Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
II (June 2006)
By Barry Peters1
The majority of missionaries worldwide are from Western countries. Arab Muslims have
shown themselves particularly resistant to the Christian message. This essay explores the
cultural differences which may contribute to the West’s inability to communicate with
Muslims. Categories explored include ways of thinking, ways of relating to other people
and ways of behaving. The unique culture of the West, differing markedly from most
other cultures throughout history, is assessed, along with the distinctive social patterns of
Arab Muslims. Relevant biblical and Qur’anic passages are brought to bear on the topic.
A way forward, the path of incarnation, is discussed.
Contents
Introduction 2
Are there any truly national characteristics? 3
Ways of thinking 5
(a) Styles of thinking
(b) Categories of thought
(c) Apolitical or political?
(d) Specialisation or Generalism?
(e) Guilt or shame?
Ways of relating to other people 9
(a) Task-oriented or person-oriented?
(b) Physical space
(c) Time
(d) Individual or collectivist?
(e) Competition or cooperation?
(f) Power distance
(g) Status
(h) The Status of Women
(i) Love versus loyalty
Ways of behaving 15
(a) Change versus tradition
(b) Freedom versus restraint
(c) Truth-telling versus dissimulation
A way forward? 19
Conclusion 19
Bibliography 20
1
A Pseudonym for a career missionary in the Arab World.
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INTRODUCTION
The last 250 years of Christian missionary endeavour have been impressive in their
results.2 From its initial concentration in Europe and North America, the Christian church
has now spread to every continent, forming the largest religious bloc world-wide and
leaving a presence of some sort in every nation. The major group of missionaries has
come from Western3 countries, which currently send out about 80% of all cross-cultural
Christian workers4. This trend is starting to change, and the future will see a greater
proportion of non-Western people involved in world mission. However it is clear that the
missions agenda of the last two and a half centuries has been set by the West.
Western missionaries have brought more than the Christian message to the
countries and communities they have evangelised. Every cross-cultural worker “goes to
another culture with a heavy load of internalized ‘cultural baggage’.”5 All societies are to
some extent ethnocentric, unaware of their own biases, and the West is no exception.
Edward Sapir has suggested that people do not live in the same world with different
labels – they live in different worlds.6 Westerners may find it more difficult than some to
unravel their worldview from their theology. Western culture exhibits the greatest
quantitative and qualitative of differences from the majority of other cultures of the
world, according to Kraft; it takes positions and advocates customs very different from
them. Thus Western missionaries find it harder to identify with and minister in the more
normal ways of life of other societies.7
The Muslim world has shown a greater resistance to the gospel than most other
religious blocs.8 In the Arab heartlands of Islam, this has been even more pronounced.9
Several reasons have been suggested for the relative lack of response of Arab Muslims to
the Christian message. Samuel Zwemer cited the theological and doctrinal stumbling-
blocks.10 Others have noted the relative lack of investment of people and resources by the
church into the Muslim world.11 A third factor may be the lack of insight that Western
2
K.S.Latourette, 923 estimates that, in 1750 AD, Hinduism, Buddhism and Confucianism may have had
more adherents worldwide than did Christianity, with Islam not far behind. Today 1 in 3 people would
identify themselves as Christian.
3
For the purpose of this essay, ‘Western’ is defined as those coming from Western Europe, including the
UK, and the English-speaking countries which derive from the UK i.e. the USA, Canada, Australia, New
Zealand and South Africa.
4
In 2000 AD, there were 336,068 missionaries (Catholic and Protestant) from North America, Europe and
Oceania out of a total of 419,524 missionaries world-wide, according to Barrett vol.1 p.843
5
Dye, 28. He continues: “Many of the things which he naturally assumes to be right, sensible, and natural
are not in fact biblical ideals at all, but simply part of his own culture. For instance, American values such
as efficiency, punctuality, and cleanliness are very important to many American Christians, though hard to
document from Scripture.”
6
Cited in Hiebert (1983), 33
7
Kraft (1996), 81.
8
Nickel, 122
9
Significant church growth has occurred among some Asian Muslims (e.g. Bangladesh and Indonesia), but
Christian expression among Arabs has generally been restricted to traditional church communities (such as
the Copts in Egypt or the Maronites in Lebanon).
10
Zwemer, 180. By contrast, McGavran (1980), 215 suggests: “The great obstacles to conversion are
social, not theological”.
11
In 1978, only 2% of Protestant Missionaries were involved in Muslim work according to The Lausanne
Occasional Paper no. 4 p.3. By 2002, this figure had risen to 6%. Guthrie, 35.
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missionaries have regarding the Muslim worldview. “In dealing with Arabs it is
imperative that Westerners have some grasp of this traditional world view, in which there
are strong subconscious motivations radically different from those of Westerners.” 12
This essay aims to explore the different worlds of the Western and Arab peoples.
This has particular importance as Western missionaries endeavour to take the good news
of Christ to Arab Muslims13.
The first question to ask is: is it feasible to try and identify common features of groups
such as Westerners and Arab Muslims? Do such national characteristics exist?
People are often stereotyped according to their national or social background. Australians
are supposed to be ‘laid back’, the English are lacking in emotion, Americans are loud,
Germans are organised, Italians emotional, and French are seen as artistic and cultured.
Needless to say, it is always easy to find individuals who do not fit these patterns. But are
there any patterns at all? The monumental work of Hofstede suggests there are definite
and measurable trends within different cultures.14 These can include beliefs as well as
practices. Patai refers to “modal personality” as having an equivalent meaning to
“national character.”15
Elmer16 places people’s values (both individual and group) into three categories:
Things they believe to be ‘right’, things they believe to be ‘wrong’, and things that are
considered ‘differences’, neither required nor condemned. These can be expressed on a
line graph as follows:
Within a family or a relatively homogeneous society, the width of each of the categories
may vary somewhat, but generally most people will agree on what is right and what is
wrong. When we compare the Western world and the Muslim world, however, we find
that the contents of the categories rarely line up at all.
The concept can be demonstrated by surveying a group of Australians and a group
of Muslim Arabs. Most Australians, for example, believe that ‘a dog is man’s best friend’
and can see the value of dogs as pets. A small minority will reject the notion of dog-
ownership on animal liberation grounds or as a reaction to world poverty and the amount
12
Matheny , 24
13
In the following discussion I have sometimes used the terms 'Arab' and 'Muslim' interchangeably. The
reality, of course, is much more complex– only 18% of Muslims are Arab, and there are about 18 million
Arab Christians. This essay is about Arab Muslims. There is much variety within this group, but it is
counted as one group for convenience. See Patai, 9-15 for a discussion on this approach.
14
Hofstede, 13-17
15
Patai, 18
16
Elmer, 23-27
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of money spent on pet food in Australia.17 Most Arabs, however, are disgusted at the
idea of dogs as pets, believing them to be unclean.18 A few who have lived in the West
might see the security advantages of a dog. When asked a question like: “Is it ever
acceptable to have a dog as a pet?”, a range of responses would occur in both groups, but
the trends would be quite different. This graph portrays the likely outcomes:19
Number of
respondents Arabs Australians
Yet with a question like, “Is it ever acceptable for a 50 year old man to marry a 14 year
old girl?”, the responses would most likely be reversed. Wealthy older man marrying
teenage girls is often observed in the Arab world, and the example of the prophet
Mohammed would be cited.20 Many Muslims would approve of this practice. Amongst
Australians, such behaviour is highly distasteful, and as well as being illegal, and those
involved are labelled as ‘sexual predators’.
It would appear, then, that some beliefs are more widely and more consistently
held in some communities than in others. Since this essay paints a sweeping picture using
a broad brush, its implications and applications must of necessity be general, rather than
specific. It reveals trend and inclination rather than accuracy and precision. Societies are
also changing. With the spread of post-modernism in the West and the decline of
traditional ways of life in the Arab world, many stereotypes are becoming even less
relevant. Differences are often portrayed in this essay as bright, discrete colours clearly
at different ends of a spectrum. The reality is much closer to a gradual blending, with
prominent hues occasionally discernible along the continuum.
17
According to AUSAID, Australia spent $1.89 billion on foreign aid compared to $1.55 billion on pet
food and pet care products in 2003. Source;
http://www.tai.org.au/WhatsNew_Files/WhatsNew/PetfoodWebpaper2.pdf accessed on 25th July 2005
18
A hadith informs them: “Once Gabriel promised the Prophet (that he would visit him, but Gabriel did
not come) and later on he said, "We, angels, do not enter a house which contains a picture or a dog.” in
Sahih el-Bukhari 4:450 cited in The Islamic Scholar Ver.3 (Johannesburg: Par Excellence, 1998) CD-
ROM
19
The writer has tested this with Australian church groups. After living overseas among Muslims and
Arabs for the past 20 years, I am reasonably certain that their response would be as indicated.
20
“By 624 Muhammad had married his youngest wife, Aisha. She was six years old when they married,
though he did not consummate the marriage until she was nine.” George Braswell, Jr. Islam: Its Prophet,
Peoples, Politics and Power (Broadman and Holman, 1996) Chapter 2 on The World of Islam ver.1.0
(Global Mapping Information, 2000) CD-ROM
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It is at the basic level of cognitive processes that several of these differences arise,
and to that topic we will now turn.
WAYS OF THINKING
21
.Hall , 9
22
Hall, 9
23
Edward Atiyeh The Arabs (Baltimore: Penguin, 1955), 96 quoted in Patai, 48
24
Fiske, 39 uses this distinction to classify two different approaches to semiotics.
25
Gannon, 13
26
The terms ‘dichotomistic’ and ‘holistic’ are from Lingenfelter & Mayers, 52ff
27
Qutb, 11
28
Hesselgrave (1978), 186
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29
Kraft (1979), 305
30
Honest Religion for Secular Man (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1966) cited in Hiebert (1999), 418
31
Broderick suggests that genetic modification may result in human immortality. Science, he believes,
could eventually cure death.
32
Ironically, the Christians of Mohammed’s time were commended for their humility (Sura 5:85)
33
Tomlinson, 309
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34
Moberg details much of this debate.
35
Ayatollah Khomeini Islam and Revolution (Berkeley: Mizan, 1980), 38 quoted in Parshall (1985), 74
36
Rushdie, 358
37
Yoder is one approach that has been taken.
38
Lechner, 329
39
“Basic Material” in The Islamic Scholar (Johannesburg: Par Excellence, 1998) Ver.3 CD-ROM
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specialisation needed for high quality technology. 40 The Arab world has often responded
to this by importing technical expertise from other countries, either the West or rapidly
developing Asian countries such as India or the Philippines.
William Smalley saw Western specialisation as a major stumbling to mission. He
comments that it is “an ironical thing that the West, which is most concerned with the
spread of Christianity in the world today, and which is financially best able to undertake
the task of worldwide evangelism, is culturally the least suited for its task because of the
way in which it has specialized itself to a point where it is very difficult for it to have an
adequate understanding of other peoples” 41 Jesus condemned those who claimed to have
insight when their own vision was severely impaired (Mt.7:3-5), and those who
concentrated so much on the details that they missed the big picture (Lk.11:42).
40
Remarkably, this has not always been the case. “In the Middle Ages, the flow of technology was
overwhelmingly from Islam to Europe, rather than from Europe to Islam as it is today. Only after around
A.D. 1500 did the net direction of flow begin to reverse.” Diamond, 253
41
William Smalley “Cultural Implications of an Indigenous Church,” in Practical Anthropology 5: 64
quoted in Kraft (1979), 306
42
Muller , 18,19
43
Pryce-Jones, 35
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44
Qutb , 72
45
Lingenfelter & Mayers, 85
46
This is known as the science of ‘proxemics’
http://www.bremercommunications.com/Proxemics_How_We_Use_Space.htm cited on 11th July, 2005
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distances. The ‘social’ space is 5 feet (1.5 m), ‘personal’ is 2 ½ feet (75 cms) and
‘intimate’ is 1 ½ feet (45 cms). 47 When an Arab physically approaches a Westerner too
closely, the latter often steps backwards into a space that feels comfortable, and so is seen
as cold, distant and withdrawing. If the Arab keeps moving closer, into a space which he
deems appropriate, he may be seen as forceful and invading.
Jesus’ ministry shows him operating in high contact mode in public (Lk.8:45) and
private (Jn.20:21) situations. He frequently touched other people, both friends (Jn.13:5)
and strangers (Lk.5:13) and was touched by them (Lk.6:19). Arab men will often walk
along the street holding hands with male companions in an open display of friendship,
with no sense of embarrassment. The ‘low-touch’ reserved style of Anglo-culture is a
stark contrast. Western missionaries may find it hard to put aside their own inhibitions to
relate physically to Arabs in culturally-appropriate ways.
(c) Time
Hiebert reports that, in Egypt, only servants turn up on time. Men of equal rank turn up
an hour late to show their independence and social status. ‘On time’ is one hour after the
appointment. 1 ½ hours is considered late. They think of American ‘on time’ as
subservient. Westerners operate on monochronic time i.e. “scheduling and completing
one activity at a time”; the Arab preference is polychronic time:“not distinguishing
between activities and completing them simultaneously.”48 These variant ways of
viewing time are a source of much misunderstanding and frustration between the two
cultures.
There is another aspect of time which is significant. “The Western Christian is
strongly future-oriented. The past is seen as outdated and, in the main, irrelevant to the
fast-breaking developments of the here and now.”49 The present can be used in ways that
will positively impact the future. It often leads to a deferred gratification syndrome. In the
secular marketplace, people are willing to endure jobs which bring little satisfaction in
order to enjoy a well-superannuated retirement. If potential pleasure is thought to be
secured, present pain can be tolerated. At a spiritual level, the Bible encourages this
outlook (2.Cor.4:16,17), since it was found even in Jesus (Heb.12:2).
To Muslims it is presumptuous in the extreme to speak of the future50, perhaps
due to a lingering fatalism. 'Whomsoever God leads astray, no guide he has; He leaves
them in their insolence blindly wandering' (Sura 7.185). “The same belief in
predestination renders the Muslim utterly devoid of presumption with regard to his future
actions, or to any future events. He never speaks of anything that he intends to do, or of
any circumstance which he expects and hopes may come to pass, without adding, “If it be
the will of God..”51 This too finds an echo in Scripture (Jam.4:13-16).
47
Hiebert (1983), 34
48
Edward Hall, cited in Gannon , 9
49
Parshall (1980) , 68
50
This was apparent from the earliest days. As Muslim armies occupied countries, they sent the tribute
back to Mecca. “The idea of depositing any portion in the treasury to be held as a reserve against
emergencies was alien to the first Caliphs. Omar looked upon the suggestion of it as blasphemous and as
implying that Allah would not provide for every contingency; he severely rebuked the man who broached
the matter.” Levy , 298
51
Edward William Lane quoted in Patai, 149
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52
Smart, 370
53
Harrison, 140. Compare Ezekiel 18:1-20 with Ex.20:5,6
54
Hall , 231
55
Smart, 538
56
Hall, 226
57
Patai, 85
58
The 'eschatological ethics' in the teaching of Paul on circumcision, slavery, and marriage in I.Cor.7.17-31
would seem to concur with this, but the idea of 'remaining in the state in which you were called’ is
given as general principle only. Paul's readers are given permission to change if desired (vv.21,28), and
the ultimate goals stated are 'to promote good order and secure your undivided attention to the Lord'
(v.35)
59
Kraft (1979), 304
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extends to the church, where Christian authors are classified as “best-sellers” and pastors
are graded by the size of their congregations60. This is despite the biblical invitations to
collaboration (Eccl.4:11,12) and warnings against comparison (2.Cor.10:12). For
collectivist societies, the concept of competition has been described as “repugnant and
foreign ... [it] is subversive and threatens the very core of his existence. It is like having
different parts of the psyche in competition. When this happens, the individual can only
suffer.”61
Muslims tend to devalue competition, and aim for cooperation. Theologically this
derives from the doctrine of tawheed (unity), based on the monistic nature of God. “Our
notion of God’s Oneness must be reflected in our own striving towards a co-ordination
and unification of the various aspects of our life.”62 At the personal, family and tribal
levels, there is a strong sense of looking out for each other and a pervasive (often
invasive!) interest in the affairs of others. It gives Islam a feel of unity in origin, identity
and destiny. One Muslim writer suggests the following: "God is one, religion is one,
and the messengers of God are all brothers, responsible for a single mission - the
guidance of mankind."63
However this is unlikely to result in any kind of political unity. Half a century
ago, Cragg wrote: “No concrete scheme of Muslim world-federalism is on the horizon.
Whatever may be true ideally, centripetal forces are very potent in actuality. Even within
the more homogeneous Arab world the forces of unity are compromised by personal and
dynastic rivalries and suspicions.”64 This analysis remains just as valid today. Some
would see this as the fulfillment of the prophecy concerning Ishmael in Gen.16:13: “His
hand will be against everyone and everyone’s hand against him, and he will live in
hostility toward all his brothers.” It is enshrined in a well-known Arabic proverb: "I
against my brothers; I and my brothers against my cousins; I and my cousins against the
world".65 Arabs will often joke about their differences, express disgust at the actions of
fellow-Arabs, and occasionally take up arms against each other. “But even in the midst of
fratricidal wars, the feeling persists that, however painful the conflict, it is merely a
temporary disagreement which sooner or later will be settled and which, even while it
lasts, in no way infringes upon the principle of Arab brotherhood and the ideal of all-
Arab national unity.”66 This gap between ‘ideal’ and ‘reality’ will be discussed below.
the low end, grouped between 35 and 40. Arab countries are ranked at 80, suggesting a
high power-distance.67 He portrays the differences as follows68:
(g) Status
Cultures allocate status to people on different grounds. In ‘ascribed status’ cultures, the
most important factors are those of birth. Honour comes from being born into a well-
known or prestigious family or tribe. Genealogies are highly valued in such societies.
Other factors would be high rank (e.g. honorific titles and military designation), wealth
and old age. “The amount of respect one receives is permanently fixed; attention focuses
67
Hofstede, 87
68
Hofstede, 98
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on those with high social status in spite of any personal failings they have.”69 Arab
cultures generally operate on this level. A person’s surname (or tribal name) and titles
reveal as much about them as many people want or need to know. It indicates their
background, and therefore their social echelon. Upward mobility is difficult in such a
context.
‘Achieved status’ societies would look at a person’s accomplishments. An
individual can earn social standing by their own deeds, no matter what their family of
origin. In the West, status can be obtained by accruing personal wealth or through
outstanding performance in a field such as sport or even academic pursuits. Often those
who perform at a high standard when starting from a lower social position are even more
esteemed.
It is interesting to note that, according to the Judaism of his day, the apostle Paul
could have claimed both types. His ascribed status came from his Hebrew credentials
(Phil.3:4,5) and his achieved status from his role as a persecutor of those who had strayed
(Phil.3:6). Yet he turned his back on them both, counting them as nothing for the sake of
Christ (Phil.3:7-11).
Jesus too had enviable genealogies on both sides of his family (Mt.1:1-17;
Lk.3:23-38). However much of its value was dissipated by coming from Nazareth, in
Galilee, and by the people he mixed and ate with. Despite this, his achievements were
impressive, in speech (Mt.7:28), in action (Mt.9:33) and in impact (Jn.12:19). The fact
that he turned his back on his inherent status (Phil.2:5-8) will result elevation to a
position of ultimate respect (Phil.2:9-11).
69
Lingenfelter & Mayers , 100
70
Turkey, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Indonesia. Significantly, three were the daughters or husbands of
previous heads of state, suggesting a hereditary principle rather than one based on gender equality. It still
contraverted the Hadith: “Never will succeed such a nation as makes a woman their ruler” (alBukhari
5:709; 9:219) cited in Parshall (1994), 219
“a tillage for you; so come into your tillage as you wish, and forward for your souls”.
(Sura 2:223 – Arberry translation). In this agricultural depiction of women, one female
Muslim commentator finds “significant similarities between a contract of marriage and
contract of sale.” 71 Many of the freedoms enjoyed by Western women are not accessible
in the Arab world by Muslim women.
WAYS OF BEHAVING
71
Haeri , 358
72
Huffard, 166
73
Parshall (1980), 69
74
This is despite the advice of the prophet Mohammed to a man intending to marry a woman he had not
seen: “Look at her for it is better than there should be love between you.” Al-Tirmidhi Hadith no. 3107 on
The Alim for Windows ver 4.5 , 1996 CD-ROM
75
Parshall (1980), 69
76
http://www.yuni.com/quotes/heraclitus.html accessed on 11th July 2005
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resolution to avoid ambiguity.77 But even more than this, they promote change.78 Change
is seen as a sign of growth, and stability is often equated with stagnation. Many books
have been written on how to encourage and manage change in an organisation.79
The view from the Muslim world is quite different. Sayyid Qutb speaks out
against Western philosophy’s “craze to discard everything from the past and to embrace
everything new, …and to mock everything traditional whether in the moral or any other
sphere…To advocate continual change is merely an excuse for doing whatever one wants
to do.”80 This is not to say that Islam totally opposes any kind of change. The Qur’an
affirms that “Allah does not change the condition of a people until they change what is in
their selves.” (Sura 13:11). Some would go further. “Is the law of Islam capable of
evolution? [Mohammed] Iqbal answers the question with an emphatic affirmative and
welcomes liberal re-interpretations of Islam.” 81
However the overall thrust of Muslim society is to maintain the status quo. For
them this is a way of honouring their forbears who delivered their current traditions. It is
also a recognition of the over-arching power of God. “Let him who will, take the right
path to his Lord. Yet you cannot will, except by the will of Allah. Allah is wise and all
knowing. He is merciful to whom He will.” (Sura 76.30 Dawood). This may exhibit itself
in a paralysing fatalism. There is no choice but “to go through the course of events which
have been written down for him in God’s Book to the smallest detail … it does not pay
and is not even possible to try to do anything to procure an advantage.”82
Of course, all the factors are interactive, reinforcing each other. The extreme
individualism of the West bestows an incredible mobility. Since each person is
considered a discrete entity, they can move about society alone and can fit into new group
situations more easily. Paradoxically, the group identity of Arab societies means a person
often feels comfortable and secure only within his or her own social context. To venture
into a different community without the company of family members or others of their
own tribe can be a fearful experience. It is a journey into the unknown. For a culture
which does not encourage innovation and risk, this is a difficult position to be in.
Muslims will more often want to withdraw into familiar territory.
77
Lingenfelter, 75
78
Newbigin, 36 refers to ‘a permanent principle of revolution’ found in technological societies
79
An example would be Lyle Schaller’s The Change Agent
80
Qutb, 76
81
Nazir-Ali , 82
82
Hilma Granqvist quoted in Patai, 149
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pleasures”.83 The Qur’an sets a high standard in sexual matters, requiring both men and
women to lower their gaze in each other’s presence (Sura 24:30). In fact every part of a
Muslim’s existence is legislated. “All legal and social transactions as well as all personal
behaviour, are subsumed under the Shari’a as the comprehensive principle of the total
way of life.” (italics his).84
Christianity’s emphasis on freedom has been observed by Muslims from the
earliest days. Around 870 A.D, Constantine of Thessalonica at the age of twenty-four was
asked by the Byzantine Emperor to go into Muslim territory to defend the Christian
teachings of the Trinity. A Saracen challenged him: “Philosopher, perceive you the
wondrous miracle, how the Prophet Mohammed brought us joyful tidings from God and
converted numerous peoples, and how we all keep his law without transgression in any
way. But in keeping Christ’s law, you act and do whatever pleases each of you, one this,
another that.” (italics mine).85 The remarkable diversity of Christian lifestyle in contrast
to Islamic uniformity was evident even at that time.
83
Qutb, 76,77
84
Rahman, 117
85
Hesselgrave & Rommen , 22
86
Parshall (1994), 218
87
http://www.al-islam.org/encyclopedia/chapter6b/1.html
88
http://www.al-islam.org/encyclopedia/chapter6b/1.html
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Whatever the theological standing of this doctrine, it certainly has affected the
Islamic world-view. Muslims often see Westerners as naïve, being willing to hold to their
principles of truth even at personal and economic cost.
What may be seen in one culture as ‘lying’ could be simply viewed as hyperbole
in another. “To the Arab mind, eloquence is related to exaggeration, which is not meant
to be taken literally but which only serves the purpose of effect.”89 Patai finds the root of
Arab verbal embellishment in cultural child-weaning practices. Boys are often breast-fed
on demand up to three years old. Simply verbalising invariably brings instant
gratification without any further action by the child. This connection affects the psyche of
the child resulting in a characteristic trait in adulthood among Arabs: “the proclivity for
making an emphatic verbal statement of intention and failing to follow it up with any
action that could lead to its realisation.”90
One Arab psychologist finds the disparity in the Arabic language. “The to-be-
expected gap between the real self of the Arab and his ideal-self becomes even larger
when strengthened by the superimposition of the gap between literary Arabic, which
reigns supreme in the ideal-self, and colloquial Arabic, which is the monopoly of the
practical functions of the real self. When the Arab thinks of his ideal-self he thinks in
terms of what he has learned from reading and listening, that is, in terms of literary
Arabic. But in his everyday living, he is free to distinguish between his ideal-self and
what he really thinks and does, thanks to his use of the colloquial Arabic.
The psychological consequence is this: while an Arab may express himself in the
loftiest moral tone, he may also under the proper circumstances freely descend to a low
stratum of moral behavior ---and what is significant, feel all the time little contradiction
between the two modes of action.” 91
As a consequence, Muslims may be viewed as devious and untrustworthy by
Westerners. Agreements that have been made by them are later adjusted unilaterally, or
repudiated, and it is difficult to know when a final deal has actually been struck. This is a
great source of misunderstanding in international business involving Arabs and
Westerners.
The gaps between Western Christians and Muslim Arabs in thinking, behaviour
and social interaction are wide and multifarious. “The assumptions of the Western
worldview are more sharply distinguished from those of other people than has been the
case with any other major culture in history …Most contemporary non-Western
experiences, assumptions and values are an incomprehensible ‘closed book’ to them
also.”92 It is difficult to envisage that common ground can even be found, let alone to
know how to find it. But it must be sought. If the gospel of Jesus Christ is to go to
Muslims some way forward is imperative.
89
Patai, 48
90
Patai, 31
91
E. Shouby, “The influence of the Arabic language on the psychology of the Arabs.” Middle East
Journal ( Washington, DC: The Middle East Institute, 1951), 301-302, cited in Brown, 13
92
Pearse, 15
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A WAY FORWARD?
Taking his cue from Paul’s description of his own ministry in 1.Cor.9:19-23, Zwemer
suggests the following: “We must become Moslems to the Moslem if we would gain
them for Christ. We must do this in the Pauline sense, without compromise, but with self
-sacrificing sympathy and unselfish love. The Christian missionary should first of all
thoroughly know the religion of the people among whom he labours; ignorance of the
Koran, the traditions, the life of Mohammed, the Moslem conception of Christ, social
beliefs and prejudices of Mohammedans, which are the result of their religion, -
ignorance of these is the chief difficulty in work for Moslems.”93 He places a high
premium on the role of knowledge. This is a good start, but hardly sufficient. More recent
commentators have emphasised attitudinal aspects. Elmer (following Larson and
Brewster) suggests becoming a ‘bi-cultural person’94 . He recognises that it is neither
possible nor desirable for an individual to completely repudiate their birth-culture.
But what would it look like in practice? Lingenfelter describes it thus: “We must
suspend our commitment to the context in which we have lived all of our lives, enter a
context which is strange to us, and appropriate that new context as the framework for our
life and ministry. By doing so we will experience a reintegration in our lives, yet we will
not lose our prior identity or personal culture and history. This significant change in our
thinking will allow us to enter into relationships with people whose values and lifestyles
are fundamentally different from our own.”95 He refers to this process as becoming a
150% person. This is the radical call to incarnation, following the example of Jesus
(1.Pet.2:21). We are called to imitate God (Eph.5:1) and live a life of love (Eph.5:2). We
will never become 100% insiders in a new culture – the only way to do that is to be born
into it, like Jesus was. But we can become less attached to our own culture (reducing its
pull to 75%) and take on as much of the new one (increased to 75%) as possible. 96
CONCLUSION
The hiatus between the two cultures, Christian West and Muslim Arab, is manifest. It
impinges on thinking styles and content, and personal and group behaviour. Many
Westerners feel that their culture is biblically-sanctioned because of its historical
Christian roots. More often this betrays an ethnocentrism which will impede missionary
work among Muslims. Communication requires mutual comprehension before any
content can be exchanged. The task of taking the good news to the whole world
(Mt.28:19,20) will come at some cost. Part of this cost must include Western missionaries
laying aside cultural norms that form a barrier to Muslims coming to know the love of
Christ. As Parshall puts it: “The onus for change and adaptation is on the missionary.”97
93
Zwemer , 183
94
Elmer, 198
95
Lingenfelter & Mayers, 123,124
96
Lingenfelter & Mayers , 24
97
Parshall (1980), 110
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St Francis Magazine Nr. 1 Vol. II (June 2006)
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Software used
The Alim for Windows ver 4.5 , 1996 CD-ROM