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Response of plants
Types of plant chemical defences:

 Alkaloids

o Make plants taste bitter to deter herbivores


 Pheromones

o Released from one plant and affect another


 Tannins

o Toxic to microorganisms/herbivores
o Make the leaf taste unpleasant

Types of plant responses:

 Tropism

o Directional growth responses

 Phototropism

o Shoots grow towards light


o Flowers turn towards light source
o Enables them to photosynthesise
 Geotropism

o Roots grow towards the pull of gravity


o Anchors them in the soil
o Helps them to take up water as a raw material
 Chemotropism

o Occurs on flowers
o Pollen tubes grow down the style towards ovaries
o They are attracted by chemicals
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 Thigmotropism

o Shoots out of climbing plants wind around other plants


o Gain support

Response to the Environment

 Hormones co-ordinate plant response


 Produced in a variety of cells

o Not in endocrine glands


o Often known as plant growth regulators
 Hormones move around the plant

o Diffusion
o Active transport
o Mass flow in phloem and xylem

Nastic response = a non-directional response to stimuli, e.g. thigmonasty


- Mimosa pudica plant responds to touch by folding its leaves.
Plants are capable of producing a range of hormones. Some are synergic and
amplify each other's’ effects. Others are antagonistic and oppose each other's’
effects. There are many kinds
Auxins

 Responsible for regulating plant growth


 Inhibits the growth of side shoots
 Inhibits leaf abscission
 Action:

o Causes cell elongation


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o Increases stretchiness of cell wall by increasing the AT of


hydrogen ions
o ATPase enzyme moves more ions through the plasma membrane,
into the cell wall
o Low pH allows wall loosening enzymes to work
o These break bonds in the cellulose, allowing the cells to expand

Cytokines

 Promote cell division

Gibberellins

 Promotes seed germination


 Promotes growth of stems

Abscisic Acid

 Inhibits seed germination


 Causes stromal closure when the plant is water stressed

Ethene

 Promotes fruit ripening

Plant Growth

 Growth occurs by 2 process in the meristem tissue

o Cell elongation
o Cell division
 Apical Meristems are located behind shoots and are responsible for
shoots getting longer
 Lateral bud meristems are found in buds and give rise to shoots
 Lateral meristems are found near the outside of shoots and root and
make them wider
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 2 cell walls are formed

o Primary does not have uniformly arranged fibres


o Secondary has uniformly arranged fibres

Auxin

 Cell elongation
 Inhibit growth of side-shoots

Cause of Phototropism

 Shoot bends towards a light source


 Shaded side elongates faster than the lit side
 Light causes cells to actively unload IAA
 Unloaded from cells in light, towards those in shade
 Causes the shoot to bend

Leaf Loss

 Cytokinins stop the leaves of deciduous plants from senescing (turning


brown and dying)

o Makes sure the leaf acts as a sink from phloem transport


o Guaranteed to have a good supply of nutrients
 If cytokinin production drops, so will the supply of nutrient and
senescence will begin
 Process:

o Leaf senescence causes auxin production at the top of the leaf to


stop
o Makes abscission zone more susceptible to ethene
o Drop in auxin production causes an increase in ethane production
o Increases production of the enzyme cellulose

 Digests walls of cells in the abscission zone


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 Causes petiole to separate from stem

Gibberellin concentration in tall and dwarf pea plants compared

 Higher in tall plants

Grafted a plant which has the enzyme, but no gibberellins onto a normal
plant

 Plant grows tall


 Does not have its own gibberellins
 Uses those from the normal plant and its own enzymes

Auxins

 Used as a rooting powder for cuttings


 Can promote the growth of seedless fruit in unpollinated flowers
 Artificial auxins can be used as herbicides
 Promote and inhibit fruit drop

Gibberellins

 Fruit Production

o Delays senescence
o Make fruit last longer on shop shelves
 Brewing

o Barley seeds germinate, with amylase breaking down stored


starch into maltose
o Genes for amylase production are turned on by gibberellins
o Adding gibberellins can speed the process
o Malt is produced by drying and grinding the seeds
 Sugar Production

o Sugar canes sprayed with gibberellins


o Stimulates growth between the nodes
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o Sugar is stored in these internode cells


o Can increase sugar yield by up to 4.5 tonnes per hectare
 Breeding

o Gibberellins speed up process


o Speed up seed production in young plants
o Inhibiting gibberellins can also make flowers short and stocky

Cytokinins

 Delay leaf senescence


 Prevent yellowing of lettuce leaves
 Help mass produce plants

o Promote bud and shoot growth


o Produces short shoot with a lot of side branches

Ethene

 Speeds up fruit ripening


 Ethene can be inhibited to prevent fruit ripening

The mammalian nervous system is commonly subdivided into 2 systems:

 Central Nervous System (CNS)


 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

CNS

 Made up of grey matter and white matter


 Myelin makes the fibres appear white
 Involves only the brain and spinal cord

PNS

 Contains all the nerves that are not in CNS


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 This includes motor nerves which can be subdivided:

o Somatic Motor Neurons

 Carry impulses from CNS to skeletal muscles which are


under conscious control
 Voluntary - e.g. muscle locomotion
 Most neurons are myelinated
 Connections only ever consist of one neuron
o Autonomic Motor Neurons

 Carry impulses from the CNS to cardiac muscle, smooth


muscle in the gut wall, blood vessels, glands and bladder
 All of these are under unconscious control
 Involuntary - e.g. intestinal smooth muscle contractions
 Most neurons are non-myelinated
 Connections can consist of more than one neuron

 Connect at a ganglion

Autonomic Nervous System

 Involuntary part of the PNS

 Can be further subdivided:

o Sympathetic

 Prepares us for vigorous activity


 Fight or flight response

 Involves noradrenaline
 Motor neurons are connected by ganglia

 Same signal can stimulate many motor neurons in


different organs
o Parasympathetic
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 Relaxing responses

 Involves acetylcholine
 Maintains a suitable state for non-threatening conditions

The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems each have their own
neurons. The two systems are antagonistic.

 They have opposite effects on an unconscious process

o Parasympathetic nerves increase blood flow to the gut wall


o Sympathetic nerves decrease blood flow to the gut during vigorous
exercise

Effects on Heart

 Parasympathetic

o Heart rate slowed


o Less blood needed
 Sympathetic

o Heart rate increases


o Much more blood and oxygen needed

Effects on Salivary Glands

 Parasympathetic

o Saliva production stimulated


o Food can be eaten in non-stressful situations
 Sympathetic

o Saliva production inhibited


o Feeding not the main priority
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Effects on Iris

 Parasympathetic

o Circular muscles contract


o Pupil constricts
 Sympathetic

o Radial muscles contract


o Pupil dilates
o Better image

EXAM TIP
While the sympathetic nervous system stars in the fight or flight response, it is constantly acting
homeostasis. In its total absence, we would have dangerously low blood pressure, heart rate, and
chronically inadequate blood supply.
Cerebrum

 Largest part
 Involved in ‘higher’ brain activities
 Divided into 2 hemispheres

o Left side controls muscles on the right side of the body


 Connected via corpus callosum
 Outermost layer is highly folded

o Consists of a thin layer of nerve cell bodies known as the cerebral


cortex

Cerebral Cortex

 Subdivided

o Sensory Areas

 Receive impulses indirectly from receptors


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o Association Areas

Compare input with previous experiences to interpret and judge



response
o Motor Areas

 Sends impulses to effectors

Cerebellum

 Contains over half of all nerve cells


 Inputs into the cerebral cortex

o Fine tunes the effectors response


 Tensioning of muscles in order to manipulate tools effectively
 Input is unconscious

o Muscle memory
 Processes information from:

o Balance organs of the inner ear


o Retina
o Joints
o Muscle spindle fibres
 Controls co-ordination of movement and posture

Medulla Oblongata

 Controls:

o Action of smooth muscle in the gut


o Breathing movements
o Heart rate
 Regulatory centre for vital processes found here:

o Cardiac centre
o Respiratory Centre
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Hypothalamus

 Controls the autonomic nervous system and endocrine glands


 Controls most of the homeostatic mechanisms

Pituitary Gland

 Not part of the brain


 Attached at the base
 Endocrine gland
 Secrete a variety of hormones

Reflex actions are responses to external stimuli that do not require conscious
coordination. They are immediate responses and their rapidity is achieved by
bypassing the brain between sensation and reaction. The brain is informed
afterwards about the stimulus/reflex.

Sensory neurone -> relay neurone in spinal cord -> motor neuron

Blinking reflex

 Passes through part of brain - is cranial reflex


 Receptor and effector in same place
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o Therefore called a reflex arc


 Stimuli:

o Foreign body touching eye (corneal reflex)


o Sudden increase in light intensity (optical reflex)
o Sudden movements close to eye
o Loud noise

Knee jerk reflex

 Passes through spinal cord - is a spinal reflex


 When tendons connecting quadriceps with patella are tapped, they
stretch
 When they stretch, they pull the quadriceps muscle
 The quadriceps muscle senses risk of over-stretch

o Detected by muscle spindles


 Reflex is to contract the muscle immediately
 Causing knee jerk reaction

Significance for survival

 Reflexes are key to survival


 Provide effective protection from dangerous positioning/posture or
incoming threats
 E.g. when you touch a hot object, you withdraw your hand - this is a
reflex that prevents you from getting burnt

The body frequently employs the use of both the nervous and endocrine
systems to achieve a common goal. The two systems can easily be used to
amplify each other. The fight or flight responseis a good example of the
body’s ability to do this.

The term ‘fight or flight’ refers to a set of physiological changes which occur in
the body when danger is detected, and we need to either run away or fight it.
It is a function of the sympathetic nervous system and incorporates several
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hormones as well.

 Combined nervous and hormonal response

o Pupils dilate, making retina more sensitive to e.g. motion


o Heart rate and blood pressure increase

 Equips muscles with optimal oxygen supply and waste


removal
o Arterioles to digestive system and skin constrict

 Blood re-directed to muscles - prioritised organs during


fight or flight
o Arterioles to muscles and liver dilate
o Blood glucose increases

 Ready to deliver respiratory substrate to muscles


o Metabolic rate increases
o Erector pili muscles contract

 Consequence of adrenaline - sign of aggression


o Ventilation rate and depth increases
o Endorphins released by the brain

 Higher pain threshold


o Sweat production increases

Co-ordination of Changes

 Perception of threat comes from visual or auditory stimuli


 Signals sent to the brain by sensory receptors
 Information enters the cerebral cortex and person is consciously
aware of the threat
 Cerebral cortex activates the hypothalamus, stimulating activity in
the sympathetic nervous system
 Nervous impulse sent through sympathetic nerve to the adrenal
glands, near the kidneys
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 Triggers the release of adrenaline - main hormone involved in fight or


flight

o Medulla also secretes noradrenaline, which works with


adrenaline
 Hypothalamus also releases corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) into
the pituitary gland

o Stimulates the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)


o Stimulates hormones which help the body to resist stressors
o These are stimuli that can cause a stress response

Cardiac (heart) muscle is myogenic. This means it can initiate its own contractions.
It achieves this with its own pacemaker: the sinoatrial node (SAN):

 SAN initiates action potential independently of cranial input


 Sends a wave of excitation over the atrial walls and through the AVN
 Conducted down the Purkinje fibres to the ventricles
 Causes ventricles to contract

Supplied with nerves from the medulla oblongata

 Found at the base of the brain


 Region of the brain that co-ordinates the unconscious functions of the body
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 Nerves connect to the SAN


 Nerves can affect the frequency of the contractions

Heart muscle responds to the presence of the hormone adrenaline

 Beats faster
 Beats stronger: myocytes contract with greater contractile force

Nodes

 The heart has 2 main nodes that contain nerve cells

o Sinoatrial node
o Atrioventricular node

Controlling Heart Beat

 SAN sends an electrical impulse over the atrial walls


 Causes atria to contract
 Conducted to AVN, where the electrical wave of excitation is conducted
down the Purkinje fibres
 Causes the ventricles to contract
 Layer of insulation exists between the atria and ventricles to prevent the first
wave of impulse from the SAN from travelling all the way down
 This layer causes a pause at the AVN

Rate of Initiation

 Controlled by:

o Nerves that run from the brain


o Hormones in the blood
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 E.g. – Adrenaline

Nerves

 Vagus Nerve

o Sends signals to decrease heart rate


 Acceleratory Nerve

o Sends signals to increase heart rate


 Both nerves connect to the medulla oblongata in the brain

Medulla Oblongata

 Involved in many unconscious functions of the brain including breathing and


heart rate
 Specific regions of the medulla oblongata sense factors that require a change
in heart rate
 Cardiovascular centre can sense things like changes in carbon dioxide levels

Interaction between control mechanisms

 Resting conditions

o Heart rate controlled by SAN


o Set frequency
o Typically 60-80 beats per minute
o Frequency of excitation waves can be controlled by the cardiovascular
centre in the medulla oblongata

Factors affecting heart rate

 Movement

o Limb movement is detected by stretch receptors in muscles


o Impulses sent to the cardiovascular centre
o Informs that oxygen is needed
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o Increases heart rate

 Exercise

o Muscles produce more carbon dioxide


o Carbon dioxide reacts with water in blood plasma, lowering the pH
o Drop in pH detected by chemoreceptors
o Chemoreceptors send impulses to the cardiovascular centre
o APs fired from chemoreceptors are passed to cardiovascular centre of
the medulla oblongata
o Signals sent down the accelerator nerve to increase heart rate
o Heart rate increases
o When we stop exercising concentration of carbon dioxide falls
o Reduces activity of the accelerator pathway
o Heart rate declines

 Adrenaline

o Secreted in response to stress, shock or excitement


o Presence increases heart rate
o Adrenaline binds to specific receptors on the membranes of cells in
the SAN
o Helps to prepare body for activity

 Blood Pressure

o Monitored by stretch receptors in the walls of the carotid sinus


o If blood pressure rises too high, signals are sent to the cardiovascular
centre
o Signals sent through the vagus nerve to decrease the heart rate
o Heart rate is reduced

 Artificial Pacemakers

o If the mechanism controlling heart rate fails, an artificial pacemaker


can be fitted
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o 1928

 Needle electrode that is inserted into the heart wall


 Not portable
o Device further developed
o Modern pacemakers are only 4cm long
o They are implanted underneath the skin and at of the chest
o Deliver pulses to the ventricle walls
o Deals with conditions where the AVN is not functioning but the SAN
may be

The neuromuscular junction is the site where action potentials carried by neurons
are delivered to muscle tissue to begin muscle contraction. Electrical energy is
hereby converted into kinetic energy. There are some similarities and differences
between neural synpases and neuromuscular junctions:
Synapse Neuromuscular Junction

 Neurone to
neurone
 Post synaptic
stimulation  Neurone to sarcomere
leads to AP in  Postsynaptic stimulation leads to depolarisation f sarcolemma
postsynaptic  End plate has a brush border
membrane
 Synaptic
knob is
smooth and
rounded

 Vesicles located in presynaptic cytoplasm


 Vesicles release neurotransmitter into cleft on stimulation
 Neurotransmitter diffuses across the gap and binds to postsynaptic membrane
 Binding of the neurotransmitter results in depolarisation
 Enzymes are present to degrade the neurotransmitter
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muscle Structure is highly specialised to achieve a specific function. Muscle tissue


is composed of many overlapping elongated cells which form fibres, and have the
ability to contract and relax.

Muscle

 Can be involuntary…

o Smooth muscle
o Cardiac muscle
o Controlled by autonomic nervous system
 Or voluntary..

o Skeletal muscle

Smooth Muscle

 Innervated by neurons of the ANS


 Involuntary contraction
 Does not have a striped appearance
 Spindle shape cells contain bundles of actin, myosin and a single nucleus
 Contracts and fatigues slowly
 Involved in the movement of materials along a tube

Cardiac Muscle
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 There are 3 types:

o Atrial muscle
o Ventricular muscle
o Specialised excitatory and conductive fibres
 Contract in similar way to skeletal muscle, but with longer duration of
contraction
 Some muscle fibres are myogenic

o Stimulate contraction without a nervous impulse


 Innervated by the ANS
 Sympathetic stimulation increases rate, parasympathetic decreases rate
 Made of individual cells connected in rows
 Dark areas are intercalated discs

o Cell membranes that fuses to form gap junctions


o Ions, and so Aps, are able to diffuse easily through this network of
interconnections
 Striated muscle

Skeletal Muscles

 Voluntary muscles
 Action of these muscles leads to the movement of the skeleton
 Ligaments connect bone to bone
 Tendons connect muscle to bone
 Form fibres with many nuclei
 Cell surface membrane is the sarcolemma
 Cell cytoplasm is the sarcoplasm
 Sarcoplasm contains:

o Many mitochondria
o Extensive sarcoplasmic reticulum
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o Myofibrils

 Contractile elements
 Contain smaller units called sarcomeres
 Actin and myosin filaments
 Called ‘striated muscle’ because of its striped appearance

Muscles contract using the Sliding Filament Model:

The Sarcomere

 Span from one Z-line to the next


 Z-lines closer together during contraction
 I-band and H-band are reduced
 A-band does not change in length

Structure

 I Band

o Thin actin filaments


 Z line

o Region where actin myofilaments are anchored


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 A band

o Region containing the whole length of the myosin microfilament


 M band

o Region where sarcomere connects to the skeleton


 H band

o Thick myosin filaments only

Muscle protein Filaments

 Thin Actin

o 2 strands of actin coiled around each other


o Composed of G actin subunits
o Tropomyosin molecules form around the actin, reinforcing it
o Troponin complex is attached to each tropomyosin molecule

 Consists of 3 polypeptides
 1 binds to actin
 1 binds to tropomyosin
 1 binds to calcium ions
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 Thick Myosin

o Consists of myosin
o Shaped like a golf club, with 2 heads
o Heads stick out to form the cross bridge
o Many of these myosin molecules stick together to form a thick
filament

Process of contraction

 When a muscle is at rest, Ca concentration surrounding the fibrils is very


low
 Under these conditions, tropomyosin sits in the myosin binding sites and the
contractile mechanism is ‘off’
 When the muscle is stimulated, a wave of depolarisation passes in through
the T system
 When the impulse reaches the SR it causes the release of Ca ions
 Ca concentration increases
 Ca ions bind to troponin causing it to change shape
 Tropomyosin moves out of the myosin binding site on the actin filaments
 Actin is now ‘on’
 ATP binds to the myosin and is hydrolysed to ADP and Pi, both of which
remain bound to the myosin head
 Pi is released, changing the shape of the myosin head and allowing it to form
cross-bridges
 ADP is released causing the myosin head to tilt and pull the actin filament
over the myosin filament. This is the power stroke.
 At the end of the power stroke, the ATP binds to the myosin head and the
cross bridges are broken
 If Ca concentration remains high, the cycle will be repeated

End of Nervous Stimulation & muscle relaxation

 ATP pump actively pumps Ca ions from the sarcoplasm to the cisternae of
the SER
 Ca ion concentration falls below the threshold level
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 Troponin is released and is bound back to Ca


 This causes the tropomyosin to go back to the myosin binding sites
 The muscle is now relaxes

ATP in Muscular Contraction

 ATP provides the energy that allows binding, tilting and releasing on the
myosin heads
 It is the force that causes muscular contraction

Maintaining ATP Supply

 Rate at which ATP is regenerate during respiration is dependent on oxygen


 Aerobic respiration leads to increased levels of lactic acid in the blood,
stimulating increased blood flow to the muscles
 Muscles contain small reserves of ATP
 ATP can be formed from creatine phosphate

o Creatine phosphate can lose a phosphate group, donating it to ADP to


form ATP
 Glycogen is stored in the muscles, but when it has been used, the liver’s
glycogen stores can be respired

Motor Unit

 Some movements require a stronger contraction than others


 Brain controls the strength of contractions
 Many neurons can stimulate a single muscle
 Each one branches to a neuromuscular junction, causing the contraction of a
cluster of muscle cells – the motor unit
 The more motor units stimulated the greater the force of contraction
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Homeostasis is the regulation of internal environments independently of external


environments
These include:

 Temperature
 Blood glucose concentration
 Blood salt concentration
 Water content
 Blood pressure
 Blood carbon dioxide partial pressure (blood pH)

Negative Feedback

 Reversal of a change in the environment to return to the optimum position


 Receptor detects the change
 Communication systems inform the effectors
 The effector reacts to reverse the change
 Eg: maintaining blood pressure
 Pathway:
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Positive Feedback

 Response causes change to increase


 Destabilizes the system
 Usually more harmful
 Does not lead to homeostasis
 Can be useful in certain situation
 Eg: childbirth - uterine contractions
 Pathway:

The kidney’s role is to filter blood and remove excess ions/water to produce urine.
The functional unit of the kidney is the nephron.
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The nephrons spread across the cortex and medulla of the kidney. Blood enters the
organ via the renal artery and exits via the renal vein. In between, it passes through
tiny capillaries that surround the continuous tube constituting the nephron.
Function

 Filter out waste products

Structure

 Bowman’s Capsule

o Ultrafiltration unit
o Filters blood
o Separates large particles from small particles
 Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)

o Involved in selective reabsorption


o Re-absorbs valuable substances, such as glucose
 Loop of Henle

o Creates low water potential in the medulla


o Allows water to be reabsorbed
 Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)

o Involved in osmoregulation
o Varies the amount of water reabsorbed into the blood

Blood vessels
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 Glomerulus

o Site of filtration
o Tight, knot-like, high pressure capillary bed
 Afferent arteriole

o Brings blood from the renal artery


 Efferent arteriole

o Narrow vessel that restricts blood flow


o Raises blood pressure
 Peri-tubular capillaries

o Low pressure capillary bed


o Runs around the convoluted tubules
o Absorbs fluid from them
 Vasa Recta

o Un-branched capillaries
o Similar in shape to the Loop of Henle
o Descending limb carries blood deep into the medulla
o Ascending limb brings blood back to the cortex
 Venule

o Carry blood to the renal vein


o Blood carried to the heart
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Composition of Fluid through nephron

 PCT

o In the PCT fluid composition is altered by reabsorption of all sugars,


most salts and water
o 85% of water is reabsorbed here
 Descending Limb

o In the descending limb the water potential is decreased

Salts added
 Water removed
 Ascending Limb

o In the ascending limb water potential is increased


o Salts are removed by active transport
 Collecting Duct

o In the collecting duct water potential is decreased again


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 Water is removed

Ultrafiltration is the process by which substances in the blood enter the


Bowman’s capsule from the glomerulus:

 Blood flows into glomerulus from the afferent arteriole


 This is wider than the efferent arteriole
 Difference in diameter ensures the blood remains under high pressure

o Pressure in the glomerulus is higher than in the Bowman’s capsule


 The barrier between the Bowman’s capsule and the capillary has three
layers:

o Endothelium of capillary

 Narrow gaps between cells


 Blood plasma and dissolved substances can pass through
o Basement membrane

 Fine mesh of collagen fibres and glycoproteins


 Acts as a filter to prevent the passage of molecules with a
RMM of over 69,000
 Most proteins are held in the capillaries of the glomerulus
o Epithelial cells of the Bowman’s capsule

 Podocytes
 Specialized shape

 Finger like projections called major processes


 Ensure gaps between cells
 Fluid from blood can pass into the lumen of the
Bowman’s capsule
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 High pressure forces some water and solutes through the basement
membrane and into the Bowman’s capsule
 This liquid is now known as the ‘glomerular filtrate’

What is left in the capillary?

 Proteins
 Blood cells
 Molecules bigger than 69,000 RMM will remain in the blood

Selective reabsorption

 As fluid moves along the nephron, substances are removed


 Sodium-Potassium pumps move sodium ions from the cells lining the PCT
into the tissue fluid
 This reduced the concentration of sodium ions in the cytoplasm
 Sodium ions are transported into the cell, along with glucose or amino acids,
by facilitated diffusion
 As the glucose and amino acid concentrations rise indies the cell, these
substances diffuse out of the opposite side of the cell into the tissue fluid
 Process may be enhanced by the active removal of glucose and amino acids
 Tissue fluids substances diffuse into the blood and are carried away
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 Reabsorption of salts, glucose and amino acids reduced the water potential
in cells and increases it in the tubule fluid
 Water will enter cells
 Larger proteins can be absorbed by endocytosis

Adaptions

 Microvilli increase surface area


 Membrane contains co-transporter proteins that transport glucose and amino
acids with sodium ions in facilitated diffusion
 Many mitochondria

Reabsorption of Water
The Loop of Henle

 Salts can be transferred from the descending limb to the ascending limb
 Increases concentration of salts in the tubule fluid
 Salts diffuse out into the surrounding medulla tissue
 Medulla tissue has a very low water potential
 Amount of water reabsorbed controls water potential of blood

Process of water reabsorption

 As the fluid moves down, the water potential falls

o Water is lost to surrounding tissue fluid


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o Sodium and chloride ions diffuse into the tubule


 As the fluid moves up the ascending limb, the water potential rises

o At the base, sodium and chloride ions diffuse out


o Sodium and chloride ions are actively transported out
o Wall of the ascending limb is impermeable to water
o Fluid loses salt, but not water, when moving up the ascending limb

Hairpin counter current multiplier

 Close arrangement of the ascending and descending limb


 Increases the efficiency of salt transfer from the ascending to descending
limb
 Salt concentrations build up in the surrounding tissue
 Movement of salts into the medulla creates a low water potential
 Removal of ions from the ascending limb means at the top, urine is dilute
 Water is then reabsorbed, according to the needs of the body

The Collecting Duct

 Fluid flowing in contains lots of water


 Carries fluid back down the collecting duct to the pelvis

EXAM TIP
You’re sure to impress examiners if you are able to clearly recall the different processes that hap
the descending and ascending limbs of the Loop of Henle.

 Tubular fluid becomes highly concentrated as it travels through the descending limb
 It becomes much more diluted as it travels back up the ascending limb

The control of water content in the blood is regulated by a negative feedback loop:

 Drop in Water in the Blood


 Brain releases antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
 ADH travels from the loop of Henle
 Cell have membrane bound receptors for ADH
 ADH binds to receptors
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 Chain of enzyme controlled reactions occurs inside the cell


 Aquaporins sent in vesicles to the cell surface membrane
 Aquaporins inserted into cell surface membrane
 Walls of collecting duct and DCT more permeable to water
 More water moves into the medulla by osmosis
 Water potential of the blood rises back to the set level
 Brain stops releasing ADH

EXAM TIP
ADH is a really important hormone involved in regulation of blood’s water potential. Make sure
triggers its release and what its overall effect is.

 Release caused by dehydration detected in the brain


 Causes the kidney to reabsorb more water
 It is subsequently released in smaller amounts because of the negative feedback loop

Causes of kidney failure:

 Diabetes mellitus
 Heart disease
 Hypertension
 Infection

Assessing kidney function/failure:

 Estimate glomerular filtrate rate (GFR)


 Achieved by measuring concentration of substances in urine
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 Presence of proteins indicates failure of the filtration of blood as they are


normally too large to enter the Bowman’s capsule

Treatment 1: Renal Transplants

 Old kidneys usually left in place


 Donor can be live or deceased
 Kidney surgically attached to blood supply and bladder
 Patient must take immunosuppressant drugs to prevent rejection

Treatment 2: Dialysis

 Waste removed from blood by passing it over a dialysis membrane


 Partially permeable membrane allows the exchange of substances between
blood and dialysis fluid
 Any excess substances diffuse out of the blood and into the dialysis fluid

Treatment 3: Haemodialysis

 Blood from an artery is passed into a machine and dialyzed


 Heparin added to avoid clotting
 Performed at a clinic
 Three times a week
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Treatment 4: Peritoneal Dialysis

 Uses filter in the abdominal membrane


 Permanent tube implanted in the abdomen
 Dialysis solution fills space between organs and membrane
 Solution drained after several hours
 Patient able to walk around
 Can be carried out at home

Excretory products can serve as an excellent indication of what is happening


in the body. Therefore, urinalysis (analysis of urine composition) is a widely
used tool in medical diagnosis.
Testing for anabolic steroids

 Anabolic steroids increase protein synthesis


 Results in build-up of cell tissue
 Can give an advantage in sports, but have dangerous side effects
 Anabolic steroids have a half-life of 16 hours
 Remain in the blood for many days
 Small molecules
 Can enter the nephron easily
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Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry

 Sample vaporized in the presence of a gaseous solvent


 Passed down a long tube lined by an absorption agent
 Each substance dissolved differently in the gas
 Remains there for a unique and specific length of time
 Eventually substance moves out of the gas and is absorbed into the
lining
 This is then analysed to create a chromatogram
 Chromatograms of standard drugs and urine samples are taken,
allowing unidentified substances to be easily identified

Pregnancy

 Once implanted, human embryos secrete a hormone called hCG


 This is a small glycoprotein
 Pregnancy tests contain monoclonal antibodies which bind to the hCG
 Any hCG in the urine will attach to antibodies tagged with a blue bead
 The hCG-antibody complex then moves up to the surface of the strip
where it sticks to a band of immobilised antibodies
 All the hCG bound antibodies are held in one place, forming a blue line
 There is always a control blue line to use as a comparison
 2 blue lines indicate pregnancy

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