Foundation for Research in the Afro-American Creative Arts

Professor J. Southern (Managing Editor-Publisher)

Black Entertainers on Radio, 1920-1930

Author(s): William Randle, Jr.
Source: The Black Perspective in Music, Vol. 5, No. 1 (Spring, 1977), pp. 67-74
Published by: Professor J. Southern (Managing Editor-Publisher)
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1214359
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 BLACK ENTERTAINERS
ON RADIO, 1920-1930
BY WILLIAM RANDLE, JR.

When the sound films came in they hired white people. There was no room for us.
Radio and films changed things, the Negro lost out. When we performed personally
in public, the Negro had a chance.
James P. Johnson1

_THE EFFECTS OF RADIO BROADCASTING on the role of

black Americans in the mass entertainment industry in the
United States have been given inadequate attention by special-
ists. To be sure, there is little reference material available, and the
problem of abstracting specific black entertainment from the mass of
broadcast performances during the early years of radio is a formidable
one. Since the researcher is dealing largerly with names of performers,
of clubs, theaters, restaurants, hotels, and ballrooms, it takes an ency-
clopedic frame of reference to be able to check out, while examining
thousands of programs, the names that relate specifically to blacks. In
some cases items in black newspapers-the ChicagoDefender, for exam-
ple, or the Pittsburgh Courier-help to identify the black performers
that appeared on radio programs. In other instances the name of the
artist is so well known that identification is immediate, as in the case of
Duke Ellington, Ethel Waters, or Paul Robeson. The list of relatively
obscure black performers during the 1920s, however, is long, and
many of these performers appeared on radio. Just how many we will
never know.
The existence of black professional entertainers in the United
States dates to the beginnings of organized show business. There were
genuine black minstrels in the earliest Ethiopian (= black-face) min-
strel troupes of the 1840s-for example, Master Juba.2 Although the
white majority population historically has been generally receptive to
blacks in the entertainment field, it is nevertheless evident that large
white audiences have not always been available to black performers
except in peripheral entertainment situations.3
According to the census the number of black entertainers in 1930
was 15,000-fewer than seven percent of the total number of em-
ployed performers and less than the percentage of blacks in the general
population. This brings into sharp focus the myth that blacks are
natural entertainers and musicians and that they comprised a numeri-
cally significant segment of the entertainment industry during those

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68 THE BLACK PERSPECTIVE IN MUSIC

years. The major requirements for the expansion of popular enter-

tainment on the fully commercial level are a concentrated population,
the development of an acceptable style of performance, and the availa-
bility of such performance to the population. An affluent society sup-
ports more professional entertainment, of course, than an economi-
cally deprived society.4 While it is undeniable that black entertainers
were involved in professional show business in the nineteenth century,
is is doubtful that the above requirements for a highly commercialized
show industry were met until the great migration of blacks to urban
areas in the early twentieth century.
In 1890, eighty percent of the blacks in the Southern States lived in
rural areas. From that time on, however, the trend toward the concen-
tration of the population in large, urban areas accelerated. Early black
migration was sporadic and largely internal. Thousands of black peo-
ple moved to such cities as Atlanta, Memphis, Jackson, Tulsa, Houston,
Jacksonville, Birmingham, and Shreveport. Later migration to the
North poured hundreds of thousands of southern blacks into re-
stricted areas of the major industrial cities. One great migratory stream
flowed from Mississippi, Georgia, Arkansas, and Alabama through Mis-
souri and Illinois, dumping the majority of blacks in Cleveland,
Chicago, and Detroit; another stream moved East to border cities,
Philadelphia, and New York. By 1930 nearly half of the nation's black
population was living in urban areas.
The influx of blacks into urban areas and the resulting demand for
familiar entertainment were major factors in the transformation of
itinerant rural singers and musicians into professional performers.
The impact of the urban milieu on folk entertainers resulted in a new
synthesis, the "city blues," based on black folk music. At the same time,
the traditional music, less sophisticated, harsher, and earthier than the
synthesized "city blues," survived and remained a strong influence on
the black entertainer and performer of the 1920s. Both "city" and
"country" blues provide the materials for an important chapter in the
history of popular music during this period.
The rise of identifiable black virtuosos from peripatetic rural enter-
tainers and musicians marks the separation of the blues from a raw folk
music and the establishment of a blues style. The early black
professional-after a rural or local apprenticeship, during which he
developed a personal style and began to attract a following-gravitated
to urban areas where large numbers of in-migrants were concentrated,
forming a massive and commercially exploitable group. While rural
audiences continued to exist for minstrel and medicine shows, "jook
joints," and similar forms of entertainment, the developing urban
audiences provided an economic base for a comprehensive theater
circuit as, for example, TOBA (the Theater Owners Booking Associa-
tion), and a growing market for the purchase of phonograph records.
All of this activity took place within the structure of the black

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 BLACKENTERTAINERSON RADIO 69

community. Most of the popular music produced by blacks was not

heard by others until the advent of large-scale, commercially successful
phonograph recordings of black artists, beginning in 1920. Even then
the influence of new blacks in the urban areas was tempered and
changed by the permanent population. Charles Smith says, "the influx
of southern Negroes to northern cities created new markets for 'race'
records, including blues. But the cultural trend in these areas was
gradually away from 'down home' music."5
The migration of blacks to urban areas did create, however, a
population sufficient to support large-scale entertainment on a profes-
sional level, and the development of available audiences meant the
entertaining of those audiences in theaters, cabarets, and sub-rosa
"joints." In 1920 the urban black population was 3,560,000 while rural
blacks numbered 6,903,000. By 1930 there were more than five million
blacks living in cities.6 Of the blacks living in 1930 in northern urban
areas, 1,355,000 were from the South.7 Cities with large black popula-
tions included Detroit, Chicago, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia,
New York, Memphis, St. Louis, San Francisco, Washington, Baltimore,
Los Angeles, Atlanta, and Birmingham. It is in these cities that enter-
tainment centers for black audiences developed during the 1920s.
How much success blacks met in becoming an established part of
the show-business elite in the urban community is as yet unknown. It is
known, however, that a black family (founded by "Old Man" Theo
Finney) controlled the music business in Detroit from the days of the
Civil War until the 1920s. This black "dynasty" was perpetuated in
Whitney-Warren, a well-known name in music publishing in Detroit in
the 1890s.8 Fred Stone, a black man, is credited with having unionized
Detroit musicians, and it is said that white players had to petition for
admission to the union.9 It is also said that Fred Stone orchestras dom-
inated Detroit entertainment until radio began to wipe out their in-
fluence. Several black-established locals of the American Federation of
Musicians (AFM) had white members early in their histories. Con-
versely, even where a black local was in existence, some black enter-
tainers belonged to the white units.10
Historically, however, the AFM was one of the most segregated
unions in the AFL (American Federation of Labor)." The AFM had
maintained almost complete control of organized musicians in the
United States, ever since its early beginning in the nineteenth century
and this position was strengthened during the 1920 to 1930 period.
White locals, in almost every case, had control over the major theaters,
cabarets, amusement parks, hotels, and other consumers of music.
With the development of radio, the white locals also took over this area
of entertainment.12
Since "availability of performance" was the most important factor
in early radio programming, an analysis of the role of black musicians
in the places used for regular broadcasts indicates to some extent the
degree of black involvement with the medium.

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70 THE BLACK PERSPECTIVE IN MUSIC

Blacks worked in cabarets in such cities as Chicago, Detroit,

Philadelphia, New York, and Los Angeles. There were a great many
black bands working as dance orchestras during the 1920s. A list of the
dance halls, cabarets, and night clubs that employed black entertainers
and bands reveals to some extent the level of black participation in
early broadcasting since many of these clubs were broadcast origina-
tion points. The Plantation Club in Los Angeles, for example, featured
the Kid Ory band in 1922. The band was the first to be recorded in
California, and the Chicago Defender noted that the Ory's Sunshine
Orchestra was the first such group to broadcast in its area.13
The pioneer broadcasters included Fletcher Henderson, who
began broadcasting in New Orleans in 1921.14 Jimmie Wade's
Moulin Rouge Orchestra was a feature of the WBBM opening
ceremonies in late 1923. There is extant evidence about broadcasts by
Hughie Swift's band nightly on WSBC in 1926 in a series from the
Jeffrey Tavern, as well as Frankie "Half-Pint" Jaxon in 1928 from the
Cabin Club. Sammy Stewart's band also broadcast, but it was not until
Duke Ellington went to Chicago's Congress Hotel in 1938 that the
network broadcasts from Chicago began to feature black bands
regularly.15
New York had a large number of black musicians working in
theaters, dance halls, night clubs, and cabarets; many of them had
remote broadcast lines. During 1924 the Club Alabam was on the air at
least forty-seven times on several New York stations; the Plantation was
broadcasting five nights a week until it was closed by federal au-
thorities. The Plantation bands and entertainers were blacks. Sam
Wooding's orchestra, a well-known black dance band, was on WJZ in
the afternoon of 6 March 1924.
Clarence Williams accompanied black singers on WJZ in October
1922 and accompanied his wife, Eva Taylor, on WHN in 1924. The
Melrose Quartet was a regular feature on WJZ in late 1922. Shuffle
Along stars Noble Sissle and Eubie Blake made eleven appearances on
WJZ, WHN, and WEAF during 1923 and 1924. Florence Mills was
featured on a special program on WHN in 1923, in celebration of her
joining the GreenwichVillage Follies. The Club DeLuxe, at Lenox Av-
enue and 142nd Streets, broadcast Leona Williams in March 1924.
LeRoy Smith was broadcasting twice a week on WHN during January
and February of 1925. A Hurtig and Seaman show, entitled Connie's
Inn, was broadcast on WFB H in March 1925. Paul Robeson broadcast a
recital on New York radio on 8 April 1925. Revella Hughes, a well-
known classical singer, appeared three times on WOR in 1924, and
Mme. Antoinette Games, an operatic singer, was on WJZ and WMCA
in 1925.
When the Savoy Ballroom opened in 1926, remote lines were
immediately installed; as many as eight broadcasts a week emanated
from the Savoy from 1927 to 1930. Fletcher Henderson was featured

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 BLACK ENTERTAINERS ON RADIO 71
at the Alabam and later at Roseland Ballroom, where he appeared
regularly on broadcasts between 1924 and 1928.
The most consistent black broadcasts from New York began in
1928 and featured Duke Ellington and His Orchestra. Ellington had
been featured at a number of New York clubs and had also toured a
ballroom circuit in New England. His band was the "rage" of the East
and his appearances on radio, at first locally, then on the CBS network,
broadened his audiences across the country. According to the record
there were no fewer than 210 Ellington broadcasts during the years
1927-1930, most of them coming from New York, a few from Chicago.
The songs played most frequently by Ellington during this period
were: "Black Beauty" (a tribute to Florence Mills), "Black and Tan
Fantasy," "The Mooche," "East St. Louis Toodle-Oo," "Three Little
Words," "Creole Love Call," "Diga Diga Doo," and "St. Louis Blues."16
Ellington represented the peak of performance by black musicians
on radio during the last years of the decade. His band broadcast a series
for CBS that was heard throughout the country, week after week. His
earlier broadcasts on WHN had started his band on its road to the top
clubs and dance halls, and the CBS shows made him nationally
famous. 17
Black performers and bands appeared in every city and on every
radio station, with few exceptions, where there was a concentration of
black population. Traveling entertainers would broadcast programs
on stations in the cities they visited. In June 1922 the Symphonium
Serenaders, a black band, appeared on KDKA, Pittsburgh. Bradford's
Orchestra, a twelve-piece dance band, was on KDKA in October.
Clarence Jones and His Wonder Orchestra, a Chicago theater group,
were on KYW in October, 1922. Sissle and Blake were also on Chicago's
KYW with the Shuffle Along cast in March 1923. WDT had a blues
marathon in 1923.
WSB of Atlanta used black performers beginning as early as 1923.
The entertainment offered by blacks included performances by a large
church choir, three dance bands, the Early Brothers String Band, two
university glee clubs,jubilee singing groups, and a number of quartets.
At least one black artist appeared each week on WSB.
There are extant programs for nearly 800 broadcasts which were
made from 1921 to 1930 by black performers.18 These programs
featured a variety of entertainment, from dance bands and operatic
stars to blues singers and revival meetings. The stations ranged from as
far west as Los Angeles, south to New Orleans, Dallas, and Atlanta, and
north to Chicago, Detroit, and New York. Such bands as Duke Elling-
ton, Sammy Stewart, and Troy Floyd became famous on the networks;
others were only locally publicized. Some black entertainers were tran-
sient, appearing once and not again; others became regulars-among
them, Andy Razaf, who was known as "Crooning Andy" on the radio;
Art Tatum (later famous as a jazz and concert star), who was a staff

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72 THE BLACKPERSPECTIVEIN MUSIC

pianist at WSPD, Toledo; and Clarence Jones, who became a regular at

WBCN in 1925.
Not all black entertainers, of course, were so fortunate. Lonnie
Johnson described his radio career in Cleveland when he was playing at
the Heatwave in the Majestic Hotel with Putney Dandridge in 1929:
Miss Ruth, she went to the head of broadcasting station and she gave us a contract. So
that's where we started, in 1929, WTAM (sic). And we had everything sewed up. We were
there for months ... but Putney broke it all up ... And Miss Ruth, she never did hire
anybody else; no more colored on that broadcasting station. We were the only two in all
the years she had. And we were making nice money at $400 a week. And we only did
fifteen minutes, twice a week.19

What kind of music did blacks perform on radio? Dance bands

played their own repertoire, as all dance bands on radio have done
historically. Fortunately, there is extant a record of a program given by
blues singer Bessie Smith that offers some idea of black radio perfor-
mances during this period. On 6 October 1923 Bessie appeared on a
program at WMC, Memphis, having been persuaded to go on the radio
by an entertainment writer for the Commercial-Appeal,the newspaper-
owner of the station. Bessie was appearing in Memphis at the Palace
Theater and carried a complete company, all of whom performed on
the air with her. The stars of the show were: Bessie Smith, The Wil-
liamson Orchestra, Baby and Dickey Cox, Henrietta Lovelace, Irvin
Jones, and Whistlin' Pete.
Bessie sang "Tain't Nobody's Bizness If I Do," "Beale Street Mama,"
and "Outside of That He's All Right With Me," a song repeated later
due to a number of telephone calls and telegram requests. IrvinJones,
a pianist, played "Running Wild," and Baby Cox did a version of"Way
Down Yonder in New Orleans" with "delicious drawls." Dickey Cox
sang "I Wish I Could Shimmy Like My Sister Kate," while the Whistlin'
Pete specialties were "Tuck Me to Sleep" and "The Sheik." James
Alston, the pianist with the Williamson band, played "Carolina Shout"
(a James P. Johnson classic), and Henrietta Lovelace sang two Broad-
way show songs written by blacks, "Love Will Find a Way" and "Dear
Old Southland."
Of the approximately 800 broadcasts for which I have collected
information, I have some material about the program content for 236.
While this sample is heavily loaded with Duke Ellington items, (ninety-
three broadcasts), enough information can be abstracted from it to
indicate that there was a cluster of "black" hit songs on radio, just as
there were in the white majority culture.
The following songs turned up more often than others on the
broadcasts I researched, and is a beginning list of some of the most
popular songs performed by black entertainers on radio during the
1923 to 1930 period:
"Aggravatin' Papa,"
"After You've Gone,"

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 BLACKENTERTAINERSON RADIO 73

"Arkansas Blues,"
"Baby Won't You Please Come Home,"
"Backwater Blues,"
"Down Hearted Blues,"
"Everybody Loves My Baby,"
"Georgia Grind,"
"Gulf Coast Blues,"
"I Can't Give You Anything But Love,"
"Love Will Find a Way,"
"Oh Daddy Blues,"
"Someday Sweetheart,"
"Squeeze Me,"
"Strut Miss Lizzie," and
"Tain't Nobody's Bizness If I Do."
With few exceptions, these songs were written by black composers.
Despite the radio "boom" from the beginning of the decade, black
show business flourished during the 1920s as it never had before. By
1925 black performers were active in most areas of the entertainment
industries, and black dance bands by the hundreds were appearing
regularly throughout the country. Black singers made thousands of
records after Mamie Smith's CrazyBlues became a hit in 1920. Broad-
way became a haven for black writers and entertainers after the success
of Shuffle Along.
The idea, however, that black musical theater was a consistent
success on Broadway is false. Most black shows flopped! But, on the
other hand, there were many black shows produced on Broadway.
Moynihan and Glazer are incorrect in contending that "Negro enter-
tainers were a rarity on Broadway, and one had to go above 125th
Street to find them," for there were numerous black musical comedy
performers during the period.20 When Gilda Gray, a well-known white
entertainer, sang the song entitled It's GettingDark on Old Broadwayin
1922, she was not commenting on the lack of street illumination in the
area!

University of Cincinnati

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74 THE BLACKPERSPECTIVEIN MUSIC

NOTES
1. Rudi Blesh and Harriet Janis, TheyAll Played Ragtime (New York, 1950) p. 205.
2. Carter G. Woodson, The Negro ProfessionalMan and the Community(Washington, 1934)
pp. 250-251; The Black Perspectivein Music 3 (Spring 1975): 77-83.
3. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma (New York, 1944), pp. 959-960.
4. Many critics disagree. They focus on the fact that more places of entertainment per
capita are found in lower class sections of cities, historically, than in any other area.
5. Charles Edward Smith, "The Blues was the Mother,"Jazz Quarterly, No. 5 (Winter
1960): 27.
6. Recent Social Trends in the United States (New York, 1933), p. 567.
7. Myrdal, AmericanDilemma, p. 190.
8. Blesh and Janis, TheyAll Played, p. 104.
9. Ibid.
10. Marshall, F. Ray, The Negro and OrganizedLabor (New York, 1965), pp. 96, 103, 281.
This was true of Cleveland.
11. Oddly enough, some of the resistance to desegregation was from the black members
with vested interests in their own local.
12. Myrdal, AmericanDilemma, p. 330.
13. Chicago Defender, 16 September 1922, p. 8.
14. Samuel Charters and Leonard Kunstadt, jazz: A History of the New YorkScene (New
York, 1962), p. 167.
15. Jazz, Nat Hentoff and Albert McCarthy, eds. (New York, 1959), p. 165.
16. I have notes for this number in my personal research files.
17. Nat Hentoff and Nat Shapiro,HearMe Talkin'to Ya! (New York, 1955), pp. 231-233.
18. Materials in my personal files.
19. Paul Oliver, Conversationwith The Blues (New York, 1965), p. 141.
20. Daniel P. Moynihan and Nathan Glazer, Beyondthe Melting Pot (Cambridge, 1963),
p. 27.

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