative
systems in such things as formula-1 cars, where they're typically referred to as Kinetic Energy
Recovery Systems (KERS).
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4.39 Pros of flywheel systems
1) Compact weight and size - The entire system (the CVT, the flywheel and the housing) is
roughly half the weight and packaging of a battery hybrid system.
2) Twice as efficient - Battery-electric structures lose kinetic potential during the conversion of
energy from mechanical to electrical to chemical, and then back again. It’s a fundamental of the
Second Law of Thermodynamics: transforming energy from one form to another introduces losses.
Battery electrics are approximately 34 percent efficient. Flywheel drives are all mechanical and
suffer no conversion losses. Most of the energy loss that does occur comes from normal friction
between moving parts. These systems are about 70 percent efficient.
3) Lower cost - Smaller size and weight and reduced complexity make these arrangements about
one quarter the cost of a battery-electric system.
4.40 Use in compressed air
Regenerative brakes could be employed in compressed air cars to refill the air tank during braking.
By absorbing the kinetic energy (necessary for braking), using the same for compressing the air
and reuse these compressed air while powering the car.
4.41 Regenerative Braking Using Nitilon Spring
From fig it is clear that while braking the kinetic energy is stored in form of potential energy in
spring. When the system actually demands for the acceleration this potential energy stored is given
back to the wheels to power them.
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Fig 4.23 (e) Regenerative braking using Nitilon Spring
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CHAPTER 5
5. APPLICATIONS
Some of vehicles using regenerative brake:-
1) Toyota Prius
2) Ford FUSION
3) Tesla Roadster Electric Car
4) Vectrix Electric Maxi-Scooter
5) KERS is used in F1 cars
Fig: 5.1 Ford FUSION
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CHAPTER 6
6. COMPARISIONS
6.1 Advantages of regenerative braking over conventional braking

Energy Conservation:
The flywheel absorbs energy when braking via a clutch system slowing the car down and speeding
up the wheel. To accelerate, another clutch system connects the flywheel to the drive train,
speeding up the car and slowing down the flywheel. Energy is therefore conserved rather than
wasted as heat and light which is what normally happens in the contemporary shoe/disc system.
6.2 Wear Reduction:
An electric drive train also allows for regenerative breaking which increases Efficiency and
reduces wear on the vehicle brakes.
In regenerative braking, when the motor is not receiving power from the battery pack, it resists the
turning of the wheels, capturing some of the energy of motion as if it were a generator and returning
that energy to the battery pack. In mechanical brakes; lessening wear and extending brake life is
not possible. This reduces the use of use the brake.
6.3 Fuel Consumption:
The fuel consumption of the conventional vehicles and regenerative braking

system vehicles was evaluated over a course of various fixed urban driving schedules.
The results are compared as shown in figure. Representing the significant cost saying to its owner,
it has been proved the regenerative braking is very fuel-efficient. The Delhi Metro saved around
90,000 tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) from being released into the atmosphere by regenerating
112,500 megawatt hours of electricity through the use of regenerative braking systems between
2004 and 2007. It is expected that the Delhi Metro will save over 100,000 tons of CO2 from being
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emitted per year once its phase II is complete through the use of regenerative braking. The energy
efficiency of a conventional car is only about 20 percent, with the remaining 80 percent of its
energy being converted to heat through friction. The miraculous thing about regenerative braking
is that it may be able to capture as much as half of that wasted energy and put it back to work. This
could reduce fuel consumption by 10 to 25 percent. Hydraulic regenerative braking systems could
provide even more impressive gains, potentially reducing fuel use by 25 to 45 percent.
6.4 Braking is not total loss:
Conventional brakes apply friction to convert a vehicle’s kinetic energy into heat. In energy terms,
therefore, braking is a total loss: once heat is generated, it is very difficult to reuse. The
regenerative braking system, however, slows a vehicle down in a different way.
6.5 Comparison of Dynamic brakes and Regenerative brakes
Dynamic brakes ("rheostatic brakes" in the UK), unlike regenerative brakes, dissipate the electric
energy as heat by passing the current through large banks of variable resistors. Vehicles that use
dynamic brakes include forklifts, Diesel-electric locomotives, and streetcars. This heat can be used
to warm the vehicle interior, or dissipated externally by large radiator-like cowls to house the
resistor banks.
The main disadvantage of regenerative brakes when compared with dynamic brakes is the need to
closely match the generated current with the supply characteristics and increased maintenance cost
of the lines. With DC supplies, this requires that the voltage be closely controlled. Only with the
development of power electronics has this been possible with AC supplies, where the supply
frequency must also be matched (this mainly applies to locomotives where an AC supply is
rectified for DC motors).
A small number of mountain railways have used 3-phase power supplies and 3- phase induction
motors. This results in a near constant speed for all trains as the motors rotate with the supply
frequency both when motoring and braking.
6.6 Why Regenerative Brakes are assisted with the Frictional Brake??
Page 53
Traditional friction-based braking is used in conjunction with mechanical regenerative braking for
the following reasons:
The regenerative braking effect drops off at lower speeds; therefore the friction brake is still
required in order to bring the vehicle to a complete halt. Physical locking of the rotor is also
required to prevent vehicles from rolling down hills.
The friction brake is a necessary back-up in the event of failure of the regenerative brake.
Most road vehicles with regenerative braking only have power on some wheels (as in a two-
wheel drive car) and regenerative braking power only applies to such wheels, so in order to provide
controlled braking under difficult conditions (such as in wet roads) friction based braking is
necessary on the other wheels.
The amount of electrical energy capable of dissipation is limited by either the capacity of the
supply system to absorb this energy or on the state of charge of the battery or capacitors. No
regenerative braking effect can occur if another electrical component on the same supply system
is not currently drawing power and if the battery or capacitors are already charged. For this reason,
it is normal to also incorporate dynamic braking to absorb the excess energy.
Under emergency braking it is desirable that the braking force exerted be the maximum allowed
by the friction between the wheels and the surface without slipping, over the entire speed range
from the vehicle's maximum speed down to zero. The maximum force available for acceleration
is typically much less than this except in the case of extreme high-performance vehicles. Therefore,
the power required to be dissipated by the braking system under emergency braking conditions
may be many times the maximum power which is delivered under acceleration. Traction motors
sized to handle the drive power may not be able to cope with the extra load and the battery may
not be able to accept charge at a sufficiently high rate. Friction braking is required to absorb the
surplus energy in order to allow an acceptable emergency braking performance.
For these reasons there is typically the need to control the regenerative braking and match the
friction and regenerative braking to produce the desired total braking output.
Page 54
CHAPTER7
CONCLUSION
The beginning of the 21st century could very well mark the final period in which internal
combustion engines are commonly used in cars. Already automakers are moving toward
alternative energy carriers, such as electric batteries, hydrogen fuel and even compressed air.
Regenerative braking is a small, yet very important, step toward our eventual independence from
fossil fuels. These kinds of brakes allow batteries to be used for longer periods of time without the
need to be plugged into an external charger. These types of brakes also extend the driving range
of fully electric vehicles. In fact, this technology has already helped bring us cars like the Tesla
Roadster, which runs entirely on battery power. Sure, these cars may use fossil fuels at the
recharging stage -- that is, if the source of the electricity comes from a fossil fuel such as coal --
but when they're out there on the road, they can operate with no use of fossil fuels at all, and that's
a big step forward. When you think about the energy losses incurred by battery-electric hybrid
systems, it seems plausible to reason that efficient flywheel hybrids would soon become the norm.
But of course it’s not quite so black and white, and further analysis shows that a combination of
battery-electric and flywheel energy storage is probably the ideal solution for hybrid vehicles.
As designers and engineers perfect regenerative braking systems, they will become more and more
common. All vehicles in motion can benefit from utilizing regeneration to recapture energy that
would otherwise be lost.
Page 55
REFERENCES
[1] H. Ren, Y. Jianbo and W. Rencai, “The improvement of electric vehicle hybrid braking system
control strategy”, Journal of Jiangsu University, vol. 2, no. 34, (2013).
[2] M. Mourad, “Improving the performance of a hybrid electric vehicle by utilization regenerative
braking energy of vehicle”, International Journal of Energy and Environment, vol. 1, no. 2, (2011).
[3] W. Meng, S. Zechang, Z. Guirong and C. Peng, “The maximization impact factors analysis of
the electric vehicle braking energy recovery”, Journal of Tongji University, vol. 4, no. 40, (2012).
[4] T. Peng and S. Jun, “The analysis and simulation of the electric vehicle drive system
regenerative braking characteristics”, Mobile Power Supply and Vehicles, vol. 4, (2006).
[5] W. Meng, S. Zechang, Z. Guirong and C. Peng, “The research of electric vehicle braking
energy recovery system”, The Journal of Agricultural machinery, vol. 2, no. 43, (2012).
International Journal of Hybrid Information Technology Vol.9, No.1 (2016) 90 Copyright ⓒ 2016
SERSCs
[6] D. Michael, B. Theodore and L. Henning, “Investigating possible fuel economy bias due to
regenerative braking in testing HEV on 2WD and 4WD chassis dynamometers”, SAE Transaction,
vol. 4, no. 114, (2005).
[7] G. Jingang, W. Junping and C. Bingang, “Brake-force distribution strategy for electric vehicle
based on maximum energy recovery”, Journal of Xi’an Jiao Tong University, vol. 5, no. 42, (2008).
[8] S. Hano and M. J. Hakiai, “New challenges for brake and modulation systems in hybrid electric
vehicles and electric vehicles”, SAE, vol. 10, (2011).
[9] P. Dong, Y. Chenliang and Z. Jianwu, “Braking control strategy study for hybrid electric
vehicle with braking torque dynamic distribution”, Journal of system simulation, vol. 22, no. 19,
(2007).
Page 56
[10] Z. Yajun and Y. Panpan, “Modeling and simulation of regenerative braking system for pure
electric vehicle”, Journal of Wuhan University of Technology, vol. 15, no. 32, (2010).
[11] Q. Jiaxi, A. Guoqiang and H. Jianhui, “Research on the battery simulation system of electric
vehicles”, Journal of shanghai Jiaotong University, vol. 8, no. 43, (2009).
[12] G. Yanan, “Analysis of Electric Vehicle Braking Energy Recovery System”, Journal of
Zaozhuang University, vol. 5, no. 30, (2013).
Page 57

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Regenerative Braking System

CHAPTER2. Basic idea of Regenerative brakes

CHAPTER3. Basic elements of the system

CHAPTER4. Different types of Regenerative braking

1.1 Need For Regenerative Brakes

Fig:1.1 (a): Graphical Representation of Energy usage of two vehicles

2. BASIC IDEA OF REGENERATIVE BRAKES

Fig : 2.1 (b): Basic idea of Regenerative brakes

2.1 The Motor as a generator

3. BASIC ELEMENTS OF THE SYSTEM

3.1 Energy Storage Unit (ESU):

1) To recover & store braking energy

2) To absorb excess engine energy during light load operation

The selection criteria for effective energy storage include:

I. High specific energy storage density

II. High energy transfer rate

III. Small space requirement

3.2 Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT):

3.4 Regenerative Brake Controllers

4. Different Types Of Regenerative Braking System

4.1. Electric Regenerative braking

Fig: 4.1 The main components of this system Engine Motor/Generator

4.2 Electronic control system

Fig: 4.2 showing energy consumption from battery.

Fig :4.3 showing charging of battery when brake applied.

4.3. Hydraulic Regenerative Brakes

Hydrostatic Regenerative Braking (HRB) system uses electrical/electronic

Fig. 4.4 (d) Hydraulic Regenerative Brake (HRB)

4.5 Regenerative Braking

4.6 Friction in Hybrids

4.7 Frictional Losses in Conventional Cars

Fig 4.5 Frictional Losses in Conventional Cars

Fig: 4.6 Conventional Cars

4.8 Reclaiming Energy in a Hybrid

4.9 Transferring Torque Back to the Motor

4.10 Regenerative Braking Circuits

4.12 Regenerative Braking Controllers

4.13 Regenerative Braking And Flywheels

4.14 Hybrid Regenerative Braking

Fig:4.9 idea of regenerative braking

4.15 Hydraulic Regenerative Braking

4,16 Regenerative Braking Efficiency

Fig: 4.10 regenerative braking

4.17 Regenerative Braking Diagram

Fig: 4.11 Brake system components

 Mechanical advantage (leverage)

4.18 How Disc Brakes Work

Fig: 4.12 Disc Brakes

4.19 Disc Brake Basics

Here is the location of the disc brakes in a car:

The main components of a disc brake are:

 The brake pads

Fig:4.13 Disc Brake Basics

4.20 Parts of a disc brake

4.14 Disc brake vents

4.15 Disc Brake

4.22 What Are Hybrid Vehicles

4.23 Parallel hybrids

Fig: 4.15 How a parallel hybrid works.

4.24 Series hybrids

Fig: 4.16 A series hybrid.

4.25 Plug-in hybrids

Fig: 4.17 A plug-in hybrid.