Energy Efficient Operation

TRAINING COURSE
THE ENERGY EFFICIENT

OPERATION OF SHIPS
Trainer’s manual
Part I – Content
Release no.: 2
Date of issue: May 2013
This document is subject to change by WMU and IMO

Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Forewords

The course is an introduction to the topic and designed for personnel having different skills,
knowledge and experience in air emission by ships.
The objective of the course is to provide a common set of knowledge and skills to all participants
in order to enable them to spread the information in their respective countries/organizations
and to promote the implementation of energy efficiency policies and MARPOL Annex VI.
Considering that the topic is new and due to the complexity of the issue, no false expectations
should be raised (i.e. it should be highlighted that there is not one receipt for all situations). The
current state of knowledge is limited and under development.
This course has a global dimension, and it is not specific to any country in particular. Therefore,
trainers are expected to adapt the course to their own context and audience.
The trainees should bear in mind that, while taking the course, they are not representing their
institutions. On the contrary, to enhance the productivity of work in class, it is recommended
that they set aside the specific position of their organizations or countries, and think globally.
The course provides an excellent opportunity to share ideas, to gather stakeholders together
and to establish cooperative networks.
This not an academic course but a hands-‐on course with exercises, discussion of case studies
and a number of practical activities. The Instructors present the content of the modules and
guide the discussion of the most relevant issues. It is expected that the participants will
contribute substantially, by sharing their knowledge and experiences.

Disclaimer
The views expressed in this report are purely those of the authors and may not in any
circumstances be regarded as stating an official position of the organizations involved.

© WMU-‐IMO
All rights reserved. This document, or any part thereof, may not be photocopied, stored in any medium by electronic means or
otherwise, published, transferred, reproduced or performed in public in any form or by any means without prior written permission
from the copyright owners. Enquiries should be directed to WMU or IMO.
WMU or IMO shall not be liable to any person or organization for any loss, damage or expense caused by reliance on the information
or advice in this document or howsoever provided.
Please cite this document as
WMU-‐IMO, 2013: Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships.
ii
General Instructions to the Instructors
INSTRUCTOR:
• This course was designed to be flexible. Therefore, the course plan below is purely
indicative. The instructors must adapt the course schedule and structure to their
audiences, contexts and experiences.
• Questions to the participants are included in some slides to encourage their participation
and to advance on the issues dealt with in the module. Those questions are usually
shown after a click of the mouse.
• Consult/Print the PowerPoint presentation on the Annotation mode to access

information on each slide. Be aware that some slides show a hyperlink (in red) that
should be accessed to show the related information.
• Inform the participants that the slides present a summary of the key points and it is an
opportunity for the participants to question the instructor and other participants about
details/doubts on the issues presented. A comprehensive text is found in the Participants
Manual.
• Use the Participants Manual as the main source of reference.
• Remember that the Participants are knowledgeable in their areas. Use their knowledge
and skills to enrich discussions and to help you to convey the Module. However, do not
forget that you are the leader of the training process.
• The presentations provided during this training course are generic and meant to be
adapted by each participant according to their own needs and the needs of their
audience.
MODULE 1
Total time.................................................. 1:30
Presentation............................................... 1:30
Exercise:
Short questions are inserted in the presentation. Do not jump over them. They are inserted to attract the
participants’ attention
MODULE 2
Total time.................................................. 3:00
Presentation……………………………… 2:00
Exercises………………………………… 1:00
Exercise
A true and false exercise. This exercise is to be completed after completion of Module 2 in groups
iii
of three to four persons per group. The instructor will allow the participants 20 minutes to
complete the exercise. The instructor will ask for 3-4 groups to provide answers to 3-4 questions.
He or she will then give the answers (with justification) to the participants.
MODULE 3
Total time.................................................. 1:30
Presentation……………………………... 1:00
Exercise…………………………………. 0:30
Exercise: none
Case study to develop as per instructor wishes and confidence
MODULE 4
Total time.................................................. 3:00
Presentation……………………………... 2:00
Exercise…………………………………. 1:00
Exercise
A Q & A exercise to be completed individually or in groups of three to four participants after slide
10. The instructor will allow 20 minutes to the participants to complete the exercise. He or she will
ask the groups to provide answers to 3-4 questions. The instructor will then hand out the answers
(with justification) to the participants.
MODULE 5
Total time.................................................. 3:00
Presentation……………………………... 1:30
Exercise…………………………………. 1:30
Exercise I
A Q & A exercise to be completed after completion of Module 5 individually or in groups of three
to four persons per group. The instructor will allow 20 minutes to the participants to complete the
exercise. He or she will ask the groups to provide answers to 3-4 questions. The instructor will
then hand out the answers (with justification) to the participants.
Exercise II – OPTIONAL
A true or false exercise to be completed after completion of the first exercise if time allows only
in groups of three to four persons per group. The instructor will allow 20 minutes for the
participants to complete the exercise. He or she will ask the groups to provide answers to 3-4
questions. The instructor will then hand out the answers (with justification) to the participants.
iv
Training Course on Energy Efficient Operations of

Ships
Module 1 – The climate change and the international response
Module 2 – From Management to Operation
Module 3 – Port Stay and its impacts
Module 4 – En Route
Module 5 – Energy Efficiency Management Systems
Based on
Manual Trainees Instructor Examples

v
CONTENTS

-‐ Page 1 -‐
Module 1 – The climate change and the international response
Author: Dr. Raphaël Baumler, World Maritime University, Malmö, Sweden

-‐ Page 51 -‐
Module 2 – From Management to Operation
Author: Captain Colin Thomas, UK

-‐ Page 104 -‐
Module 3 – Port stay and its impacts
Authors: Dr. Zabi Bazari, Energy and Emissions Solutions Ltd, London, UK
Prof. Daniel Moon, World Maritime University, Malmö, Sweden

-‐ Page 150 -‐
Module 4 – En Route
Authors: Dr. Aykut Ölçer, World Maritime University, Malmö, Sweden
Dr. Zabi Bazari, Energy and Emissions Solutions Ltd, London, UK
Dr. Michael Baldauf, World Maritime University, Malmö, Sweden

-‐ Page 189 -‐
Module 5 – Energy Efficiency Management Systems
Authors: Prof. Takeshi Nakasawa, World Maritime University, Malmö, Sweden
Dr. Michael Baldauf, World Maritime University, Malmö, Sweden

-‐ Page 215 -‐
Appendix : MARPOL Annex VI Chapter 4
vi

MODULE 1

The climate change and the international
response

Introduction to Greenhouse Gas
(GHG) issues in shipping

1

Contents
Module Aims and Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 5
1. Greenhouse Gas: a global concern ....................................................................................................... 6
1.1 Air contamination, from local to global issue ................................................................................ 6
Origins of air releases .......................................................................................................................... 6

Air pollutants and humans ................................................................................................................... 6
Air pollution: concentration factors .................................................................................................... 7
Industrialization: energy-‐based society and its impacts ...................................................................... 7

The need for transport ........................................................................................................................ 8
The emergence of air pollution ........................................................................................................... 9
Rationale for action ........................................................................................................................... 10

1.2 Energy source: the choice of combustion .................................................................................... 11
The origins and composition of fossil fuels ........................................................................................ 11
The combustion principle in engines ................................................................................................. 12

From steam to diesel engines ............................................................................................................ 13
By-‐products of combustion ............................................................................................................... 15
Energy Efficiency strategy .................................................................................................................. 17
1.3 From Local air pollutants to Global climate change ..................................................................... 17
Air pollution : main definitions .......................................................................................................... 18
Variety of pollutants .......................................................................................................................... 19

Climate system .................................................................................................................................. 20
Greenhouse Gas (GHG) and climate change ...................................................................................... 21
Climate change impacts on oceans ................................................................................................... 25

1.4 Combating air pollution: the role of international bodies ........................................................... 25
Background to the international response ........................................................................................ 26
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) ...................................................................... 28
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) ......................................................................... 29
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) ...................................... 30
The Kyoto protocol ............................................................................................................................ 31

Specialized transport agencies .......................................................................................................... 32
2

Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 32

2 Greenhouse Gas and shipping ............................................................................................................ 32
2.1 International regulatory regime and body ................................................................................... 32

UNCLOS .............................................................................................................................................. 33
Overview of the IMO ......................................................................................................................... 34
IMO commitment to protect the environment and the atmosphere ............................................... 35
2.2 Emissions from shipping .............................................................................................................. 37
First IMO study on GHG 2000 ............................................................................................................ 38
Second IMO study on GHG 2009 ....................................................................................................... 38

Policy options and discussions on Market-‐Based Measures (MBM) ................................................. 43
2.3 IMO response to air emissions ..................................................................................................... 44
Air emission provisions – MARPOL Annex VI Chapter 3 .................................................................... 45

Greenhouse gas provisions – outcome of the MEPC 62 .................................................................... 46
3 Conclusion of Module 1 ...................................................................................................................... 47
4 References and additional sources of information ............................................................................. 49

3

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Registered world fleet from 1914 to 2007 (source: Lloyd's Register of Shipping, 2000) .............. 8
Figure 2: World Industrial production Index 1919-‐2013 (source Data360) & Evolution of world trade
structure 1975-‐2010 (source: UNCTAD, 2012) ............................................................................................ 9
Figure 3: PM10 measurement in large city – data from 2003 to 2010 (WHO) .......................................... 10
Figure 4: boiler burner principle in external combustion engines ............................................................. 13
Figure 5: steam generator principle onboard ships ................................................................................... 14
Figure 6: internal combustion engine ........................................................................................................ 15
Figure 7: combustion reaction ................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 8: energy flow on board for propulsion .......................................................................................... 17
Figure 9: schematic view of the components of the climate system, their processes and interactions ... 21
Figure 10: an idealised model of the natural greenhouse effect ............................................................... 22
Figure 11: evolution of atmospheric concentration of main GHG ............................................................. 23
Figure 12: major carbon pools and fluxes of the global carbon balance ................................................... 24
Figure 13: Graphical representation of the principle of Sustainable Development. Logo developed for the
United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) .......................................................... 28
Figure 14: IMO and its secretariat structures ............................................................................................ 34
Figure 15: IMO Conventions relating to the prevention of marine pollution associated with ship
operations .................................................................................................................................................. 36
Figure 16: linkage between world trade, shipping, GDP and OECD Industrial Production (Source :
UNCTAD, 2011) .......................................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 17: Summary of GHG emissions from shipping during 2007 (Source : IMO, 2009b) ...................... 39
Figure 18: Increase of exhaust emissions from total shipping 1990-‐2007 (adapted from source: IMO,
2009b) ........................................................................................................................................................ 39
Figure 19: Reduction in estimated annual emissions (tonnes) of refrigerants from ships (Source: IMO,
2009b) ........................................................................................................................................................ 40
Figure 20: estimated emissions (million tonnes) of SO2 (2008) (Source: IMO, 2009b) ............................. 40
Figure 21: Assessment of potential reductions of CO2 emissions from shipping by using known
technology (Source: IMO, 2009b) .............................................................................................................. 41
Figure 22: CO2 emission efficiency calculation (Source : IMO, 2009b) ..................................................... 42
Figure 25: IMO policy approaches of the GHG emission reduction ........................................................... 43
Figure 26: Ship's air emission sources ....................................................................................................... 44
Figure 27: EEDI short description (Source : T. Nakasawa, 2012) ............................................................... 46
Figure 28: the main issues of GHG according to IMO Secretary General in 2012 ..................................... 48

4

Module Aims and Objectives

This Module aims to provide an overview of air emission issues as well as the international response to
deal with the issue, leading up to the adoption of the Chapter 4 of the MARPOL Annex VI.
The operational details included in the Chapter 4 will be discussed in detail in subsequent modules.
At the end of this module participants will be able to:
• Identify the origins of the issues related to air pollution;
• Describe the issue of Greenhouse Gas (GHG);
• Describe the international response to the problem, and list the various initiatives
established to deal with the problem;
• Identify the main International Maritime Organization (IMO) instruments to address the
issue.
The Module is divided into two parts, namely:

• Greenhouse Gas: a global concern
• Greenhouse Gas and shipping

5

1. Greenhouse Gas: a global concern
1.1 Air contamination, from local to global issue

Pollutions emerge as a serious concern as soon as large populations and their activities and
environments are directly affected. The visibility of the pollution itself or of its effects triggers action
because the pollution cannot be ignored anymore.
In this respect, the air quality became an issue for the regulators when:
• Air emissions impacted public health;
• Air emissions had visible effects on the environment and man-‐made constructions;
• Air pollution was highlighted by the scientific community and socially accepted as such.
The disturbance of human well-‐being, immediate environments and activities form the first steps to
recognizing pollutions.
The visibility factor associated with social acceptance explains why some pollutants were regulated
before others – e.g. oil pollution and garbage, which are visually visible and therefore accepted as
pollutions.
In this respect, air pollution faced a clear lack of visibility. Consequently, in the shipping industry as in
many industries, the regulation of air pollution was delayed. To best address the pollution problem, it is
important to distinguish between air pollutants and global alteration of atmosphere properties:
• Air pollutants are substances, which are considered to be directly harmful for human beings.
Generally, the impact on communities decreases with the distance from the release because
their concentrations in the atmosphere decrease. Among others, nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur
oxides (SOx) and particulate matter (PM) belong to this category.
• Substances altering the atmosphere are components which change the overall properties of the
atmosphere when their concentration in the air is modified. Greenhouse gases (GHG) or ozone-‐
depleting substances (ODS) are typical elements of this category.
Origins of air releases

Our air contains a large variety of components. Despite the overwhelming presence of oxygen and
nitrogen, the atmosphere includes various gases, vapours and aerosols. Such substances originate from
natural processes or as a result of human activities.
• Several natural processes release chemical and particulates matter –e.g. telluric fumes,
volcanoes exhausts, forest fires, decaying dead animals, humans or plants, etc.
• Human activities produce a large amount of gases and chemicals which are released in the
atmosphere.
Some of the substances present in the atmosphere remain physiologically inert, but others may affect
human health, animals, plants and the overall environment by affecting the properties of the
atmosphere.
Air pollutants and humans

To survive, human beings need to breathe a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen. On a daily basis, our lungs
filter between 10.000 to 15.000 litres of air, and far more for sportsmen. Therefore, humans are
particularly sensitive to the air quality because the lungs constitute open accesses to the body for
substances contained in the air.
6


Resultantly, unexpected and harmful substances floating in the air may damage the respiratory system
and/or the body through the absorption of gases, vapours and aerosols by blood through the lungs.
The first effort to manage air quality was initiated due to observed negative impacts to humans by air
pollutants such as smell, smoke thickness, and particulate matter in large cities. Evidence of air
contamination has been documented from the ancient Greece, China and Rome as well as during the
Middle Ages.
Air pollution: concentration factors

Before urbanization, human populations were disseminated across large territories. They had
opportunities to escape from the natural exposure to air pollutants and their small settlements were
easily located away from pollutant release. The emergence of agriculture established permanent
settlements and allowed population growth and labour diversification. Cities developed. They became
locations of power as well as centres of trade and production. Therefore, they attracted large
populations in confined or delimited locations.
The concentration of human beings in such restricted areas combined with the use of substances and
techniques implying the generation of gases, vapours and aerosols -‐ e.g. open fire and non-‐organized
garbage disposal -‐ increased nuisances for the whole settlement. The air nuisance for the urban
population was the first concern in the field of air pollution. Only later were the effects on animals,
plants, buildings, clothing, and work of art as well as on the overall environment a concern.
In short, the rise of urbanization created the issue of human-‐made air emissions. This demonstrates the
direct link between the population size, the activity types and the air pollution. The explosion of the
world population – less than 700 million in 1770 to 7 billion today-‐ exponentially increases the air
emission sources by each individual through social activities. Ineffective or missing control measures
create a volumetric issue which disturbs humans and destabilizes their environment.
Industrialization: energy-‐based society and its impacts

“Prior to 1800 most of the energy available to man was that derivable from his food, the labor of his
animals, and the wood he used for fuel” (Hubbert, 1949). In addition, several sources of renewable
energy were available – e.g. water and windmills, noria, the Machine of Marly, etc. But wind and water
powered systems were highly dependent on natural conditions. These systems were insufficiently
reliable and predictable in their power release. Consequently, they did not benefit from large scale
research while facing the emergence of fire-‐powered systems (Gras, 2007).
In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution required extensive use of reliable and ready-‐to-‐use
energy in order to operate engines and machinery. The combustion of fossil fuels fed the industry to the
detriment of renewable energy sources and animal energy.
The coal formed the first source of power to the growing industries and was soon followed by the oil.
While the coal served the industrialization of the 19th century and supported the steam engine, the
locomotive, the steamship and the steam-‐electric power; the oil fuelled the 20th century’s development
by leading to the internal combustion engine, the automobile, marine diesel engine, the airplane, and
diesel-‐electric power.
Coal and oil provide high power capacities. They are flexible to use, transport and store, particularly oil.
They are available at low cost, especially during the first stage of their exploitation. The handling of such
fuels requires a relatively simple technical environment, contrary to nuclear fuel.
7


These two sources of fossil energy formed the elementary materials which provided power to launch
and develop the industrialized world. The industrialization of an increasing number of human activities
and the expansion of the transport network led to the increasing demand of energy which consequently
accelerated the fossil fuel consumption and the related air emission. Now, coal is particularly used in
land-‐based facilities while oil is, by far, the main source of transportation systems.
The need for transport

The establishment of an industrialized-‐urban world triggered serious socio-‐economic changes. Among
these changes, the massive development of trade and transport in connection with the rise of the
market society (Polanyi, 1944) became evident. Market society and trade require the support and
intensification of transportation needs at sea and on land.
The shipping fleet boomed internationally in an effort to connect the spherical world and benefit from
overseas trade. From 1840 to 2005, world seaborne trade grew from 20 million tons to 7.122 billion tons
with an average yearly growth rate around 4.5% (Stopford, 2009).
Road transportation systems expanded throughout the 19th and 20th centuries in order to build,
strengthen, extend and unify inland markets. The railroad inaugurated the land transport era and, later,
the car industry followed. The air industry is the most recently developed transport system, and today
holds a predominant position in overseas passenger transportation.
Nowadays transportation systems cannot be dissociated from our present world’s functioning.

Figure 1: Registered world fleet from 1914 to 2007 (source: Lloyd's Register of Shipping, 2000)
The world trade transportation system is based on fossil fuels.
8

2 REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2012
The emergence of air pollution

The massive extraction and combustion of fossil A.fuels,
WORLDalong
ECONOMIC with the release
SITUATION
tradeof
AND In 2011,
and chemical substances,
world GDP, industrial production, merchandise
seaborne shipments continued to move
PROSPECTS1
affect the air quality. As mentioned previously, the cities were first affected by a ir p ollution. T he vicinity
industrial production decelerated in the countries
of industries and urban areas amplified the issue o1.f aWorld
ir quality.
economic growth2 of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and
The global economy lost steam in 2011, with gross

On a larger scale, from the 19th to the mid-‐20th century, London suffered from the smog caused by the
combustion of large quantities of coal and other fossil fuels, impairing the air quality of the entire city.
the sovereign debt crisis in Europe, the slow recovery nuclear accident that hit the country in March 2011, as
This smog became an issue to solve when, in December 1952, the premature well
facing advanced economies, a number of factors
death of 4000 people and
as the interruptions to the supply chains caused
effect on another 100,000 people was directly linked to this air pollution. Recent
have weighed down on global growth. These include, r esearch suggests that
Tighter monetary policies in many developing regions
this event caused around 12,000 fatalities. and social unrest in North Africa and Western Asia, contributed to moderate growth in industrial activity.
natural disasters in Japan and Thailand which have In China for example, industrial production grew
Despite such visible drawbacks, industrialism and disrupted

trade
prices became norms for
of economic
regional and global supply chains, rising oil
and volatility, austerity measures, the fading growth.
2010. Brazil, India and the Russian Because
Federation also
wealth and related power extracted from industrialism and trade mastery
the stimulus effect of 2010, and geopolitical tensions in
the Strait of Hormuz. Many of these factors remained
cannot be ignored, strong
expanded their industrial output, albeit at a slower
rate than in 2010. Flooding in Thailand strongly
political supports induce worldwide spread of theses doctrines. In addition, favourable geopolitical
relevant in 2012, and, depending on how they evolve,
they could impact dramatically on the global economic cent in October and November, and drove down
triggers appeared with the decline of European and
outlook. soviet empires and the outputs global promotion
in Singapore, of open
Hong Kong (China), Malaysia
market economy. In such contexts, industrialization and exchange exploded and new industrialized
Figure 1.1. The OECD Industrial Production Index and indices for world GDP, world merchandise trade
countries emerged. and world seaborne trade (1975–2012) (1990 = 100)
350
300 World merchandise

trade
250
World seaborne trade
200
World GDP
150
OECD Industrial
Production Index
100
50
1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011
Source: UNCTAD secretariat, on the basis of OECD Main Economic Indicators, May 2012; UCTAD, The Trade and Development
Report 2012; UNCTAD Review of Maritime Transport

press release 658, April 2012, World Trade 2011, Prospects for 2012. The 2012 index for seaborne trade is calculated on
the basis of the growth rate forecast by Clarkson Research Services in Shipping Review & Outlook, spring 2012.
Figure 2: World Industrial production Index 1919-‐2013 (source Data360) & Evolution of world trade structure 1975-‐2010
(source: UNCTAD, 2012)
Since 2010, China became the second world largest economy and should reach the first position within
few years. This rise of BRIC countries demonstrates that the overwhelming western domination on
world economy during the last two centuries is coming to an end. This tendency shows the success of
the industrial and trade models but tends to omit serious drawbacks, particularly if national policy does
not contain adequate pollution control mechanisms.
The extension of manufacturing and energy intensive systems induced an increase of air released in the
atmosphere at unprecedented levels during the human era. So, from restricted to UK and developed
economies, the situation of harmful air pollution is becoming a worldwide issue in the 21st century,
which particularly affects the emerging economies (Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan,
Senegal, etc.).
9


Figure 3: PM10 measurement in large city – data from 2003 to 2010 (WHO)
Fortunately, the undeniable impacts of air pollutants triggers regulatory processes aiming to mitigate
the issue while concurrently raising awareness among the public as well as enhancing research on
pollution – e.g. Chinese Ministry of Environmental Protection carefully monitors air emissions in large
cities and develops regulations to mitigate the issue. So, through its deadly aftermath, the air
contamination acquired social visibility and political recognizance.
The amounts of pollutant emitted in the air are becoming so large that their consequences cannot be
ignored, both at local and global levels. The invisible air pollution obtains a social visibility and publicity
through its unfortunate effects locally and through its impacts on the global climate system. Economic
models and population growth modify faster than ever the air quality.
Rationale for action

In the words of Beck (1992), we are living in an unprecedented risk society, which is characterised by
permanent and global threats. The issue of global warming linked to GHG emissions illustrates this
concept.
“Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in
global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice and rising global
average sea level.” (IPCC, 2007a)
The obvious impacts of atmospheric changes need to be addressed and minimized in order to keep a
balanced environment for human societies. A global problem requires an international response.
The rationale for action is threefold:
• The price of energy tends to increase with the scarcity of resources : “the amount which remains
at any given time equals the amount initially present less that which has been consumed”
(Hubbert, 1949).
• The absence of action may seriously jeopardize the living conditions on earth for human beings :
“one of the consequences of the current stage of industrialization and the demand for improved
10


quality of life has been increased exposure to air pollution coming from industrial activities,
traffic and energy production” (WHO, 2007).
• The power acquired by the humankind forces it to be responsible for the consequences of its
actions (Jonas, 1984).
In short, environmental and moral justifications presently merge with an economic motivation :
“We stand at a juncture where our words need to be matched by actions, so that climate change
will not accelerate its adverse effect on everybody. And the decisions and actions we must take
without further delay, will be of paramount importance for generations to come (…) that said,
mid-‐range scenarios show that, by 2050, those emissions could grow by a factor of 2 to 3 if no
regulations to stem them are enacted. Successfully addressing climate change will be far from
easy; but the consequences of failing to do so are too dire to contemplate.” (Mitropoulos as cited
in IMO, 2009).
But, before introducing the international response to climate change, we need to detail the combustion
outputs which constitute the main origins of global warming.
1.2 Energy source: the choice of combustion

The notion of energy is used to characterize a transformation process – e.g. chemical, physical. In
Ancient Greek, the word energeia means activity, operation or force in action. This relates to the
present ideas of work or quantity of work (W) necessary to modify a system state. The joule (J)
represents the international unit of energy, but other units may express energy.

“Energy is the capacity of a system to do physical work – essentially its capacity to set matter in motion.” (Wilden, 1987)

In short, the energy is the ability to generate work and anything that can be transformed into work. The
link to human societies is obvious because human beings -‐ like any other living system -‐ need to
transform their immediate environment to exist and survive. This transformation can be understood as
an energetic transfer – e.g. plants consumed will be transformed in energy usable by the body system.
The use of energy by human beings is not restricted to self-‐survival, but also shapes the surroundings
and dominates nature. The combination of human creativity and massive energy use enables large
transformation and adaption of the entire environment to social willingness.
Numerous sources of energy are available to man. Each of them possesses advantages and drawbacks
established and classified according to social paradigms. As a result, chosen sources of energy depend
on local availability as well as society type and beliefs.
In our present world, easy to extract and use, cheap and reliable energy types are favoured. They permit
economic predictability and large opportunities of use. Today, energy sources choices are made on
economic considerations but not on environmental grounds. This stance is relevant as long as the
externalities of such energies are not accounted or remains invisible. Human societies are now entering
in a brand new era inside which externalities have to be considered in the market society.
The origins and composition of fossil fuels

In order to overcome the capriciousness and inconstancy of the renewable energy – e.g. wind and
water, the choice of fire or combustion processes as power source became evident in the emerging
industrialized societies for efficiency, performance and reliability reasons.
11


The basic elements of fire do not depend on external factors unmanageable by human beings. By
controlling the ignition source and fuel availability, humans adjust the energy produced by the
combustion according to their needs.
In addition, most of the components of combustion are easily available on earth. Oxygen is available
everywhere, many fuels exist and ignition has been known for years. Assembled properly, these
elements provide efficient, reliable and controllable sources of energy.
However, the mastery and the proper use of combustion require appropriate technology.
The fuel combustion produces energy but generates a certain number of by-‐products. As a chemical
transformation, the combustion follows the well-‐known principle defined by Lavoisier (1743-‐1794):
"nothing is lost, nothing is created, everything is transformed”.
Therefore, the identification of input elements determines combustion outputs.
Fossil fuels were created millions of years ago, most certainly from the compression and chemistry
occurring inside layers of organic matter accumulated and covered. So, these fuels contain high level of
carbon captured long time ago. Coal usually contains up to 95% of carbon, the rest being hydrogen,
water and ash. Crude oil demonstrates a carbon proportion of around 82-‐87% by weight.
While coal is predominantly made of carbon, crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons.
In addition to carbon and hydrogen, crude oil and coal may hold a large variety of chemical compounds
trapped in their structures:
• Coal contains mainly carbon on an average of 90% but also sulphur and many other noxious
matters such as mercury.
• “An ‘average’ crude oil contains about 84% carbon, 14% hydrogen, 1%-‐3% sulfur, and less than
1% each of nitrogen, oxygen, metals, and salts” (OSHA, 2012)
The combustion principle in engines

Whatever the type of engine considered – external or internal combustion -‐ the outcome of combustion
depends on fuel characteristics and on the quality of the combustion process.
Both factors will determine the types and quantities of components released in the air. In short, a high
quality fuel burnt in perfect combustion conditions reduces the release of harmful substances. However,
some compounds are always present in the combustion of fossil fuels like water and CO2.
12

INPUT:
AIR + COMBUSTIBLE
Coal or Oil

OUTPUT:
HEAT
+
COMBUSTION BY-‐PRODUCTS

Figure 4: boiler burner principle in external combustion engines
From steam to diesel engines

Following various experimentations during the 17th and 18th centuries, the steam engine became
operational on board ships during the 19th century. Coal was the first fuel used to generate steam in
order to activate paddles and propellers. Turbine engines were introduced later.
Initially done manually, coal feeding was difficult and unsafe. Moreover, large volumes of coal needed to
be stored onboard which drastically reduced vessel carrying capacities.
13

Exhaust GAS of

combustion Steam directed to the steam
engines or turbines
STEAM
Paddle or propeller

Figure 5: steam generator principle onboard ships
Coal produced thick smoke and the energy efficiency of steam systems remained low. These drawbacks
fostered the use of oil and encouraged technical innovation, particularly the modification of the main
engine principle.
Indeed, the first diesel ocean-‐going ship, the MV Selandia, was launched in 1912. The novelty was the
direct use of the energy of combustion without utilizing steam systems – i.e. combustion occurred inside
the engine operating the propeller. Such engines improved the energy efficiency of ships.
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Figure 6: internal combustion engine
The efficiency of the internal combustion engine is higher than the external combustion engine. Thus,
after the 1973 oil crisis and the rise of oil prices, diesel engines dominated the shipping industry.
However, some narrow sectors of the industry still rely on other kind of engines.
By-‐products of combustion

As mentioned previously, combustion outputs result from the reaction between the fuel and the air
provided in the combustion chamber, as well as the quality of this combustion. In short, the mixture of
fuel and air components is transformed through the combustion process and form a new mixture of
compounds.
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 + 𝐴𝑖𝑟 → 𝐸𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
In terms of exhaust gas release, the theoretical combustion reaction to consider takes place among the
oxygen of the air and the hydrocarbons of the fuel:
𝑦 𝑦
𝐶𝑥𝐻𝑦 + 𝑥 + 𝑂2 → 𝑥𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2𝑂
4 2
However, air is not purely made of oxygen. Air contains around 21% of oxygen (O2) and 78% of nitrogen
(N2) and small quantities of other gases. In the same way, fuels are not purely made of carbon and
hydrogen chains. So, the outcome of combustion results in compounds combinations despite the clear
dominance of carbon dioxide and water release.
15

Fossil Fuel + Air
Carbon Dioxide + Water + Nitrogen
+ Various gaseous compounds + Particulate Matter

Figure 7: combustion reaction
The main components resulting from combustion are listed below. Water is voluntarily forgotten
because it does not present any harm or impact on humans and the environment.
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
This gas is naturally present in the air and mainly associated with the living. While CO2 concentration was
280 parts per million (ppm) prior to 1750, the present concentration is about 390 ppm by volume (IPCC,
2007b). It has been observed that the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere steadily increased since the
industrial revolution. Such level of CO2 in the air does not affect human health. However, CO2
contributes to global warming and ocean acidification.
Nitrogen oxide (NOx)
NOx refer to many types of nitrogen and oxygen compounds. Such compounds originate from the
combustion process. During the combustion, a small quantity of nitrogen is oxidized to form various
nitrogen oxides. The amount of NOx emitted by the engine is “primarily a function of flame or
combustion temperature and, if present, the amount of organic nitrogen available from the fuel” (IMO,
2009a). These by-‐products of combustion have detrimental effects on the environment and the human
body.
Sulphur oxide (SOx)
SOx refer to various compounds containing sulphur and oxygen which reacted during combustion. The
amount of SOx release is directly linked to the sulphur content of the fuel used. So, the quality of the
fuel determines the release of SOx in the atmosphere. As a global trend, while terrestrial sulphur
compounds releases declined, the amount of SOx emitted by shipping increased from 1970 to 2005,
particularly before the entry into force of regulations (Smith S.J., van Aardenne J., Klimont Z., Anders
R.J., Volke A. and Delgado Arias S., 2011).
Particulate Matter (PM)
PM is made of tiny solid or liquid elements suspended in gases. They result from imperfect combustion
processes. The type and size of PM release determine the effects on human health and the
environment.
Despite the existence of numerous substances released in the atmosphere which may impact the
climate, the main problem is CO2 because of the volumes emitted.
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Energy Efficiency strategy
The first strategy to reduce emissions without modifying socio-‐economics is to enhance energy
efficiency.
The concept of Energy Efficiency refers to the optimization of work by unit of energy consumed. In the
shipping context, where most emissions are linked to engine consumption, fuel savings mathematically
shrink air emissions.
Such a strategy possesses a clear validity in the context of energy scarcity and air emission concern. In
addition, it avoids radical changes in emission control and therefore limits socio-‐economic disturbance.

Figure 8: energy flow on board for propulsion
(Source : Nakasawa, 2012)
The improvement of each leg reduces the overall engine consumption without disturbing the crew and
ship management. However, it was established by the IMO that the Energy Efficiency strategy must
encompass all aspects influencing fuel consumption, including design -‐ hull and engine -‐ and operation –
i.e. onboard and ashore management.
1.3 From Local air pollutants to Global climate change

Three main elements drive the amount of air emissions: fuel type, population size, as well as
socioeconomic models and their effects on energy needs.
In low populated and pre-‐industrial societies, as long as human beings used fire to heat and cook, the
pollutants released throughout the combustion process remained restricted to the immediate vicinity.
Therefore, rules to control air pollution were initially designed to satisfy local interests and national
communities. Nowadays, the extent of the issue modifies both public and regulator perception. But the
magnitude of pollutant releases cross man-‐man barriers and borders and pollution becomes a global
threat which requires international cooperation.
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But before reviewing the international response, some definitions of air pollution and clarification of the
main air pollutants present in the atmosphere are necessary.
Air pollution : main definitions

One of the first international definitions of air pollution was created by the Convention on Long-‐Range
Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP Convention) of 1979. The Convention evokes the geographical
origins of pollution and does not restrict State responsibility to national territorial limits. Through an
open definition and broad fundamental principles, it is intended to address the issue at a large scale and
to encourage Parties to cooperate for the control of harmful pollutants emitted in the atmosphere.
LRTAP Convention, 1979 :
Article 1: Definitions

(a) “Air Pollution” means the introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the air resulting in
deleterious effects of such a nature as to endanger human health, harm living resources and ecosystems, material
property and impair or interfere with amenities and other legitimate uses of the environment, and “air pollutants” shall
be construed accordingly;
(b) “Long-‐range transboundary air pollution” means air pollution whose physical origin is situated wholly or in part within
the area under the national jurisdiction of one State and which has adverse effects in the area under the jurisdiction of
another State at such a distance that it is not generally possible to distinguish the contribution of individual emissions
sources or groups of sources.
Article 2: Fundamental principles
The Contracting Parties, taking due account of the facts and problems involved, are determined to protect man and his
environment against air pollution and shall endeavour to limit and, as far as possible, gradually reduce and prevent air
pollution including long-‐range transboundary air pollution.
Article 3:
The Contracting Parties, within the framework of the present Convention, shall by means of exchanges of information,
consultation, research and monitoring, develop without undue delay policies and strategies which shall serve as a means
of combating the discharge of air pollutants, taking into account efforts already made at national and international levels.

Another definition was provided in 1985 by the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone
Layer. It introduced the idea that the adverse impacts of air pollutants may affect the global climate as
well as the ecosystems, their resilience and mechanisms.
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, 1985
Article 1 2. “Adverse effects” means changes in the physical environment or biota, including changes in climate, which
have significant deleterious effects on human health or on the composition, resilience and productivity of natural and
managed ecosystems, or on materials useful to mankind.

In 1992, the United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted a very similar
definition, which in fact extended the concept of air pollution to its effects on global climate and
ecosystems alterations.
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UNFCCC, 1992
Article 1:
1. "Adverse effects of climate change" means changes in the physical environment or biota resulting from climate
change which have significant deleterious effects on the composition, resilience or productivity of natural and managed
ecosystems or on the operation of socio-‐economic systems or on human health and welfare.
2. "Climate change" means a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the
composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable
time periods.

Over a short time period, the definition of air pollution has progressively integrated and assimilated the
idea of adverse effects and the global impacts of air pollution.
The next step is the clear identification of the main drivers of air pollution. Such drivers are identified in
many UN documents.
“Quantitatively, the three important life cycles, namely, the sulphur cycle, the nitrogen cycle and the carbon cycle, play a
big role in contributing to air pollutants and also as sinks of excess of these gases.” (UNEP/UNDP/DUTCH, 1999)
The World Health Organization (WHO) merges definitions and focuses on human health impacts.
“Air pollution is contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment by any chemical, physical or biological agent that
modifies the natural characteristics of the atmosphere. Household combustion devices, motor vehicles, industrial
facilities and forest fires are common sources of air pollution. Pollutants of major public health concern include
particulate matter, carbon monoxide, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Outdoor and indoor air pollution cause
respiratory and other diseases, which can be fatal” (http://www.who.int/topics/air_pollution/en/)
To summarize, air pollution is the contamination of the atmosphere affecting human beings and the
environment, which ultimately alters the global climate. According to the various definitions provided
by UN bodies, climate change relates to air pollution.
Variety of pollutants

The atmosphere contains a large variety of air pollutants. Some are emitted naturally and others are of
anthropogenic origin.
Most of the natural elements participated into the balance of the earth’s sea-‐land-‐air system, permitting
the present state of ecosystems to exist. Air pollution took place when the level of natural plus man-‐
made pollutant releases exceeded certain thresholds. The surplus of pollutants disturbs the global
climate system and affects human health and environment.
A large diversity of compounds is now considered in excess. The most commons are:
• NOx such as NO and NO2, NH3 as well as nitric acid;
• SOx such as SO and SO2, H2S as well as sulphuric acid;
• Sulphates and nitrates aerosols;
• Oxo carbons, such as CO and CO2;
• Carbon compounds, such as CH4 and volatile organic compounds (VOC);
• Ozone (O3) – two kinds of ozone coexist in the lower and higher atmospheric layers;
• Fluorocarbon and chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) compounds such as perchlorofluorocarbons
(PFC), sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFC);
• Halogen compounds, such as chlorides, fluorides and bromides;
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• Particulate matter or organic aerosols – i.e. microscopic liquid or solid substances

including heavy metals such as cadmium, lead and mercury (WHO, 2007).
We can classify these pollutants in two categories:
• those impacting the environment and human health and;
• those impacting the global climate system.
For the purpose of this document, we will focus on the second aspect of the issue: the impact on the
global climate system.
Climate system
The climate is usually defined as the average weather over a long term period. Or in a more scientifically
accurate way, the World Meteorological Organization defines climate as “the statistical description in
terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time ranging from months to
thousands or millions of years” (http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/wcp/ccl/faqs.html). So, the climate
differs from the daily weather which is of chaotic nature and barely predictable on a short time basis.
The climate proposes an image of the weather over time inside which the extreme events are obviously
invisible.
However, the climate is not only an addition of average parameters dependant on daily observations.
The climate is a whole system which combines numerous interactions and retroactions between various
complex subsystems: the atmosphere, oceans, land, ice and snow, living creatures including human
beings and their activities (IPCC, 2007a).
The dynamics of the earth climate are impacted by the alteration of each of the following system:
• the atmosphere -‐ i.e. gases;
• the hydrosphere -‐i.e. water;
• the lithosphere -‐ i.e. solid layer of the earth;
• the cryosphere -‐ i.e. frozen waters;
• the biosphere -‐ i.e. living things.
These intertwined elements form and influence the climate system which in return influences them. A
permanent retroactive feedback connects the whole and the parts of the climate system (Berkes F.,
Colding J. & Folke C.Berkes, 2003). In such a complex and dynamic system of interactions, there is no
permanent stability.
This global pattern possesses day-‐by-‐day effects on the weather which affects human beings and their
activities.
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Figure 9: schematic view of the components of the climate system, their processes and interactions
(Source: IPCC, 2007b)
In such complex system interactions, the alteration of the system affects the whole set pattern. The
modification of the atmospheric properties affects the other systems which by retroaction influence
again the atmosphere. As an example, global warming increases ice melting which retroactively
increases the warming effect by reducing the reflection of sun radiation, which is called albedo.
Greenhouse Gas (GHG) and climate change

Greenhouse gases act as a cover warming the planet. Their influence is highly valuable because they
redeploy the energy of the infrared emitted by the earth surface. Without such effect, the planet would
be very cold. GHG represent a tiny fraction of the atmosphere, less than 1%. Except man-‐made
chemicals like CFC and HFC, GHG are naturally present in the atmosphere.
The issue of GHG is not the presence in the atmosphere but the change in GHG concentration which
affects the retention of solar heat and consequently warms the lower atmospheric layers.
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Figure 10: an idealised model of the natural greenhouse effect
(Source : IPCC, 2007)
The present GHG effect results from the interaction of various mechanisms affecting the incoming and
outgoing energy from the sun. Some components contained in the air enhance the warming effect while
others diminish it. The balance of both influences establishes a living environment on earth beneficial to
human beings and their activities.
Presently, anthropogenic air emissions perturb the long-‐term established atmospheric pseudo-‐
equilibrium and the mechanisms which increase the warming effect on the climate tend to overwhelm
the others. The paleoclimatologists consider that “there is no indication in the ice core record that an
increase comparable in magnitude and rate to the industrial era has occurred in the past 650 kyr “ (IPCC,
2007a).
With the rise in anthropogenic sources of GHG and the perturbation of natural sinks – e.g. forests, the
amount of GHG present in the atmosphere increases and, therefore, amplify the GHG effect and the
warming of the planet. The modification of the gases distribution in the air is now considered to be the
result of human activities.
“Global atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide have
increased markedly as a result of human activities since 1750 and now far exceed pre-‐industrial
values determined from ice cores spanning many thousands of years (see Figure SPM.1). The
global increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land use
change, while those of methane and nitrous oxide are primarily due to agriculture.” (IPCC,
2007c).
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Figure 11: evolution of atmospheric concentration of main GHG
(Source: IPCC, 2007a)
The impact of the industrial era on the GHG amount in the air results in an increment of around 25% for
CO2, 120% for CH4 and 9% for N2O (IPCC, 2007b).
Because these gases have an impact of the overall energy distribution on the earth and the climate
system, the modification of their concentration may jeopardize the present balance of the climate and
earth system.
The main heat-‐trapping gases are:
Carbon dioxide
The IPCC believes that CO2influences the most global warming (IPCC, 2001) because of the quantities
released and its lifetime in the atmosphere. However, as a natural compound, CO2 belongs to a large
carbon circulation between land, atmosphere and oceans in which carbon sources (release) and carbon
sinks (capture) coexist.
The main sources of human-‐related CO2 emissions are fossil fuels burnt for electricity generation,
transportation, industrial and household uses, cement manufacturing by-‐product, and deforestation.
“Globally, over the past several decades, about 80 percent of human-‐induced carbon dioxide
emissions came from the burning of fossil fuels, while about 20 percent resulted from
deforestation and associated agricultural practices. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere has increased by roughly 35 percent since the start of the industrial revolution.”
(Karl Thomas R., Melillo Jerry M., and Peterson Thomas C., 2009)
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The hydrocarbon used released fossil carbon in the atmosphere which was captured in the bowels of the
earth. This carbon supplemented the existing carbon cycle and increased the CO2 present in the air.
In addition, deforestation, land-‐use change and soil degradation are affected by human activities which
reduce their abilities to capture carbon as sinks. Moreover, there are serious uncertainties in the
capacity of the ocean to retain increasing amounts of CO2.

Figure 12: major carbon pools and fluxes of the global carbon balance
(Source : FAO : http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5738e/y5738e05.htm)
Methane
Main sources of human-‐related CH4 emissions are agriculture and livestock, mining, transportation, use
of certain fossil fuels, sewage, and decomposing garbage in landfills. CH4 quantities in the air are far less
than CO2 but its warming capacity is very high despite its short lifetime.
Nitrous oxide
Industrial farming use large quantities of fertilizers and accounts for the majority of the nitrous oxide
release. The second source is the combustion of the fossil fuels.
Halocarbons
These manufactured compounds are extensively used as refrigerant but may be found in other industrial
processes. Despite their scarcity in the air, their radiative forcing effect is important and they may
remain active very long time: “therefore, these compounds, even with relatively small emissions, have
the potential to influence climate far into the future. Perfluoromethane (CF4) resides in the atmosphere
24


for at least 50,000 years.”(IPCC, 2001) Their quantities seem to have peaked in 1994, and are now
declining slowly. The regulations on ozone depleting substances (ODS) contribute to this decline.
Other gases
Among numerous others, ozone or water vapour have GHG properties.
In addition, particulate matter emitted in the atmosphere may have varying properties and “depending
on their type, aerosols can either mask or increase the warming caused by increased levels of
greenhouse gases.” (Karl T.L. et. al., 2009)
Climate change impacts on oceans

Global warming and air substances absorbed by the sea water deeply affect the ocean health.
Ecosystems and habitats are disturbed by the modification of ocean properties in relation with the
absorbing of air emitted compound and global warming. Another consequence of the warming is the
ocean dilatation and sea-‐level rise which endangers coastal ecosystems and accelerates erosion.
In addition, CO2 combined with other atmospheric compounds has another important impact: oceans
acidification. As part of the natural carbon cycle, oceans absorb CO2. While CO2 increases in the air, its
amount dissolved in the oceans increases.
In sea water, CO2 reacts with H2O, forms carbonic acid and the overall acidification process of the ocean
begins :
“the acidification of the surface ocean by anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) absorbed from the
atmosphere is now well-‐recognized and is considered to have lowered surface ocean pH by 0.1 units”
th
(corresponding to an approximately 25% increase in the acidity of the surface oceans) since the mid-‐18
century”(GESAMP, 2012).
The present rate of ocean acidification increase has no precedent for the last 30 million years. The high
speed acidification may impair the ability of many organisms to cope with changing oceanic properties:
“Ocean acidification is known to have significant impacts on ocean areas, including reduced ability of
many key marine organisms, including calcareous phytoplankton, the base of much of the marine food
chain, to build their shell and skeletal structures; increased physiological stress, reduced growth and
survival of early life stages of some species”(IOC/UNESCO, 2011).
Despite the worrying effects of global warming and atmosphere alteration, it remains a large number of
uncertainties lying in the complexity of ecosystems and social world.
For example, the impact of CO2 is particularly difficult to predict because it belongs to the carbon
circulation system of the planet. In this cycle, the land and ocean feedbacks impacts on CO2
concentration remain uncertain. The future releases in the atmosphere are not completely predictable
because they largely depend on the evolution of the economic and social choices.
1.4 Combating air pollution: the role of international bodies

Before the 1970s, the regulations addressing air pollution resulted from local or national needs and/or
pressure. In addition, these regulations focused on pollutant release and did not consider the overall
climate alteration.
During the 1970s and the 1980s, facing an increasing pollution problem and public concern,
governments initiated actions. Within the same period, the expansion of the industrial society model
modified the extent of pollution-‐related issues. Multiple potential threats and acute or chronic pollutant
release cannot be contained locally.
25


Pollution knows no frontiers and spreads throughout the world.
Background to the international response

The great smog in UK and USA during the 1950s and 1960s, the groundings of Torrey Canyon (1967) and
Amoco Cadiz (1978), damages related to acid rain in the 1970s, the release of poisonous chemicals in
Bhopal (1982) and the nuclear accident of Chernobyl (1986) demonstrate the accuracy of the rising “risk
society.” The permanence of unlimited risks established a period of endless, global threats which shifted
the individual and social perceptions of risks and particularly of those affecting the environment.
In global risks context, local and national regulations could be deemed ineffective and insufficient. The
progressive recognition of this context offered opportunities to the United Nations bodies to drive
adequate governance.
In the 1970s, the presence of acid rain materialized the magnitude of air pollution and triggered the
necessity to build a cooperative agreement. Acid rain is formed when large quantities of NOx and SOx
released in the air react with air components and form acids. Clouds carry these acids on long distances
and across borders. When certain conditions are met, the water and acids contained in clouds drop and
contaminate the area exposed to rain. Often, the surfaces affected were located away from the area of
pollutant release; the issue thus required international cooperation.
The inability to control when and where acid rain impacted an area forced regulators to identify
pollution sources contributing to the creation of acid rain. Once identified, those sources could be
controlled through the regulatory process. Prevention is the only possibility to address such issues.
The global issue of acid rain demonstrates that combination of human activities may contaminate large
natural cycle like water-‐rain cycle. The contamination of clouds structures had serious emotional
impacts of populations and regulators. To address the detrimental effects of human power, the
humankind as a whole has to assume responsibility for the preservation of the environment (Jonas,
1979).
In 1972, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE) adopted a body of
principles which would later support international instruments:
• Principle 2 recalls the importance to preserve for the future the present “resources of
the earth”
• Principle 21 sets out that States should “ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or
control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the
limits of national jurisdiction.”
The latter principle provided the grounds for governing the International responsibility of States in
regard to the environment:
“The principle is echoed in U.N. General Assembly Resolution 3281, in Article 30 of the Charter
of Economic Rights and Duties of States, and in Article 194(2) of the 1982 U.N. Convention on
the Law of the Sea, which provides: "[S]tates shall take all measures necessary to ensure that
activities under their jurisdiction or control are so conducted as not to cause damage by
pollution to other states and their environment, and that pollution arising from incidents or
activities under their jurisdiction or control does not spread beyond the areas where they
exercise sovereign rights in accordance with this Convention” (Zaelke, Durwood & Cameron,
1990)
26


In 1982, the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea integrated some of the UNCHE
principles into the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), particularly in Part XII
(provisions on prevention of pollution of the marine environment).
In 1992, the Earth Summit held in Rio prompted important trends through the adoption of the Rio
Declaration on Environment and Development, which sets 27 principles. In addition, several instruments
were adopted.
In parallel to the development and promotion of international environmental principles, the first legally
binding instrument to address air pollution was adopted in 1979 under the auspices of the United
Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). The 1979 Convention on Long Range Transboundary
Air Pollution (LRTAP) entered into force in 1983.
Another event marked the year 1979. In February, the First World Climate Conference was organized by
the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) as a major scientific meeting. The international
gathering made an appeal to Nations: “the Conference finds that it is now urgently necessary for the
nations of the world: […] (c) to foresee and prevent potential man-‐made changes in climate that might
be adverse to the well-‐being of humanity” and recalled the importance of acting internationally for the
climate:
“The climates of the countries of the world are interdependent. For this reason and in view of the increasing
demand for resources by the growing world population that strives for improved living conditions, there is
an urgent need for the development of a common global strategy for a greater understanding and a
rational use of climate. […] There is serious concern that the continued expansion of man’s activities on
earth may cause significant extended regional and even global changes of climate. This possibility adds
further urgency to the need for global co-‐operation to explore the possible future course of global climate
and to take this new understanding into account in planning for the future development of human society.”
(The Declaration of the World Climate Conference, 1979).
A concern grew about anthropogenic changes in climate, the development of binding regulations to
address the issue of air pollutants seriously commenced in 1979.
In the early 1980s the global consequences of air emissions came onto the scene through the issue of
ozone holes above poles. This global threat was addressed directly at the international level.
Adopted in 1985, the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer is a framework
Convention aimed to address the issue of the ozone depletion. The adoption of the Montreal Protocol
on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer in 1987 enabled binding implementation of the
Convention’s provisions. These instruments are considered the first action towards the control of
substances impairing global atmosphere balance. The Protocol banned man-‐made compounds known as
stratospheric ozone depleting substances (ODS). These substances increase ultraviolet radiation at
Earth’s surface by damaging the ozone layer. Additionally, ODSs were known to have a warming effect
by allowing ultraviolet radiation from the sun to penetrate without mitigation. This was accomplished
through the “ozone hole” discovered above polar regions.
The Montreal Protocol has had lasting impact in both protecting the ozone layer and reducing climate
change. “Since most ODSs are also potent greenhouse gases, actions under the Montreal Protocol have
had the very positive side effect of substantially reducing a main source of global warming.” (UNEP,
2011).
Despite the decline of ODSs as a consequence of the regulation enforcement, the ozone layer remains
affected because these substances remain in the atmosphere long after emission.
27


Efforts during the 1970s and 1980 produced multiple international regulatory instruments to protect air
quality. These instruments aimed to control identified substances but did not intend to holistically
address the issue of climate change. In parallel to the creation of such instruments, several international
conferences were organized but no internationally binding instrument was adopted.
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

Another important outcome of the UNCHE was the creation of the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP), whose mandate is to coordinate the global response to established and emerging
environmental challenges. The need for such an organization is clearly expressed in the UN Resolution
2997 (XXVII):
“Emphasizing that problems of the environment constitute a new and important area for international
cooperation and that the complexity and interdependence of such problems require new approaches,” (UN,
1972)
The mission statement of this particular UN body established in Kenya is:
“To provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing,
and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future
generations.” (UNEP, http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=43)
UNEP activities cover the atmosphere, marine and terrestrial ecosystems, environment governance and
green economy. After the Brundtland Report ‘Our Common Future’ and its validation during the ‘Rio
Summit’ in 1992, the concept of sustainable development orientates the UNEP’s research and policy
activities as well as other UN bodies’ works (including the IMO).
Since this major event, every 10 years, Rio de Janeiro holds the UN Conference on Sustainable
Development. In addition, after Johannesburg 2002, the three mutually reinforcing pillars of the
sustainable development have been recognized as overarching goals for institutions at the national,
regional and international levels.

Figure 13: Graphical representation of the principle of Sustainable Development. Logo developed for the United
Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20)

In such context promoting sustainable development, the objectives (UN, 2010) of RIO+20 event were to:
• Secure renewed political commitment for sustainable development
• Assess the progress to date and the remaining gaps in the implementation of the outcomes of
the major summits on sustainable development
28

• Address new and emerging challenges

In the field of climate change, the UNEP supports countries and, in particular, developing nations with
integrating the climate problem in their domestic development process. Four elements foster the
achievement of this objective:
• Adapting to climate change. The purpose is to reduce vulnerability and improve resilience;
• Mitigating climate change. The UNEP supports technologies, policies and investments designed
to reduce GHG emissions as well as energy efficiency and conservation programs;
• Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD). The purpose is to
valorize forests and sinks as well as promoting sustainable management of forest ecosystems;
• Enhancing knowledge and communication. The UNEP supports education and awareness
programs.

Put briefly, preparedness, sustainable development, science and cooperation are the present key words
guiding UN actions to protect the environment.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

Created under the auspices of the UNEP and the WMO, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) was endorsed by the UN in 1988. The objective was to build an internationally recognized
structure capable to regularly monitor and diagnose the evolution on the climate system and its
consequences. Its mission is to review:
“(a) The state of knowledge of the science of climate and climatic change;
(b) Programmes and studies on the social and economic impact of climate change, including
global warming;
(c) Possible response strategies to delay, limit or mitigate the impact of adverse climate change;
(d) The identification and possible strengthening of relevant existing international legal
instruments having a bearing on climate;
(e) Elements for inclusion in a possible future international convention on climate “(UN, 1988).
In other words, the purpose of the IPCC is to provide a clear scientific view on climate change and its
potential environmental and socio-‐economic consequences.
The IPCC gathers the data published worldwide and produces assessments and reports on the situation
of climate change. Thousands of scientists participate in the IPCC in order to provide accurate, rigorous
and reliable data to policy makers.
In 1990, the IPCC published its First Assessment Report and the next assessment report is expected in
2013/14. In addition to these assessments, the IPCC provides expertise to the Conference of the Parties
to the UNFCCC, and other bodies as requested.
Strict processes control the credibility of the data edited by the IPCC. The reports issued by the IPCC
have to be endorsed during a plenary session by the governments’ representatives which, subsequently,
validate the scientific authority of the IPCC. However, despite its policy relevance, the work completed
by the IPCC is not prescriptive.
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The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
After two years of intensive negotiations through the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee on
Climate Change, during the early 1992, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) was adopted and opened for signature a few months later during the Rio Summit. The
UNFCCC entered into force in March 1994.
This Convention was drafted in accordance with the format designed for the Vienna Convention for the
Protection of the Ozone Layer. The UNFCCC is another framework Convention which focuses on
promoting cooperation by means of systematic observations, research and information exchange on the
effects of human activities on climate, and adopting legislative or administrative measures against
activities likely to have adverse effects. This instrument does not set precise objectives. This is the
reason why such a framework Convention is followed by Protocols detailing obligations and that may
affect the Convention.
The UNFCCC was adopted on the following grounds:
• Climate change is a common concern of humankind requiring a global response;
• Human activities increase GHG emissions;
• Historically, developed countries played the first role in GHG release and should act
immediately;
• Developing countries have a high degree of reliance on fossil fuels and may have difficulties
addressing GHG issues. In addition, sustainable social and economic development may need
additional energy consumption;
• Predictions have to deal with numerous uncertainties;
• States have the responsibility to make sure the activities under their jurisdiction do not
harm other areas (UNCHE, 1972 -‐ Principle 21); and
• The protection of the climate must encompass the environmental, social and economic
impacts of the measures taken and be science-‐based.
The objective of the Convention (Art.2) is to prevent Climate System alteration by stabilizing GHG to a
harmless level in order to avoid ecosystem disruption and economic disturbance.
Among the guiding principles (Art.3) set in the UNFCCC, the following should be mentioned:
• The UNFCCC introduces the notion of “common but differentiated responsibilities and
respective capabilities.” Two elements form this notion -‐ the common responsibility of States to
participate in the protection and preservation of the environment; and the differentiate
responsibility -‐ linked the available capacity and historical contribution to the evolution of a
particular problem. Consequently, the Convention defines obligations for all Parties and specific
requirements for developed countries which are listed in the Annex I & II.
• The precautionary principle is highlighted by recalling that the lack of scientific data should not
inhibit action.
• Sustainable development remains a guiding principle.
• The open international economic system should be promoted and measures implemented to
combat climate change should not justify restrictions on international trade.
Despite these declarations, the commitment does not require imperative GHG release reduction.
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The requirements imposed on States are limited to commitments (Art.4) and communication regarding
implementation (Art.12).
In short, all Parties have to:
• Develop and communicate to the Conference of Parties a “national inventory of
anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks”.
• Commit to develop and communicate the measures related to GHG control.
• Promote “technology transfer and the sustainable management, conservation, and
enhancement of greenhouse gas sinks and reservoirs (such as forests and oceans).”
(UNEP/UNFCCC, 2002)
• Consider climate change in social, economic and environmental policy development.
• Cooperate in sciences, techniques and education as well as exchange information related to
climate change
• Promote public awareness and education.
Following the “common but differentiate principle,” the developed countries have to commit to
additional requirements:
• They must play a leading role and demonstrate their commitment by developing measures
and creating adequate strategy to reduce GHG emission.
• Their policies should aim at returning to their 1990’s GHG emission level.
• Several countries may join to pursue a common target.
• The countries in transition to market economy benefit from certain flexibility in the
implementation.
• The richest nations shall provide additional funding and facilitate technology transfer.
The UNFCCC “supreme body” is the Conference of the Parties (COP) which meets every year. The COP is
a large forum of information exchange beneficial for all participants. The COP plays an important role in
promoting, reviewing and supporting the Convention and its members needing support to implement
regulations. In addition to the normal discussion, the COP may develop and adopt a protocol, like in
1997 during the 3rd COP in Kyoto.
The Kyoto protocol

The first COP held in 1995 in Berlin issued a decision emphasizing the need to continue the effort of GHG
reduction after 2000 and to determine stronger and more detailed commitment for developed
countries. The Kyoto protocol concluded a first part of the negotiation process initiated in Berlin. The
completion of the discussions has been achieved during the COP 7 (2001) in Marrakesh when the detail
of the implementation measures rules for the Protocol was agreed.
The Kyoto protocol set binding emission targets for the developed countries in Annex I in order to
pursue the ultimate objective of the UNFCCC: “with a view to reducing their overall emissions of such
gases by at least 5 per cent below 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008 to 2012.”(Art.3)
In addition, the Annex B of the Kyoto Protocol under the “Quantified emission limitation or reduction
commitment” contains the targets to be reached by individual countries.
The assigned amount of emissions covers the major GHG -‐ i.e. CO2, CH4, NO2, HFCs, PFCs and SF6. To
reach their targets, countries can reduce their emission and/or offset their emission by investing in
carbon sinks which generates removal units.
The Kyoto Protocol introduces three innovative mechanisms:
31

• joint implementation;
• clean development; and
• emission trading.
These mechanisms were designed to limit the cost of measures by permitting the investment in other
countries (both Annex I and non-‐Annex I) in which emission reduction can be achieved at cheaper costs.
However, such offset strategies of emission reduction must supplement domestic actions and not being
the main objective of the country.
Specialized transport agencies

The involvement of general international bodies in the aviation and the maritime sectors is on a
voluntary basis. In fact, the existence of specialized agencies in charge of air and sea transportation
avoids the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol to cover these sectors. In this respect, the Kyoto protocol
clearly identifies the responsibility of these special agencies to assume their responsibilities:
“2. The Parties included in Annex I shall pursue limitation or reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases
not controlled by the Montreal Protocol from aviation and marine bunker fuels, working through the
International Civil Aviation Organization and the International Maritime Organization, respectively.”
(Kyoto Protocol, Art. 2.2)
Of note, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the International Maritime
Organization (IMO) are required to pursue the objectives and intentions defined by the United
Nations. Additionally, the IMO was the first to develop GHG regulation to implement internationally.
Conclusion
Added to natural emissions, the non-‐natural releases of pollutants find their sources in the social world.
The amounts and types of human-‐made emissions depend on the population size and their related
activities. In this respect, the industrialization process of the world seriously modified the human-‐made
emissions in terms of quantity and quality.
Since then, air emissions released in the atmosphere accumulate and modify atmosphere properties
which in return may endanger human beings and their societies.
As this gives cause for concern, the international community tries to limit alteration processes by
adopting regulations. Climate change affects or will affect all activities and locations around the world.
Therefore, all sectors engage actions and the shipping activity participate in GHG reduction. Human
societies are presently facing a singular era of risks in which contrivances are under construction.
2 Greenhouse Gas and shipping

While it is important to understand how GHG came about, it is equally important to grasp GHG
regulatory history. In this module, we will present the shipping impact on climate change and the
various provisions developed through the IMO to address this issue.
2.1 International regulatory regime and body

The international regulations to address the consequences of air emissions can be found in UNCLOS and
in IMO regulations. UNCLOS forms the basis of the international law regulating the seas, while the IMO
specifically regulates shipping.
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Both set comprehensive regulatory regimes to be enforced by States.
UNCLOS
As previously mentioned, UNCLOS possesses extensive references to the protection of the environment.
In its Preamble, UNCLOS recalls the importance of “promot[ing] the peaceful uses of the seas and
oceans, the equitable and efficient utilization of their resources, the conservation of their living
resources, and the study, protection and preservation of the marine environment.”
In addition to this statement, a complete part of the text is dedicated to the protection of the
environment. Part XII reflects the main objectives of the UN in terms of environmental protection which
occurred in parallel to the extensive negotiations to adopt UNCLOS.
The most significant articles demonstrating the importance of State responsibility to protect the
environment are presented in the boxes below.
Art.192: “General obligation
States have the obligation to protect and preserve the marine environment”
Art.194: “Measures to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment
2. States shall take all measures necessary to ensure that activities under their jurisdiction or control are so conducted as not
to cause damage by pollution to other States and their environment, and that pollution arising from incidents or activities
under their jurisdiction or control does not spread beyond the areas where they exercise sovereign rights in accordance with
this Convention.”
Art. 195:“Duty not to transfer damage or hazards or transform one type of pollution into another
In taking measures to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment, States shall act so as not to transfer,
directly or indirectly, damage or hazards from one area to another or transform one type of pollution into another.”
Art.197: “Cooperation on a global or regional basis
States shall cooperate on a global basis, an as appropriate, on a regional basis, directly or through competent international

organizations, in formulating and elaborating international rules, standards and recommended practices and procedures
consistent with this Convention, for the protection and preservation of the marine environment, taking into account
characteristic regional features.”

Art.204: “Monitoring of the risks or effects of pollution
1. States shall, consistent with the rights of other States, endeavour, as far as practicable, directly or through the competent
international organizations, to observe, measure, evaluate and analyse, by recognized scientific methods, the risks or effects
of pollution of the marine environment.
2. In particular, States shall keep under surveillance the effects of any activities which they permit or in which they engage in
order to determine whether these activities are likely to pollute the marine environment.”

Art.212: “Pollution from and through the atmosphere
1. States shall adopt laws and regulations to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment from or
through the atmosphere, applicable to the air space under their sovereignty and to the vessels flying their flag or vessels or
aircraft of their registry, taking into account internationally agreed rules, standards and recommended practices and
procedures and the safety of air navigation.
2. States shall take other measures as may be necessary to prevent, reduce and control such pollution
3. States, acting especially through competent international organizations or diplomatic conference, shall endeavour to
establish global and regional rules, standards and recommended practices and procedures to prevent, reduce and control
such pollution.”

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In addition, various articles deal with the enforcement mechanisms by Flag State (Art.217), Port State
(Art.218) and Coastal State (Art.220).
In short, the UNCLOS recalls:
• State duty to protect the environment and responsibility not to harm others;
• The measures developed should not transfer the damage or risks;
• The global and regional cooperation are paramount in environmental protection;
• The risks and effects of pollution must be assessed scientifically;
• The air pollution is an established concern;
• Compliance Monitoring and Enforcement systems have to be developed to verify the
compliance of the activities.
UNCLOS demonstrates the importance of protecting the environment and developing proper
enforcement mechanisms which can be materialized through certification and inspection regimes.
Overview of the IMO

In 1948, an UN body in charge of maritime affairs was created. The International Maritime Organization
acquired its final name in 1982. The IMO presently consists of an Assembly, a Council, committees and a
secretariat.
The structures of the IMO and its secretariat can be simplified as below:

The IMO structure A
ASSEMBLY
COUNCIL
MEPC MSC FAL LEG TC
MARINE ENVIRONMENT MARITIME SAFETY FACILITATION LEGAL TECHNICAL CO-OPERATION

PROTECTION COMMITTEE COMMITTEE COMMITTEE COMMITTEE COMMITTEE
The IMO secretariat

structure SECRETARY-GENERAL
Office of the Secretary-

General
MARITIME SAFETY MARINE ENVIRONMENT LEGAL DIVISION TECHNICAL CONFERENCE ADMINISTRATIVE

DIVISION DIVISION CO- DIVISION DIVISION
OPERATION
DIVISION

Figure 14: IMO and its secretariat structures

The aims of the Organization are summarized in the article 1 of its constitutive Convention:

“ (a) To provide machinery for co-‐operation among Governments in the field of governmental regulation and practices
relating to technical matters of all kinds affecting shipping engaged in international trade; to encourage and facilitate the
34
general adoption of the highest practicable standards in matters concerning the maritime safety, efficiency of navigation
and prevention and control of marine pollution from ships; and to deal with administrative and legal matters related to the
purposes set out in this Article;
(b) To encourage the removal of discriminatory action and unnecessary restrictions by Governments affecting shipping

For environmental purposes, the IMO has to support the enforcement of highest practical standards as
well as maintain a close link with other UN bodies on such matters. The IMO provides governing tools
and policies but the implementation and enforcement of IMO tools falls in the hand of the governments.
“The IMO’s role is thus primarily to adopt legislation, while enforcement lies with the Contracting
Governments (the flag States)” (IMO, 2009).
IMO commitment to protect the environment and the atmosphere

Since 1959, the IMO assumes the issues related to pollution by shipping. The Organization supports the
development of regulations aiming to prevent pollution to the marine environment and addresses the
introduction of technologies and species as defined by the UNCLOS:
• Art.1. “(4) “pollution of the marine environment” means the introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of
substances or energy into the marine environment, including estuary, which results or is likely to result in
such deleterious effects as harm to living resources and marine life, hazards to human health, hindrance
to marine activities, including fishing and other legitimate uses of the sea, impairment of quality for use of
sea water and reduction of amenities”;
• Art. 196 “States shall take all measures necessary to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine
environment resulting from the use of technologies under their jurisdiction or control, or the intentional
or accidental introduction of species, alien or new, to a particular part of the marine environment, which
may cause significant and harmful changes thereto”.
The Maritime Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) is the IMO committee in charge of addressing
environmental issues for the IMO. This committee is supported by sub-‐committees sometimes shared
with the Maritime Safety Committee. The Committees are supported by the Secretariat.
The MEPC may issue circulars and resolutions as well as draft resolutions to be adopted by the
Assembly. The MEPC meets twice a year. During MEPC sessions, various Working Groups may be
established to address particular issues. All States represented at the IMO may participate to discuss
the issues related to pollution prevention and control.
The Marine Environment Division (MED) supports the MEPC and deals on a daily basis with the pollution
issues and therefore with the air emissions issues. The MED supports national implementation and
enforcement of IMO instruments.
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Today, IMO regulations cover the whole ship pollution risks as presented below. The risk of pollution
related to the dumping is addressed through the London Convention.

MARINE POLLUTION
Discharge of various types of
wastes, oil, chemical substances MARPOL Annex
I-Oil / II- Noxious subs. in bulk / III-
Harmful subs. in package / IV- Sewage /
AIR EMISSIONS / GLOBAL V- Garbage / VI- Air
WARMING SUBSTANCES
ODS, SOx, NOx, VOCs, GHG
Anti-fouling SystemsConvention
DAMAGE TO ECOSYSTEMS
Harmful paints and coatings, alien
species carried by ballast water &
biofouling Ballast Water Management
Convention
PREVENTION OF DAMAGE AND

INJURIES RELATED TO THE Hong Kong Convention for the
USE OF HAZARDOUS safe and environmentally sound
MATERIAL IN SHIPBUILDING recycling of ships

Figure 15: IMO Conventions relating to the prevention of marine pollution associated with ship operations
The latest Conventions adopted but not yet entered into force are the International Convention for the
Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments, 2004, and the Hong Kong International
Convention for the Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships, 2009.
The 1973 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) integrates the
issue of air pollution by ships in its Annex VI.
The IMO and its member States recognize the importance of environmental protection which became
over the years a major item of concern for the Organization. During his MEPC 63 speech on 27 February
2012, Secretary General Sekimizu stated:
“[…] I see the promotion of sustainable shipping and sustainable maritime development as one of the
major priorities of my tenure. […] Rio+20 is an opportunity to launch a vision for sustainable maritime
development that will underpin future maritime developments within a green economy in which IMO
should play a major and significant role.”
In addition, the IMO shows a strong willingness to address the issue of climate change by promoting
innovative regulations in the framework of the UN discussion on GHG emissions. This disposition has
been demonstrated through the adoption of various instruments during MEPC 62 and the intensive
discussions on the implementation of market-‐based measures.
“IMO will continue to make its contribution to global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions within
the context of the ongoing UN-‐wide debate on climate change. We will continue to co-‐operate closely
with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and with other relevant UN bodies, as
appropriate. Also in this context, IMO will evaluate the implications for shipping of any mechanism to be
36


established for the envisaged Green Climate Fund and impress upon the UNFCCC that any contributions
must be proportionate to shipping’s contribution to the global emission of greenhouse gases.
While participating in the Climate Change debate at the UN, IMO will proceed in parallel with its own
programme of work. In this respect, it is encouraging that last December’s Durban Conference on climate
change welcomed the progress made by IMO. “(IMO SG Mr. Sekimizu speech, 27 February 2012)
These regulations belong to the IMO plan to proceed beyond RIO+20. In order to fulfill this mission, a task force
was established with aim to work on eight pillars identified by the Organization:
• safety culture and environmental stewardship;

• energy efficiency;
• new technology and innovation;
• maritime education and training;
• maritime security and anti-‐piracy actions;
• maritime traffic management;
• maritime infrastructure development; and
• global standards at IMO.
2.2 Emissions from shipping

Shipping, world trade and the economy are particularly well intertwined. “Given that for shipping, all
stands and falls with worldwide macroeconomic conditions, the developments in world seaborne trade
mirrored the performance of the wider economy”(UNCTAD, 2011).

Figure 16: linkage between world trade, shipping, GDP and OECD Industrial Production (Source : UNCTAD, 2011)
While shipping, in comparison to other transport modes, was considered environmentally-‐friendly, the
large development of seaborne trade and its externalities modified this perception.
37


The growth of transportation by ships increased the energy consumed by shipping and, in spite of the
improvement in the energy efficiency of ship engines, the global shipping emissions amplified
mathematically.
This traffic and volume growth increment also affected air quality in port areas. Therefore, ship emission
could not be disregarded. Thus, after the adoption of Kyoto Protocol, shipping could not stay away from
the trend towards GHG reduction. In 1997, the IMO launched its first study on GHG in shipping in order
to assess the extent of the issue and to determine the best options supported by rigorous scientific
approach.
First IMO study on GHG 2000

As an outcome of the 1997 MARPOL Conference, the decision to study CO2 emissions from ship led to
the launching of a complete study on the topic. Released in 2000, the first study constituted the initial
step of deliberations about the development of new rules to address the GHG in shipping.

The main outputs of the study include:

• Shipping is considered an efficient mean of transportation compared to others.
• It is difficult to assess with accuracy the overall impact of shipping -‐ because of discrepancy in data concerning
bunker figures and the uncertainties in the fuel consumption models.
• The impact of air emission should include NOx, SOx and GHG.
• Significant reduction of GHG emission can be achieved through operational and technical measures. However,
the increase in demand for shipping service may impede operational and technical savings.
• Environmental indexing, market-‐based mechanisms and designed standards may be appropriate measure to
implement in the future.

Despite its relevance, no immediate regulation followed the presentation of the study. The lengthy
discussion on the IMO involvement on the climate change necessitated an updated study.
Therefore, the second study was commissioned and delivered in 2009. This later study updated the
figures and estimated the potential for reduction of emission according to the implementation of
different technologies and practices. In addition, cost effectiveness and policy evaluation option were
considered. This second study initiated a proposal framework to support the decision-‐making process.
Second IMO study on GHG 2009

Presented during the Copenhagen discussions on climate change, the Second IMO Study on Greenhouse
Gas 2009 forms the scientific background for the present IMO policy to address the issue of GHG.
The intention of the document was to provide a solid scientific background to the shipping community
in order to prepare action. Mr. Mitropoulos, former Secretary General of the IMO recalled in a foreword
of the document its objectives: “I trust that this Second IMO GHG Study will become the paramount
reference for the Organization’s Marine Environment Protection Committee in making well-‐informed
and balanced decisions towards the development and adoption of a robust regime to regulate shipping
emissions at the global level” (IMO, 2009b).
Nine chapters structure the study. For the present module 1, only few of these chapters will be shortly
presented. Detailed information will be provided in next modules.

Chapter 3: Emissions from shipping 1990-‐2007
38


Before making the inventory of the GHG emission by shipping, the chapter began with few introductory
comments on the scope and uncertainties.
The scope of the emission included in the inventory copes with the UNFCCC guidance. “In line with the
above-‐mentioned guidelines for creating an inventory of emissions, the following pollutants were
considered for exhausts: NOx, SO2, PM, CO, CO2, N2O, CH4 and NMVOC.”(IMO, 2009)
Several remarks detailing the limits of the inventory are established. The same restrictions and
uncertainties on quantities released in the air were detailed as in the previous study. Each limit of each
emission source is addressed:
• Exhaust gases uncertainties are the same as those released in the previous study and is
estimated to be around +/-‐ 20%.
• Emission of ODS are detailed by sources: refrigerants, reefer ships & reefer containers;
calculation limits are presented.
• Limits and uncertainties in estimating the release of Methane (CH4) and Non-‐Methane Volatile
Organic Compound (NMVOC) are presented.
• Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) and Fluorocarbon (PFCs) on board ship are not emitted to any sufficient
degree to be considered as significant issues.
Despite all these limitations, the inventory was established and, among the GHG released by shipping
activity, shows an overwhelming domination of CO2. Therefore, CO2 is established as the main GHG
concern for shipping.

Figure 17: Summary of GHG emissions from shipping during 2007 (Source : IMO, 2009b)
In addition, the data presented highlights that the emissions of GHG nearly doubled during the period
concerned by the study (1990-‐2007).

NOx SOx PM CO NMVOC CO2 CH4 N2O
Increase from 1990 to 78,6% 89,9% 80,0% 92,3% 100,0% 86,8% 100,0% 200,0%
2007
Figure 18: Increase of exhaust emissions from total shipping 1990-‐2007 (adapted from source: IMO, 2009b)

Chapter 4: Reduction in emissions achieved by implementation of MARPOL Annex VI
39


This chapter assesses the effectiveness of present regulations to reduce emissions. The increase of
seaborne trade induces an increase in absolute volumes of emission. Therefore, the calculations
consider the emission reduction according to two scenarios: no-‐regulation hypothesis and MARPOL
Annex VI regulation.
Regulation 12 – Ozone-‐depleting substances. The MARPOL Annex VI plus the Montreal Protocol
demonstrate a serious efficiency in emission reduction.

Figure 19: Reduction in estimated annual emissions (tonnes) of refrigerants from ships (Source: IMO, 2009b)
Regulation 13 – Nitrogen Oxides (NOx).To address this element, typical emission levels before and after
2000 have to be assessed because NOx emission depends on engine type, conditions and settings but
also on fuel quality. These numerous factors make the evaluation complicated. However, it seems that
the reduction achieved with the new regulation is about 7%.
Regulation 14 – SOx. The SOx emitted is directly correlated with the sulfur content of the fuel burned.
Therefore, the limitation of sulfur to 4.5% (now 3.5%) in fuels has a small impact of the emission
because even before the enforcement of the rule, the fuel oil rarely contained more. So, in order to
demonstrate the impact of stringent regulation on such emissions, the SOx Emission Control Area were
analysed and compared to the total.

Figure 20: estimated emissions (million tonnes) of SO2 (2008) (Source: IMO, 2009b)

Regulation 15 – Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs). The regulation addressing the issue seemed to
have been properly implemented on tankers but not on shore terminals.
The analysis of NOx, SOx& VOCs demonstrates the effectiveness of the regulations to reduce the rate of
emission of these pollutants.
Chapter 5: Technological and operational potential for reduction of emissions
This chapter is the most relevant for the training package because it proposes undertaking several
solutions in order to build a comprehensive emission reduction policy.
Four solutions are investigated:
• Improving energy efficiency – the main aim of the present training package.
• Using renewable energy sources.
40

• Using fuels with less total fuel-‐cycle emission per unit of work done.
• Using emission reduction technologies.
Improving energy efficiency remains the main and easiest target to reduce GHG but requires studying
two domains: design and operation.
The following table highlights the main ideas to improve energy efficiency in shipping and their probable
impact on CO2 emission reduction.

Figure 21: Assessment of potential reductions of CO2 emissions from shipping by using known technology (Source: IMO,
2009b)
The IMO promotes Energy efficiency policies through the creation of the Energy Efficient Design Index
(EEDI) and the Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP). These two elements are inside
MARPOL Annex VI.
Two other ideas emerge from Chapter 5: renewal energy on board can be used as additional power and
LNG represents a serious alternative to achieve NOx, PM and SOx requirements.
Finally, the chapter recalls the inherent difficulties to accept changes of practices.
Chapter 9: Comparison of emissions of CO2 from ships with emissions from other modes of transport
This part of the study investigates the emission efficiency of various transportation means. The unit
serving to calculate and compare the modes of transport for a given period relates CO2 emitted and
tonne*kilometers.

41


Figure 22: CO2 emission efficiency calculation (Source : IMO, 2009b)
Despite large variations and uncertainties in the emission assessments, ranges of efficiencies are
determined for sea, air, road and rail.
Figure 23: typical range of ship CO2

efficiencies compared to rail, road and air
freight (Source : IMO, 2009b)

The benchmarking of sectors highlights the relatively higher efficiency of sea transport modes. The
historic trend toward efficiency is established and shows that the growing size enhances their efficiency.
In addition, the share of shipping emissions is presented in relation with the total emissions.
42

Figure 24: Emissions of CO2 from shipping

compared with global emissions
(Source : IMO, 2009b)
Policy options and discussions on Market-‐Based Measures (MBM)

Both studies commissioned by the IMO discuss policy options. They also investigated the validity and
criterion to possibly establish Marked-‐Based Measures for the international shipping. However, this
later issue is particularly sensitive among IMO member States which have different approaches and
understandings.
Among the several policies detailed in the Second IMO GHG study 2009, three groups of policies are
intensively discussed at the IMO. The technical and operational approaches focus on ships and ship
management while the economical approach seeks to achieve a global reduction of GHG by promoting
incentives and penalties.
Policy approaches
Technical Operational Economical

Market-‐based
Command and control policy focus
instrument focus on
on Ships and management
Global objective

Figure 25: IMO policy approaches of the GHG emission reduction
43

2.3 IMO response to air emissions

MARPOL intends to cover in its Annexes the various sources of ship-‐generated pollution. However, the
air pollution by ships was not included in the original text from 1973. Therefore, as soon as the issue of
air pollution became visible and accepted, the 1997 Protocol created an Annex dedicated to air
emissions.
The elements covered in the Annex VI reflect some UN texts adopted – e.g. the 1987 Montreal Protocol,
but the regulation also contains typical maritime issues.
MARPOL Annex VI is the latest added part of the Convention and entered into force on 2005. A serious
modification occurred in 2011 with the insertion of a new Chapter 4 which deals with GHG technical and
operational issues.
Today, the Annex VI encompasses air pollutants and GHG emissions. The regulations include also
elements like bunker, incinerators, reception facilities, Emission Control Areas, etc.
Regulated by MARPOL ANNEX VI
Equipment related
emissions (ODS -‐ Engine related
refrigerants & fire emissions (NOx, SOx,
Cargo related emissions extinguishing systems) GHG)& incineration
(VOCs on tankers)
NOT INCLUDE IN

MARPOL -‐ Other
emissions (scrapping,
testing & maintenance,
etc.)

Figure 26: Ship's air emission sources
Since the MEPC 62, the MARPOL Annex VI includes 4 chapters.
Chapter 1 – General: introduces some of the basics of the Convention as well as certain useful
definitions.
44


Chapter 2 – Survey, certification and means of control: describe the Survey requirements, certification
system and control principles including Port State Control issues and violation detection and
enforcement.
Chapter 3 – Requirement for control of emissions from ships: this chapter details the measures to
address various air pollutants and important related issues as bunker management and incinerator.
Chapter 4 – Regulation on energy efficiency for ships: the purpose of the chapter is to regulate some
operational and design aspects. Some elements of this new part of the Annex VI enters into force in
January 2013.
Air emission provisions – MARPOL Annex VI Chapter 3

The first IMO attempt to address air emission, Chapter 3 of the Annex VI presents the control measure
to achieve. This part of the Annex VI considers the international texts developed from the 1970s to the
1990s which regulated contaminants and sources of contamination, particularly NOx, SOx & PM and
ODS. In addition, the chapter encompasses the incineration, Emission Control Area, reception facilities
and bunker related issues.
The main regulations of the chapter are:
• Regulation 12 – Ozone-‐depleting substances (ODS). The regulation prohibits deliberate release
of ODS.
• Regulation 13 – Nitrogen oxides (NOx). This part of the Annex regulates the NOx emissions by
ship for engines installed after 2000. Three tiers describe the NOx limits to achieve after 2000,
2011 and 2016. In addition to the International Air Pollution Prevention Certificate, the ship
must comply with the NOx technical code 2008 and possesses technical file and a record book of
engine parameters.
• Regulation 14 – Sulphuroxides (SOx) -‐ and the concept of SOx Emission Control area (SECA). This
resulation sets maximum sulfur contents for fuels used on ships (3.5% after January 2012). In
addition, the concept of SECA is introduced and detailed in Appendix.
• Regulation 15 – Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs). The regulation emphasizes on the need to
regulate ports and terminals because about 70% of VOC release occurs during loading. Tankers
must be equipped with collection systems and after 2010 a VOC management plan must be
implemented.
• Regulation 16 – Shipboard incineration. Incinerators have to be approved and meet the IMO
standards. Various substances are prohibited to incinerate.
• Regulation 18 – Fuel Oil quality. The regulation covers the availability, the quality, the
supervision of suppliers, the PSC, the bunker delivery note, etc.
The NOx technical code and some other IMO resolutions support the implementation of the MARPOL
Annnex VI.
45


Greenhouse gas provisions – outcome of the MEPC 62
As previously mentioned, the Kyoto Protocol emphasizes on the responsibility of the specialized
agencies to regulate their own domain. Therefore, the UN involvement and the member States
recognizance of the global warming imposed the IMO to police the issue.
The first and present set of regulations was adopted in July 2011 during MEPC 62. The option chosen by
the delegates was to add a Chapter 4 to MARPOL Annex VI. The new regulations aim to improve ships
energy efficiency.
These measures cover technical and operational aspects by implementing the Energy Efficiency Design
Index (EEDI) which focuses in ship/fleet design and by introducing the Ship Energy Efficiency
Management Plan (SEEMP) which focuses on ship/fleet management.
• Regulations 20 & 21 deal with the EEDI and its calculation processes. Regulation 21.5 recalls that
the EEDI achievement must not impair the safe maneuverability of the ships. Based on the
design of the vessel, this index will remain the same for the whole ship’s life. The intent is to
stimulate the innovation and promotion of energy efficient hull and engine design.
SFC = Specific Fuel oil Consumption (g/kWh)
DWT = Deadweight (ton)

Figure 27: EEDI short description (Source : T. Nakasawa, 2012)
• Regulation 22 introduces the SEEMP. Its development must take into account the existing
guidelines. This document has to be kept on board and may be inserted into the Safety
Management System (SMS). This document aims to improve the operational aspects that may
influence the fuel consumption and thereafter the air emissions through a set of good practices.
• Regulation 23 emphasizes the importance of enhancing technical cooperation and transfer of
technology to support energy efficiency improvements on the world fleet.
The present measures neither include Energy Efficiency Operational Indicator (EEOI) nor Market-‐Based
Measures (MBM). These two elements, particularly the MBM, are intensively discussed at the IMO.
In short, the present regulations on GHG in the shipping are limited to the design and operational
aspects of the vessel. These regulations are not stringent and depend on the willingness of the ship
operator to implement good practices which can be detailed in the SEEMP and the shipping company to
seek good vessel design.
We can reasonably be optimistic for the implementation of energy efficient practices because there is a
direct link between emissions and fuel consumption. Energy efficiency policy entails fuel oil savings
which constitutes a significant incentive to accept and implement the regulations with seriousness.
46

3 Conclusion of Module 1

The choices of combustion and fossil fuels to support the industrialized world generate a global risk on
the Earth, revealing the unprecedented power of the mankind over nature.
The large volumes emitted in the atmosphere modify its properties and, through a feedback effect, alter
the overall ecosystems supporting our present natural and social environment. By affecting the inherent
natural foundations of our societies, the social world risks can be seriously jostled.
In order to limit the alteration of the atmosphere, the International bodies urge regulation of air
emissions. However, numerous conflicts of interest perturb this realization which retards the
development of comprehensive and efficient rules applying to all.
The main international texts addressing the issues of GHG are UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol and, at a
lower degree the Montreal Protocol.
The issue of the emission of GHG possesses three specificities:
• (1) GHG and particularly CO2 are not directly harmful substances for human beings;
• (2) the consequences of their release have global effects and therefore the mitigation strategy
cannot be reduced at national level;
• (3) the concept of common but differentiate responsibility influences the negotiations and
management of the issue.
In addition to the UN instruments, the IMO, representing the shipping community, developed its own
regulatory framework. The IMO demonstrated its concerns by enacting MARPOL Annex VI to address
some GHG issues.
The regulations entering into force on January 2013 cover the ship operation with SEEMP and the design
with EEDI. This first step does not determine a global target reduction for the shipping but focus on ships
and ship management involvement.
Despite the reduced scope of the present regulations, additional elements should complement the
IMO’s action in a near future. Intensive discussion at IMO and a strong willingness at the highest level of
the Organization show the disposition to achieve global reduction by promoting MBM.
47

GHG issues to address in the next years (2012-‐2015) as identified
by the Secretary General of the IMO during MEPC 63
Intensify discussion on market-‐

1. Effective
based measures (MBM)
Implementation of the
measures inserted in
Chapter 4 of Annex VI
2. Address the 3. Complete MBM

increase of GHG by 2015 to stay in
emission line with UN
discussions in
Durban

Figure 28: the main issues of GHG according to IMO Secretary General in 2012

48

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50


MODULE 2

From Management to Operation

51


Contents
Module Aims and Objectives ............................................................................................. 54
1 Ship Management .......................................................................................................... 55
1.1 The Role of the Management in Reducing GHG Emissions .................................... 55
The shipping company management ................................................................................................... 55
The link between fuel savings and GHG reduction and the incentives for operators to
save fuel ............................................................................................................................................................ 55
Incentives ......................................................................................................................................................... 55
Split incentive ................................................................................................................................................. 55
Corporate Social Responsibility ............................................................................................................. 56
1.2 Contract of carriage ............................................................................................................ 58
The main types of shipping contract of carriage. ........................................................................... 58
Common Law .................................................................................................................................................. 58
Bill of Lading ................................................................................................................................................... 60
Voyage Charter .............................................................................................................................................. 61
Time Charters ................................................................................................................................................. 62
Demise Charter & bare-‐boat charter .................................................................................................... 63
Contracts of Affreightment (COA) ......................................................................................................... 63
1.3 Impact of shipping contracts of carriage and possible conflicts of interest. ... 63
When the charter-‐party and bill of laden are different ................................................................ 63
Jurisdiction ...................................................................................................................................................... 65
1.4 Energy efficient policy and commitment ..................................................................... 66
Company policy to determine and set the agenda and the participants. ............................. 66
Commitment from the company management at the highest level ....................................... 67
Awareness and training and the provision of guidance and advise to ship and shore
staff. .................................................................................................................................................................... 67
The Companies’ Energy Efficiency Policy .......................................................................................... 68
Adjust the company policy to provide for specific ships and specific trades ..................... 69
Adequate resources for maintenance and repairs ......................................................................... 70
1.5 Fleet optimisation and adjusted steaming speed ..................................................... 71
Determination of optimum speed ......................................................................................................... 71
Viability of Slow Steaming ........................................................................................................................ 72
Slow Speed Steaming Example ............................................................................................................... 72
1.6 Loading and proper cargo weight management ....................................................... 74
Cargo load factor ........................................................................................................................................... 74
The 1969 tonnage convention ................................................................................................................ 74
The importance of accurate weight declaration ............................................................................. 75
Upgrade of cargo equipment ................................................................................................................... 76
Risk of installing GHG reducing equipment in present regulatory context ........................ 77
The type of ships and equipment to be considered ....................................................................... 77
2 Ship Technical Management ...................................................................................... 78
2.1 Role of the technical management to support GHG reductions. .......................... 78
Overall energy management .................................................................................................................... 78
Cost of fuel ....................................................................................................................................................... 78
Economies of scale ....................................................................................................................................... 79
The importance of innovation ................................................................................................................ 79
Adequate lighting of the vessel. .............................................................................................................. 84
Energy Audit ................................................................................................................................................... 84
52


Air Conditioning ............................................................................................................................................ 85

Refrigeration System .................................................................................................................................. 85
Exhaust Gas Boilers (EGB) ........................................................................................................................ 85
2.2 Continuous performance monitoring ........................................................................... 86
Preventive Maintenance ............................................................................................................................ 86
Monitoring data for the fleet ................................................................................................................... 86
2.3 Waste heat recovery and exhaust boiler management .......................................... 88
Waste Heat Recovery .................................................................................................................................. 88
Main Engine Energy Recovery ................................................................................................................ 88
Oil Fired Boiler Efficiency and Exhaust O2 level ............................................................................. 89
Exhaust Gas Economiser Efficiency ...................................................................................................... 90
2.4 Hull and propeller maintenance including monitoring and planning .............. 91
Hull surface water resistance .................................................................................................................. 91
Application of hull coating maintenance ............................................................................................ 92
Future coatings and the application of polymers and air lubrication ................................... 93
Propeller cleaned and polished .............................................................................................................. 94
2.5 Engine Operation, Maintenance and Repair .............................................................. 95
Operations and Maintenance to improve fuel efficiency ............................................................. 95
Engine efficiency and testing ................................................................................................................... 95
Electronically controlled engines and fuel valves .......................................................................... 96
De-‐rating of engines .................................................................................................................................... 96
Engine Upgrades ........................................................................................................................................... 96
Auxiliary Engines Operation and Maintenance ............................................................................... 97
Co-‐ordination between deck and engine ........................................................................................... 98
The importance of determining the correct fuel type for the engine and the potential
GHG reduction ................................................................................................................................................ 98
Main Engine Cylinder Oil and Lubrication Control ........................................................................ 99
3 Conclusion Module 2 .................................................................................................. 101

Figure 1: A triple-‐bottom line for business .................................................................................. 57
Figure 2: Hague Visby Rules : s1 (6) COGSA1971 ..................................................................... 61
Figure 3: Time charter -‐ The Berge Tasta ..................................................................................... 63
Figure 4: Bill of Lading : Temperley v Smythe ............................................................................ 64
Figure 5: Reasonable Deviation ........................................................................................................ 65
Figure 6: Major players involved in the ship of goods at sea ............................................... 66
Figure 7: Solar cells and batteries .................................................................................................... 79
Figure 8: hull design .............................................................................................................................. 80
Figure 9: Wind power ........................................................................................................................... 81
Figure 10: Flettner rotors .................................................................................................................... 81
Figure 11: Eco Ship 2030 ..................................................................................................................... 82
Figure 12: Thermo Efficient System ............................................................................................... 89
53



The purpose of this module is to provide awareness of the importance of the overall chain of the
ship’ operations and the role of the technical management to support GHG savings.
The objectives of this module are to provide practical information, in an easily understandable
form, on the operational, technical, economic and legal issues that may be encountered by
shipping companies' operational and technical management when implementing a GHG
reductions strategy for its fleet.
Ship Management

• The links between fuel savings and GHG reduction.
• The incentives for the operator to improve fuel consumption.
• The main type of shipping contract of carriage.
• Impact of shipping contracts of carriage and possible conflicts of interest.
• Company policy to determine and set the agenda and the participants.
• Commitment from the company management at the highest level.
• Awareness and training and the provision of guidance and advise to ship and shore staff.
• The companies’ energy efficiency policy.
• Adjust the company policy to provide for specific ships and specific trades.
• Adequate resources for maintenance and repairs.
• Fleet optimisation and adjusted steaming speed.
• Slow steaming and its limitations
• Determination of optimum speed.
• The need to anticipate loading
• The importance of proper cargo weight management.

Ship Technical Management

• The role of the technical management to support GHG savings in terms of safety, cost and
regulatory conflict for the following;
• Overall energy management
• Continuous performance monitoring
• Policy on heat management
• Hull and propeller maintenance, monitoring planning
• Engine operation, maintenance and repair
• The importance of determining the correct fuel type for the engine and the potential
GHG reduction.

54


1 Ship Management
1.1 The Role of the Management in Reducing GHG Emissions
The shipping company management
The shipping company management will have the overall responsibility for reducing GHG within
the fleet. Although the Ship-‐board Energy Efficient Management Plan (SEEMP) is prepared for
each individual ship the shipping company management must look at the shipping company as a
whole to achieve maximum fleet GHG reduction. The process of the commercial shipping of
goods and passengers is a complex system involving many players and the ship manager should
be aware of how these elements interact if he is to formulate an optimum strategy for reducing
GHG in the fleet.
The link between fuel savings and GHG reduction and the incentives for operators to save fuel
There is no doubt that an energy efficiency policy implemented and managed correctly will not
only reduce GHG and pollutants but will also reduce fuel costs which will in turn reduce the
operating cost and increase the companies overall profits. If a ship burns less fuel for the same
amount of work done it will reduce the ship operator's costs, which could also reduce the cost
of shipment, which may then be passed on to the charterer and ultimate buyer. It is a win-‐win
situation. In many cases there will be no simple answers to reducing GHG emissions but
considering all the options available and deciding on the most appropriate strategy will be a very
good start for any ship manger. The ship manager should not focus on one particular area but
consider the possibility for savings in the whole transport chain.
Incentives
The incentive for an operator to reduce fuel and thereby reduce GHG emissions is reduced
costs. While there are many opportunities to optimise and improve operational efficiency it will
require the participation of several parties it is essential that each of the parties has the
incentives and flexibility to join the energy-‐saving effort. It is particularly important that they do
not have incentives to contribute to inefficient behaviour, which means the issue of ‘split
incentives’ needs to be overcome. The following sections will highlight the many benefits there
are to reducing GHG emissions. The incentives covered will include not only the main and
ancillary engines but also look at the hull coating, the operational speed, cargo handling,
contracts of carriage, management of the company and the ships electrical services. Benefits
can include not only the reduction of operation costs but also result in the ship being kept in
service for longer resulting in decreased down time both at sea and in port. Some savings may
not be directly passed on to the shipping company such as the reduction of fuel consumption in
a time charter but the ship will become more attractive to charters with the possibility of
demanding a higher freight rate for a particular charter. If a ship is properly maintained to
reduce fuel costs it will also have the effect of the power plants such as the main engine lasting
longer with less expensive repair bills.
Split incentive
A ‘split incentive’ refers to a situation where the people benefiting from the energy efficiency
are not the people paying for it. In the shipping industry it mainly occurs when vessels such as
bulk carriers, tankers and container ships are hired under on a time charter or a bareboat
charter in this case it is the charterer who pays for the fuel but the ship owner who is
55


responsible for any investment in energy-‐ efficiency equipment. This is in some part taken into
account by the fact that more fuel efficient ships will have a higher chapter rate but is practice is
difficult to implement as a particular vessel can be affected in different ways in different sea
conditions which can make it impossible to guarantee an improved fuel consumption on a
particular vessel. A situation can arise where the ship is on time charter and operated by the
owner who may tend to minimise time in dry-‐dock and other maintenance costs such as anti
fouling reducing the time lost off-‐hire while at the same time handing the fuel bill to the time
charterer. The result may be low flexibility for efficient operation and, in the worst cases,
incentives for inefficient operation.
Corporate Social Responsibility

(chapter developed by Lisa Froholdt and Niel Bellefontaine, WMU)
Over the past fifty years, there has been a debate surrounding a growing interest in the concept,
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) (Carroll and Shabana 2010). The debate has sometimes
arisen as a response to social, environmental, political or economic issues, involving discussions
such as whether a business can or should profit from CSR activities, but has largely been driven
by an increasing social awareness of how commercial activities have an impact on the
environment. However, much of the discussion about the conceptualization of CSR has not been
helped by Milton Friedman’s (1970) argument that CSR caused inappropriate costs for
stakeholder funds due to investments in CSR activities that are unrelated to the organisation’s
core competencies. Many concepts have come into being during the debate, concepts such as
governance, corporate sustainability and political impact, which have been suggested as
relevant for organisations to report about and thus related to company activities. Finally, the
debate has also evolved around the important discussion of how to define CSR. In fact, in 2008,
Dahlsrud has coined 37 different definitions of CSR, which is complicated by the fact that the
terms such as public policy and business, society and business are interpreted very differently
across the range of theories that are being used in connection with CSR. Despite the many
definitions, it is widely agreed that CSR is now a core business issue (Montiel 2008), and
Dahlsrud (2006) found five emerging categories of CSR across the many definitions: The
dimensions of stakeholders, social, economic, voluntariness and environmental.
These categories are also an implicit part of the widely used CSR definition by the European
Commission (2001):
“A concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business
operations and in their interaction with their stakeholder on a voluntary basis”.
The concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR) is therefore a relatively new phenomenon in
the history of development of modern globally industrialized capitalism. It seems that concept is
developing as a medium to tend to negative repercussions of market mechanism in a globalized
world and redress the value of social justice and equity, while promoting sustainable growth. In
the shipping industry, CSR activities are on the rise. This is in part due to support from larger
companies, but also in part due to the support from the International Labour Organization (ILO).
There are various international CSR initiatives promoted by NGOs and by the United Nations.
The UN Global Compact (United Nations, 2010) is the largest voluntary CSR initiative promoted
directly by the UN. The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development was held in Rio
de Janeiro, Brazil in June 2012, and its outcome document entitled “The future we want” was
adopted in which the political commitment to sustainable development was renewed. It is
56


recognised that the active participation of the private sector is critical to achieving sustainable
development and the private sector is invited to explore this with due reference to business
practices, such as those endorsed by the United Nations Global Compact. Further guidance is
provided by ISO 26000 “Guidance on Corporate Social Responsibility” which states “the aim of
the social responsibility is to contribute to sustainable development”. Following the above
outcome, The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) has selected “Sustainable
Development: IMOs contribution beyond Rio+20” as the World Maritime Day theme for 2013.
The introduction of the term ‘triple bottom line’ (related to the notion of sustainable
development) in the 1990s has enhanced the development of the concept of CSR and the need
for business to account to a constituency beyond its shareholders.

Figure 1: A triple-‐bottom line for business
(Source: DNV, 2004)

Figure 1 above provides a triple-‐bottom line sustainability diagram for companies to manage its
activities. Although shipping companies tend to focus on these agendas individually, if the terms
and concepts of CSR initiatives are analyzed in more detail, it becomes obvious that a number of
elements already exist in the maritime sector:
• In 1994, Tor Christian Mathiesen, former DNV Chairman, published about safety culture in
the maritime sector and addressed a number of issues that would be covered by CSR
concepts today (Veiga, 2002). The discussions about safety culture on board ships are often
synonymous with discussions about CSR, however, with a somewhat reduced focus.
• The introduction of the ISM Code and the Human Element vision in IMO recognize the
influence of organizational factors on ship safety, and their implementation in the context of
developing nations is relevant.
• The Maritime Labor Convention, 2006 highlights issues specifically in relation to the working
and living conditions on board ships. Although these issues are not specifically mentioning
CSR, there is a strong relationship with the social aspects of CSR.
• Several initiatives have been taken that addresses more holistically the environmental
aspects in the maritime industry, such as the Sustainable Shipping Initiative, the Blue Angel
Logo, the Clean Shipping Index or the ISO 14001, etc.
57


The initiatives mentioned above are only a few examples for developments in the maritime
sector under a CSR framework. The central problem of all these initiatives is that they focus on
single items only. As of today no comprehensive guidelines or good practices have been
established for benchmarking purposes, neither improved maritime governance of maritime
administrations and other organizations (i.e. port authorities) nor the CSR performance of
shipping companies.
For shipping companies, the CSR concept can be seen as synonymous with good business or a
tool, what they can use to act responsibly and proactively to provide a financial or operational
advantage and to avoid criticism be it justified or not in all three areas of: (1) Maritime
governance, (2) Social responsibility, and (3) Environmental and ocean responsibility (Coady and
Strandberg 2012).
CSR activities in the maritime industry are both evolving and transforming market conditions.
There are now new demands from regulators, customers, investors, NGOs in regards to energy,
climate change, pollution, waste, hazards, spills and sustainable supply chain management.
These new demands are in turn transforming market conditions by creating new challenges,
such as requirements for Ecosystem-‐based management and Oceans governance.
These are just some of the developments of CSR activities, which by no means covers the full
scope of initiatives and developments in CSR in the maritime industry. Coady and Strandberg
(2012) have provided an excellent overview of key CSR components for the maritime industry,
which is well worth the read in order to gain further insight.
1.2 Contract of carriage

The main types of shipping contract of carriage.
The purpose of this brief introduction on the law with relation to the carriage of goods by sea is
not to turn the ship-‐manager into a maritime lawyer. It is to provide some background on the
importance of looking at the contract of carriage when deciding on a GHG reduction strategy for
both the fleet and individual ships within that fleet. While it is easy to point to areas where the
present system falls short, it is more difficult to find solutions that would resolve these issues to
the satisfaction of all parties as there are many parties involved in shipping that directly or
indirectly affect transport efficiency. Some contact may permit option like slow speed steaming
and virtual arrival and some may not. This means the ship-‐manager and the chartering
department of a shipping company must work closely together to ensure that for a particular
ship on a particulate voyage the terms of the contract are not breached leaving the ship owner
or ship operator open for potential losses. There may be the possibility for the ship owner to
negotiate with the charter or shipper or consignee as applicable to have clause inserted into the
contract that will allow a particular GHG strategy but it is important that all parties to the
contact are aware and have agreed to the changes and that the changes do not conflict with any
relevant national law.
Common Law
Most contracts of carriage will be subject to The Hague Visby or Hague Rules, which superseded
the old common law rules. The ‘common law’ rules that are referred to will be based on
‘English/Welsh’ law but it will be found that other jurisdictions will have similar provisions in
their national legislation. The issue of jurisdiction, that will be touched on later, is a very
important consideration for any contract of carriage so it should not be assumed that this is
58


always the case. There will be a jurisdiction and arbitration clause in a contract of carriage and
this should be verified.
The Hague Rules and the Hague Visby Rules are a set of internationally agreed rules for the
carriage of goods at sea and most maritime and non-‐maritime nations will follow these rules.
However, there are some specific situations in which these internationally agreed rules do not
apply and the rights and obligations of the parties are still governed by common law. In this
course it would take too long to go into these specific situations but for students that are
interested any good maritime law book will give more details.
At common law there are four basic obligations on the carrier and the latter two are of
particular interest to any ship manager considering either changing the voyage plan from the
most direct route or reducing the speed of vessels to reduce GHG emissions.

-‐ The carrier must deliver the goods in the same condition as when they are shipped, and
this is a non-‐delegable duty. There is however four common law exceptions;
o Act of god
o Act of Queens/Kings enemies
o Loss or damage resulting from inherent vice of the goods.
o Loss resulting from jettison
-‐ The carrier has an absolute duty to provide a seaworthy ship. This is a much stricter
obligation than in The Hague Visby Rules which only require due diligence on the part of
the ship-‐owner and is one of the main reasons that The Hague rules came about.
-‐ The carrier undertakes to proceed on a voyage with without unjustifiable deviation. If
there is a deviation, the carrier is liable for any subsequent loss unless he can rely on a
common law exception (such as to save life), and can show that the loss or damage
would have occurred in the absence of the deviation. The question is relation to GHG is
would an alteration of the voyage plan to take a different route to save GHG be
regarded as an ‘unjustifiable deviation’. In nearly all cases the answer to this would be
‘no’ as the aim would normally be to reduce the distance travelled and not increase it
but there may be examples where this is not the case.
-‐ The carrier must complete the voyage with reasonable dispatch. If there is undue delay,
the carrier is liable in damages for any loss caused by the delay, unless the loss falls
within one of the excepted perils, and the carrier can show that he has not been
negligent. This clause has implications for slow speed steaming as it could be argued
that the cargo was not delivered with ‘reasonable dispatch’ if the ship slows down. This
could particularly be the case if the cargo is lost when the ship was slow steaming and it
could be show that if the ship proceeded to the discharge port at the normal speed the
cargo would have arrived safely.
-‐ At common law the carrier may limit or exclude his liability under the contract, which
can mean that the buyer, who has no right to dictate the terms of the contract, could
end up with nothing when the loss was totally the fault of the carrier. For this reason
international agreement was reached, as referred to earlier, in the form of The Hague
Rules as amended by The Hague Visby Rules. These rules preserve the four common law
obligations in to contracts in a less strict form but protect the buyer by ensuring there is
no possibility of contracting out or reducing the carriers liability. These rules will be
discussed in greater detail in the next sub-‐section.

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Bill of Lading

A bill of laden is a document issued by or on behalf of the actual sea-‐carrier of the goods to the
person, normally the shipper, with whom he has contracted to transport goods. The bill of laden
may perform 3 functions;

1 Evidence that the goods described in it has been received by the carrier (received for
shipment bill), and if a shipped bill that the goods are onboard the ship.
2 Evidence of or the actual contract of carriage.
3 Document of title to the goods.
The bill of lading will normally be either a ‘bearer’, ‘order’ or a ‘straight consigned bill’, which
will dictate who the goods can be delivered to. The ‘bearer bill’ is the most open type of bill that
allows the cargo to be released to anyone who holds the bill. There are two types of ‘order bills’
that basically allow delivery ‘to order’ to allow transferability with out naming the consignee.
The ‘straight consigned bill’ or ‘non-‐ negotiable bill’ makes the goods only transferable to a
named consignee and no other so is very restrictive in this respect. The type of bill will have
important implication for the shipper on what it can be used for as it is only possible to raise
cash from a bank on a shipped bearer or order bill as they are fully negotiable documents even
when still documents of title.
The functions of the bill of laden for a particular contract will depend on several things. For
example, how the goods are purchased. When the contract between the shipper and the buyer
is a classic ‘fob’ (free on board) the buyer nominates the ship, procures the shipping space and is
the legal shipper. In the case of goods purchased on a ‘cif’ (Cost, Insurance and Freight) basis the
seller will ship the goods at his own expense and arrange for the insurance. Other issues will be
whether the contract of carriage are covered by just the bill of lading, a voyage or time charter
and whether the Hague or Hague Visby Rules will apply.
You may be asking what the above has to do with my GHG strategy? The broad answer to this
question is that it is important to establish who can rely solely on the terms contained in the bill
of lading rather than any other terms contained in a voyage or time charter. There is a general
principle that if the bill of lading is transferred to a third person, which can often happen is the
case of a bulk cargo of oil or one of the solid bulk commodities that are sold many time whilst
the vessel is on route, the holder of the bill can rely on ‘Hague Visby’ rather than the terms in
any previously agreed charter party. This can only happen with either a ‘bearer bill’ or ‘order
bills’, which are negotiable documents as the ‘straight consigned bill’ are non-‐negotiable and
cannot be exchanged.
When are bills of lading used?
Bill of lading can be issued for either all the cargo in the case of a bulk cargo (dry or liquid),
individual item or a pallet in the case of a general cargo ship or a number of items stored on in a
container in a container ship. There are different types of bills of lading such as; container bill,
through bill, group-‐age and house bill of lading. The type of bill will often depend on the
requirements of the particular trade and the requirements of the particular carrier and shippers
involved. Under The Hague Visby Rules it is a requirement that; ‘After receiving the goods into
his charge the carrier or the master or agent of the carrier shall, on demand of the shipper, issue
to the shipper a bill of lading showing…’ . The shipper will therefore often ask for a bill of lading
even if the contract of carriage is already contained in the charter party.
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Hague Visby Rules
Many cargos are shipping with a bill of lading covered by The Hague-‐Visby Rules that are an
amendment of the earlier Hague Rules which were agreed on September 1921 at a meeting of
the International Law association held at the Hague with the objective of securing adoption a set
of rules relating to the bills of lading so that the rights and liabilities of cargo owners and ship
owners might be subject to rules of general application. The rules were revised and contained in
an International Convention signed a Brussels in 1924. The Hague Visby Rules were agreed on by
a protocol sighed in Brussels in February 1968 amending the International Convention agreed
there in 1924. Many States have incorporated either the Hague Rules or the Hague Visby Rules
into their own national legislation giving them the force of law for all cargos shipped using a bill
of laden under their jurisdiction.
The Rules cover all types of goods except live animals and deck cargo. For a cargo to be deck
cargo the contact must state that it is being carried on deck. So just because a cargo is carried on
deck does not mean that it is not covered by the rules. This may particularly be so in the case of
containers that may or may not be stowed on deck.
The rules may even apply if the cargo is shipped on a ‘way bill’ rather that bills of lading as long
as it is clear that is the intention. This was shown to be the case under the English law
interpretation of the rules and is contained in the United Kingdoms ‘Carriage of Goods at Sea
Act 1971. This means that even carrying cargos under a ‘way bill’ as is often done in the
container trade does not mean that the cargo will not be subject to The Hague Visby Rules.

* Hague Visby Rules: s1 (6) COGSA 1971
‘…’Rules shall have force of law in relation to…b) any receipt which is a non-‐negotiable
EXAMPLE
document marked as such if the contract contained in or evidenced by it is a contract
for carriage of goods by sea which expressly provide that the Rules are to govern the
contract as if the receipt were a bill of lading.
Figure 2: Hague Visby Rules : s1 (6) COGSA1971
It is very important to establish who the various parties are to any contract and what their
responsibilities are and the Hague Visby Rules are designed to do that.
In The Hague Visby Rules a definition of ‘carrier’ in Art. I (a) include the owner or charterer who
enters into a contract of carriage with a shipper. If the contract is made between the charterer
and the shipper and not the ship-‐owner it is very important that the ship-‐owner is aware of any
clauses that may prevent him from undertaking any GHG reduction techniques such as slow
speed steaming or Virtual Arrival which will be discussed fully later in the modules.
Voyage Charter
A voyage charter is a contract of carriage for one voyage or a series of voyages. Cargo carried
during a voyage charter may also have a bill of laden so may also be covered by the Hague-‐Visby
Rules but there is normally no mandatory application of these rules in a voyage charters unless
the goods are transferred to a third person as explain in the section on bills of lading. The
contract will normally have a ‘due dispatch’ clause that requires all reasonable speed or a stated
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date and a ‘cancellation clause’ that will allow the charterer to abandon the contract if the
vessel has not arrived in a reasonable time the ship-‐owner is then liable to damages.
Under a typical voyage charter-‐party the ship operator decides what speed the vessel will steam
at on the voyage so as to arrive at the port at the due date. There are also a number of days ‘lay
days’ agreed in the contract for the load and discharge the cargo. For the commencement of
lay-‐time three things are required;
-‐ The vessel must be fit to load or unload.
-‐ She must be an ‘arrived ship’.
-‐ The ‘notice of readiness’. (NOR) to load or discharge must be given to the charterer.
For a ship to be an ‘arrived ship’ the master must tend his notice of readiness and where and
how he can legally do this will depend on whether the contract states ‘port’ or ‘berth’.
Interpreting what ‘berth’ means is quite clear but there have been several legal differences of
option on what constitutes a ‘port’. Common law only requires the NOR to be tended by the
master at the loading port but most voyage charter provide for NOR to be given at the discharge
port.
If the ship arrives in good time to discharge or load the cargo and the port cannot work cargo
once the agreed ‘lay days’ are use up then the ship owner is also entitled to an economic
compensation called ‘demurrage’. If the ship arrives ready to load the cargo and port is not able
to load the ship due to port congestion the ship operator has the option to take on a new cargo
if one is available or wait for the port congestion to clear and be compensated by the
‘demurrage’. The demurrage rate will depend on the particular contract but are often as high if
not higher than the freight rate that the ship owner would have received. The incentive is
therefore for the ship operator is to sail the ship as fast as it can so as to be sure the ship arrives
in good time and become an arrived ship so that the lay days start to count. The frequent
outcome of this process is that ships will steam at full speed to a port, wasting large amounts of
fuel and producing extra GHG, to arrive at the port and be too early to start cargo. This often
results in the ship sitting at anchor or a long side for possible weeks waiting for the cargo and
wasting yet more fuel and producing more GHG.
A possible solution to this problem is the concept of ‘virtual arrival’ that will be covered in depth
in a subsequent module.
Time Charters
Time charters are set for a set period of time which may be in months or even years. It is normal
that the charter pays for the fuel and port costs but the ship owner must take care of the other
operating cost like maintaining the ships engine, hull and crew. Time charters will normally have
a speed and fuel warranty clause stating the speed and fuel consumption of a ship. Despite its
name this term of the contract is usually an intermediate term and not a warranty. Thus the
charter can only repudiate the contract if the statement as to the fuel and speed is substantially
incorrect. It is unclear how this could be applied to virtual arrival, just in time and optimum
speed.
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* Time charter: The Berge Tasta [1975] 1 Lloyd’s Rep 422 Donaldson J

‘… in which the ship-‐owner undertakes to make the vessel available to the charterer
within a specified area over a specified period. The ship owner’s remuneration is a fixed
EXAMPLE
rate for a unit of time regardless of how the vessel is used by the charterer. The ship-‐
owner meets the costs of maintaining the vessel and paying the crew’s wages but the
cost of the fuel and port charges fall on the charterer’.
Figure 3: Time charter -‐ The Berge Tasta
The time charter is a good example of the ‘split incentive’ problem mentioned earlier, as the
ship owner will not pay for the fuel there is no incentive for him to look at ways of reducing the
fuel costs.
Demise Charter & bare-‐boat charter

This is a charter party in which the charterer puts his own stores, fuel oil etc. on board and hires
the crew. It is sometimes known as a ‘bare-‐boat’ charter party. In such a charter-‐party the
master and the crew are the charterers servants, and possession and control of the vessel rests
with him. The demise charterer is for all practical purposes the temporary owner of the ship.
This is another good example of the ‘split incentive’ issue mentioned earlier where there is no
incentive for the actual owner of the ship to invest in energy saving technology on the ship as he
will not pay for the fuel cost or even in this case the maintenance of the ship as the charterer
will have that responsibility.
Contracts of Affreightment (COA)

In a contract of Affreightment a ship-‐owner agrees to move a specified quantity of cargo over a
specified period of time from one port to another without designating a particular ship. The ship
owner pays for the voyage costs and the vessel. Contracts of affreightment are often set over a
period of several years. As these contract are over such a long time the contract will often have
a clause that will allow an increase in the fight rate to cover increased fuel costs. Such contracts
are often used in the bulk trade for cargos such as coal to supply a power station of Bauxite to
supply an aluminum manufacturer and grain.
1.3 Impact of shipping contracts of carriage and possible conflicts of interest.
When the charter-‐party and bill of laden are different
A ship operator may arrive in a busy harbour, only to wait for days or weeks to unload, while
receiving compensation ‘demurrage’ for each day of waiting. It is evident that contractual
arrangements and incentives have a significant influence on operations and hence on efficiency
and the current legal system is anything but clear as will be described next.
In time and voyage charter-‐parties, the master of the ship normally signs the bills of lading when
issued to the charterers as the agent of the ship owner. A problem that may arise is the
inconsistencies between the charter-‐party and the bill of lading such as when the bill of laden
imposing greater liabilities on the shipowner than the charter-‐party itself. This problem is
resolved by considering which of the charter-‐party and the bill of lading has contractual force
between the relevant parties.
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This will depend on whether the shipowner is the actual or legal carrier, and whether the seller
is the actual or legal shipper or not the shipper at all. The legal shipper of the goods is the party
primarily liable on the contract of carriage. When the ship is not under charter, the legal and
actual carrier is the shipowner and the master signs and issues the bill of lading as agent of the
shipowner. When the ship is chartered by demise, the master signs the bill of laden as the agent
of the charterer, not the shipowner and will apply even if the holder of the bill of lading is
unaware of this. This makes the charterers by demise both the actual and legal carrier.
In time or voyage charter-‐parties the master has the normal authority to sign bills of lading on
behalf of the shipowner he is treated as the agent of the shipowner unless there are any clauses
to the contrary. The contract is therefore with the shipowner and not the charterer. Therefore
the shipowner may be the actual but not legal carrier.

* Holder of the Bill of Lading: Temperley v Smythe [1905] 2 KB 791
‘On the other hand, in the case where the holder of the bill of lading is not charterer,
EXAMPLE
there is no presumption that he contracts on any terms other than those in the bill of
lading.’
Figure 4: Bill of Lading : Temperley v Smythe
It was shown in Kruger v Moel Tryvan Ship Co that if there is an implication in the contract of
carriage between the shipper and shipowner that the master is to sign a bill of lading at the
shippers request the bill should not be in the form of a contract that would strike out any clause
from the charter-‐party.
However, the opposite was also said to apply in The C Joyce [1986] 2 All ER 177. In this case the
shipowner let the vessel to the charterer who then used it to ship a cargo. On discharge the
holder of the bill of lading claimed for damage to the cargo and short delivery. The shipowner
settled the claim and then sought indemnity from the charterer as in the charter-‐party the
shipowner was relieved from liability for loss or damage unless there was proof of personnel
lack of due diligence by the ship owner. However, the charter-‐party also expressly agreed that
any bill of lading issued under the charter-‐party should be subject to The Hague Visby Rules that
do not permit exclusions for negligence. The holder of the bill of lading applying the contract
contained in the bill sued the shipowner. This put the shipowner under a greater liability than
that set out in the charter-‐party. In this case it decided by Bingham J that as the charterers were
obliged to tender a bill of lading which imposed the liability of the Hague Visby Rules on the
shipowner there was no breach of the charter-‐party. This meant that no contract of indemnity
could be implied which meant that the shipowner could not claim back his losses from the
charterer.
Keeping in mind that it is possible for a ship on ‘Demise Charter’ (sometimes called a ‘Bareboat
Charter’) to be on a time charter where the cargo is carried under a voyage charter with states
that the master must issue a bill of laden that is subject to the Hague Visby or Hague Rules
(which will depending on the jurisdiction) it is clear that this can be a very complex situation.
The answer to the question of whether a reduction of speed to reduce fuel costs which will be
mainly for the benefit of the ship owner rather than the charterer can be considered a
reasonable deviation needs to be resolved by the ship manager for each ship and contract of
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carriage that applies to that ship before any decision can be made. Apart from establishing what
contract of carriage applies and to who are liable under it there is the question of jurisdiction as
The Hollandia [1882] 2 WLR 556 (Court of Appeal Lord Denning MR) made clear is also far from
simple as it may not matter what is in the contact of carriage it may be down to where the cargo
was loaded as to what rules should apply.
* Reasonable Deviation: Stag Line Ltd v Foscolo Mango [1932] AC 328 Lord Akin
“… A deviation may, and often will, be caused by fortuitous circumstances never
contemplated by the original parties to the contract; and may be reasonable though it
is made solely in the interests of the ship or solely in the interests of the cargo, or
EXAMPLE
indeed in the direct interests of neither; … The true test seems to be, what departure
from the contract might a prudent person controlling the voyage at the time, make
and maintain, having in mind all the relevant circumstances existing at the time,
including the terms of the contract and the interests of all parties concerned, but
without obligation to consider the interests of anyone as conclusive…”
Figure 5: Reasonable Deviation
Jurisdiction
Ship managers need to be aware of possible problems with jurisdiction and where the case will
be held regardless of what clauses are contained in a bill of lading. In the Hollandia [1882] 2
WLR 556 (Court of Appeal Lord Denning MR) the bill of lading contained a clause stated that
Dutch law should apply. At that time Dutch law did not apply the Hague-‐Visby Rules, but uses
its predecessor The Hague Rules that lessened the liability of the carrier. The case went to
arbitration in the United Kingdom and it was decided there that as the cargo was shipped from
the United Kingdom, although the contract stated that Dutch law and the Hague Rule should
apply, that the United Kingdom law should apply which incorporates the Hague Visby Rules. The
message is clear, if you amend the contract of carriage to permit slow speed steaming, virtual
arrival or any other GHG reduction strategy, make sure you are aware of where a disputes for
cargo claims are going to be brought as you may find the term incorporated into the contact
that permit this do not apply.
EXERCISE 1: A SHORT EXERCISE NOW FOLLOWS.
(Cashmore)
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1.4 Energy efficient policy and commitment

Company policy to determine and set the agenda and the participants.
The Company Energy Efficiency Policy

The importance of the company policy is of vital importance to determine and set the agenda
for any GHG reduction policy for a fleet. The policy should include all stakeholders in the
transport chain and all parties should consider the inclusion of efficiency measures in their
operation. The content of the policy will be influenced and dictated by the types of ships, the
area of operation, the trade the ships are on and the size of the fleet. It is therefore understood
that some considerations may be out of the direct control of the shipmanager and is the reason
that the ship manager needs to involve all other relevant parties.

Figure 6: Major players involved in the ship of goods at sea
In developing the policy ship managers should (at least) consider stakeholders such as;
Ship repair yards

Dry dock manager
Engine manufactures
Paint manufactures
Ship owners
Ship operators
Charters
Cargo owners
Ports
Banks
Insurance companies
P&I clubs
Flag States
Classification Societies
Cargo handlers
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Meteorological offices
Traffic Management Services
Effective co-‐ordination
It is important that there is effective co-‐ordination amongst all the stakeholders. In most cases
co-‐ordination will be administered from the shore office rather than the ship but the ships staff
should still be involved in the development of the policy, as they will be the people who are
expected to implement it. Transport efficiency is greatly affected by time spent in port and in
addition to the parties listed above, other services providers such as shipping agents,
stevedores, tug operators, pilots and bunker suppliers will have a role to play in minimising time
spent in port. The inclusion of the VTS (Vessel Traffic Services) may be consider by changing the
queue prioritisation criteria from first to arrive “first in” to a system that is more efficient in
respect to cargo handling, berthing and mooring. There may however but issues with this
particularly option in a ‘on berth voyage charter-‐party where it may prevent the ship becoming
an ‘arrived ship’ though no fault of the ships owner or operator.
Inter-‐modal transportation
For inter-‐modal transportation the company may also need to consider stakeholders in other
transport modes by road, rail or sea. This first section will mainly deal with the ship operators,
charterers, banks, ship-‐manager and how each party can influence the companies GHG policy
within the legal framework of the transportation of good by sea. (Branch)
Self-‐evaluation and improvement of the policy

Self evaluation and improvement is the final phase of the management cycle and it is where the
company can assess how well they have done and identify where any improvements can be
made in their energy efficiency policy. The information obtained should be used to evaluate the
effectiveness of the planned measures applied to any particular ship and how they were
implemented and fed back into the planning stage to improve fleet performance.
Commitment from the company management at the highest level

The importance of the company management, at the highest level, to demonstration
commitment to a GHG reduction policy cannot be over emphasised. If it is clear that top
management are not taking this issue seriously then it is very unlikely that either the operational
shore staff or ships crew will take it seriously either. One of the best ways to demonstrate the
companies' commitment to energy efficiency is by investing in the training of both the
shipboard and shore-‐side employees.
Company energy efficiency updates

The company management should also provide regular updates to explain how well or not the
company is performing and if practical provide incentives for ships or employees that
demonstrate both results and commitment to the companies policy and objectives. The
company magazine, either paper or on-‐line, should contain regular articles on not only the
companies policies and objectives but general articles of the causes and effect of GHG on the
planet as a whole and to stress that it is a global problem that requires a global solution.
Awareness and training and the provision of guidance and advise to ship and shore staff.
Increasing the energy awareness of the crew by means of training can lead to a change in
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behaviour that has a positive impact on the reduction of ship board energy use and fuel
consumption. For effective implementation of the company's energy efficiency policy it is
necessary to raise awareness and providing the necessary training both for shore based and
shipboard personnel. As the ship is operated and lived on by the ships crew they will have a
major role in any methods used to make the ship more energy efficient and save energy. A full
awareness of the reasons for improving efficiency on board as well as an understanding of the
options to be implemented by the company require training. Implementing an onboard
awareness campaign together with training on the fundamentals of the management plan can
ensure the efficiency measures agreed by the company are implemented successfully.
Ship Managers Training Responsibilities

The shipmanager should ensure that as part of each crew member’s initial onboard
familiarisation crewmembers are instructed on the part that they each can play in reducing
onboard GHG. This can be as simple as switching off light, television sets and forced draft fans. It
would also include not running pumps for longer than necessary and using half filled washing
machines. The company could also consider the implement a ‘Computer Based Training (CBT)’
program and poster campaign to increase crew awareness of GHG issues. There should be
regular on board meetings with all the crew to discuss the effectiveness of the ship board
energy efficiency policy and ideas or best practices received from the seafarers should be
documented and pass back to shore so that they can be evaluated for use on other vessels and
perhaps included in a company wide energy efficiency bulletin.
It is often a good policy for officer and in particular senior officers joining company vessels to be
briefed in the shore office by the superintendent responsible for implementing the energy
efficiency policy. The senior officers should be asked to study the documented energy efficient
policy prior to joining a vessel and verify that they understand it. If this is not practical for
officers at operating level then they should be required to study the policy document on board
and confirm that they have read and understand it. The designated on board environmental
officer may consider regular onboard awareness and training programs for shipboard personnel
which could form part of the onboard Safety Management System (SMS) training program. The
results of these training sessions should be reported back to shore office for information.
Energy Audits
If the company policy decides to implement energy audits for the electrical systems on the ships
in the fleet it will be necessary to train the crew in conducting these audits so that they can
effectively identify heat losses.
The Companies’ Energy Efficiency Policy

The ship managers must have a clear perspective on what should be contained in the
companies’ ‘Energy Efficiency Policy’. To achieve maximum reduction of GHGs it is important
that the management has a policy to improve the energy efficiency of all the ships it operates as
a fleet. Looking at individual ships in isolation will not reap the highest benefits. The company
management should define and communicate the companies' values and aspirations and detail
how the company intends to achieve these objectives in the policy document that should be
available to all of its employees. The policy requirements should be clearly defined with the
ultimate objective of the company to save of energy and fuel to reduce GHG explained. The
whole document should be written clearly and unambiguously and set achievable and
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understandable objectives. The policy should including the roles and responsibilities of the
persons tasked with implementation and also include any targets that have been set. As the
setting of targets is voluntary there is no need to release results outside the company and the
company will not subject to any external audit by the Administration or PSC officers. The Targets
should be measurable and easy to understand for example it could be the annual fleet fuel
consumption or a specific energy efficiency target taking into account miles travelled and cargo
carried.
Policy document
The policy document should also detail how it intends to monitor the performance of any
measures. The results of the monitoring and targets should also be made available to relevant
employees so that they are aware of the progress that has been made in implementing the
policy. The policy should also stress the importance of the ships SEEMP that is also intended as a
management tool to assist the company in managing the environmental policy of all its vessels.
The policy should contain the strategy for improving the utilisation of its fleet's capacity and
stress the need for planning. This could include the reduction of long ballast voyages, port down
time, time it takes to load or discharge or the use shore power or weather routing services. The
policy could also include the replacement of older tonnage new more efficient ships off set older
ships on its fleet.
ISO 14001
The company policy may include the implementation of ‘ISO 14001’ on its vessels which
contains procedures for selecting the best environmental measures for a particular vessel and
then sets objectives for the measurement of relevant parameters along with relevant control
and feedback features. The implementation of ‘ISO 14001’ also has the advantage that some
ports allow a reduction in port dues such as the green ship programs which are in place in
Rotterdam and Antwerp. Other equivalent standards may be used and recognized.
Adjust the company policy to provide for specific ships and specific trades
One size does not fit all

It must be recognised that not all measures can be applied to all ships or the same ship
operating under different conditions. It must also be recognised that some measures are
mutually exclusive. For example, if one measure will only give results when the ship is operating
at the service speed then applying a measure to reduce the speed may remove any gains made.
Specialised ships
For certain specialised ships in certain trades it may not be possible to use many on the methods
that can be applied to normal sea going vessels so other options should be looked at. An
example of this would be trying to apply slow speed streaming or virtual arrival to a fleet of
dredgers, DP vessels or cable laying ship. This may prove difficult if not impossible! This does not
mean that the company policy should not include a GHG reduction strategy but it does means
that they will need to be more creative in formulating it. It is often the case that ships that
perform specialised operations and ships that carry passengers use a much higher percentage of
auxiliary power so this may be the best area to focus the companies GHG reduction policy. As
suggested in the section on contract of carriage a particular ship on a particular voyage on a
particular contact may or may not be able to slow speed steam or apply virtual arrival
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techniques, which is why both the ship managers and chartering department must be involve in
any policy decision before the vessel commences the voyage.
Ship size and design

Efficiency is dependent on ships being of a suitable design and size for trade. Efficiency can be
increased by concentrating the transportation of cargo on larger ships that can reduce the
energy consumption of the shipping industry as a whole. These large ships will be limited to a
few deep-‐water hub ports that mean the cargo will still need to be trans-‐shipped to its final
destination. This can result in the overall door-‐to-‐door logistical performance of the movement
of the cargo being reduced unless smaller ships that can take the cargo to smaller ports to
support these large vessels. These smaller feeder ships will be less efficient than the large ships
and there will also be some extra GHG costs in the additional discharging and loading operation.
This is clearly a balancing act as it may in-‐fact turn out that on a particular trade it is more GHG
efficient to use medium size ships that can take the cargo straight to the final destination. It
goes with out saying that larger ships are not efficient if not enough cargo is available and sail
partly loaded due to lack of transport demand. This means that overall energy efficiency may
also be improved for smaller ships with access to more ports and cargo types and able to fill
cargo holds to capacity.
Port infrastructure and facilities

The GHG reduction methods that can be applied in port will also depend on the facilities
available in the port. If it is the companies policy to use shore power to reduce ship sourced
GHG if the port does not prove this facility or the connections of power source are not
compatible the ship will not be able to follow this policy. It is also true that if the shore power
comes from coal powered power stations then they will be less efficient than the ships auxiliary
diesel generator so the overall result would be to produce more GHG and not less. However,
GHG reduction may not be the only reason why shore power is used. There may be a need to
reduce pollutants such as, NOx, SOx and Particulate Matter (PM) from around the port area,
particularly if it is densely populated.
Adequate resources for maintenance and repairs

It is clear that is a ship breaks down due to lack of maintenance then it will not be operating
efficiently and therefore produces more GHG emissions. If the engine is not maintained
properly, even where it does not break down, it will still waste fuel and money due to lost
revenue from increased fuel costs and consequently also produce more GHG. Following the
planned maintenance scheme for the ship is very important for engine efficiency and is also a
statutory requirement of the ISM code. The ISM code requires that the ship’s management
provide sufficient resources to maintain the ship safely as part of the ships safety management
system. Poor maintenance can also mean that the ship has to go off hire when on a charter
party so that it can be taken out of service to repair the main engine or clean the hull and
propeller. This can be a particular problem when on a time charter if the ship is unable to meet
the minimum speed requirements defined in the contract.
Reporting of faults

The ships technical management should ensure that reported faults are rectified or repaired
promptly and that the company has a system in place so that any faults are reported by the ship
to the company as soon as practicable. The technical management should regularly audit all
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ships in the fleet to verify that the maintenance required by the planned maintenance system is
being carried out and the company supplies the necessary resources in the way of parts or
shore-‐side assistance. This audit of the ship should be part of the internal audits required by the
ISM code and not left to the statutory audit for the issue or maintenance of the safely
management certificate by the Administration or classification society.
1.5 Fleet optimisation and adjusted steaming speed

Determination of optimum speed
Speed optimisation can produce significant savings. To determine the optimum speed for a
particular vessel the number of vessels in the fleet and the number of calls to each port and
where they are located must be considered. The aim should be to maximise the reduction of
GHG over the whole fleet particularly if the ships are on set schedules that must be maintained.
It may not be possible to maintain optimized speed for the whole trip, as operational
considerations may need to take priority to maintain a service as well as safety constraints.
Speed optimisation does not mean the minimum speed as sailing at less that optimum speed
may consume more fuel rather than less. A ship has specific operating speed that the engine
and ship is designed and although modern engines with electronically controlled fuel injection
do have a wider operation power outputs that will maintain high efficiency there are still limits.
Engine manufactures power to fuel consumption curves and ships propellers curves should be
consulted when deciding what the optimum speed for a particular ship on a particular voyage
should be.
The ships speed is normally defined by 3 categories that are;
-‐ Economical speed (Maximum fuel efficiency)
-‐ Service speed (about 70% of the Maximum Continuous Rating (MCR) of the engine)
-‐ Maximum speed (ship is running at MCR but with high fuel consumption)
The speed orders given by the company or charterer should be defined and understood by all
parties to the venture so that there is no misunderstanding in the interpretation by the different
parties.
The relationship between speed and power

The relationship between speed and power is cube and not linear, which is why it takes more
power to increase speed when vessel is travelling faster. Increasing the speed by 1 knot from 14
knots requires more power than increasing the speed by 1 knot from 10 knots. Conversely,
when you start at higher speeds you see very large savings, for example from 14 to 13 knots,
you save more than you would save from 11 to 10 knots, the savings diminish when you are at
lower speeds.
Port considerations
As a part of speed optimisation process due account should be taken of the need to co-‐ordinate
arrival times with the availability of loading or discharge berths on a particular trade or route.
The number of ships engaged on that trade must also be considered. A gradual increase in
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speed when leaving a port or estuary whilst keeping the engine load within certain limits may
help reduce fuel consumption.
Regulatory requirements
It must be further noted that to comply with NOx technical code, engine operation should be
maintained within the prescribed range defined in the engine technical file and the speed must
be consistent with charter party requirements.
Viability of Slow Steaming

For some trades and shipping operations it may not be possible to implement a program of slow
speed steaming. As discussed earlier in the section on contracts of carriage the charter party
must be examined closely to ensure that slow speed steaming will not violate the contract and
leave the shipowner open to litigation. This will particularly be the case if the vessel is on a time
or voyage charter party but may also apply if the contract of carriage is determined by the bill of
lading.
An emission saving can be gained when a vessel is slow steaming, however, the specific fuel oil
consumption will decline when a ship is no longer operating at its design speed. If the power
consumption of individual ships is reduced by the third power, the net effect on emissions is a
second-‐power reduction; hence, a reduction of speed by 10% roughly equates to a reduction in
shaft power by 27% and an energy saving of 19% on a tonne-‐mile basis.
Reductions in scheduled speed (i.e. accepting longer voyage times) will increase efficiency, but
result in more ships being needed to maintain a particular service. The number of ships on a
particular trade will therefore need to be taken into account when deciding on a fleet wide slow
steaming policy. For example, slow steaming on a liner container run may require the use of
another ship to maintain the service and this may not be economically viable particularly if there
are only 2 or 3 ships presently on the run. Reductions in scheduled speed can be expensive,
since they directly affect the amount of freight carried and hence the income of a ship.
However, there is a trade-‐off between freight rates and fuel cost, as when freight rates are low
and fuel prices are high it may be more profitable to reduce speed and save fuel costs and live
with a lower freight rate.
Slow Speed Steaming Example
Container ship example

A major container liner company introduced slow steaming as part of a cost saving response to a
down turn in business in 2008-‐ 2009 which resulted in surplus capacity. This strategy was so
successful that around half the world's fleets of container ships are now slow steaming. Slow
steaming is defined as operating a vessel below 60% of its maximum load but that does not
mean that the vessel is operated at that level the whole trip and speeds may vary from leg to
leg. Fuel consumption and CO2 emissions increase exponentially with speed above the ships
economical speed so reducing engine load can dramatically decrease fuel consumption.
The shipping company concerned has managed to get savings of fuel and reduction of CO2 on
average of 14% per vessel and 10% per service. It was found that a ship that reduces its average
speed from 20.5 Knots to 19 knots can expect to release 16% less CO2 and when speed is
reduced by 20%, fuel consumption is reduced by approximately 40% per mile. To compensate
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for lower average speed an extra vessel (13 in stead of 12) needed to be added to ensure the
same frequency of service. This has still resulted in reduce the overall reduction of from 12,000
MT to 10,000 MT which means a16% savings on fuel costs as well as reducing pollutants and
CO2.
The flexibility offered by slow steaming has can improve the fleets reliability as the lower
average speeds give the ships the flexibility to speed up to when needed to make deadlines
when other ships in the fleet are experiencing delays. The shipping company also achieved an
overall reduction in supply chain CO2 with a cut of emissions per container by 12.5% from 2007
to 2009 with a further reduction of approximately 7% over the next 2 year per moved container.
The benefits to customers are reduced inventory costs as the produce gets there on time with
reduced warehouse storage time, demurrage and detention costs. Slow speed steaming also
helps maintain the supply chain integrity as it improves the speed of turn-‐ round on outstanding
freight as well as the scheduling of labour and road/rail/ship trans-‐shipment.
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1.6 Loading and proper cargo weight management

Cargo load factor
Ships operate without utilising their full cargo loading capacity. This may be for a number or
reasons from the poor design of the ship to lack of transport demand but the ship manager
should look at all options to increase the load factor if there is spare cargo capacity. If the load
factor of the ships in a fleet were increased the emissions of these ships may increase due to the
increased weight and therefore increased draft of the vessel but the EEOI would improve due to
the increase cargo carried. Savings can also be obtained by using fewer ships for the same
operation that would outweigh any increase due to the increased cargo carried on an individual
ship. To remove unused cargo carrying capacity there must be the right ships in the right place
at the right time. This means that it may not be possible to eliminate space cargo capacity all the
time even with a large fleet. If the cargo carrying capacity can be increased for certain voyages
this would have the effect of improving the overall efficiency of the ship as calculated in the
EEOI.
1966 Load Lines Convention

Cargo capacity is normally decided on most ships by it load lines which are placed on each side
of a ship to show the ships maximum true mean draught that must not be exceeded. This is
normally taken as the summer load line in saltwater when a ship is operating in the summer
zone but can vary for timber ships and ships operating in other zones. The locations of these
different zones are contained in the 'Load Lines Regulations' in the form of a small map but can
also be found in any good seamanship textbook. The measured load-‐lines on a ship is based on
the freeboard and watertight integrity requirements contained in the IMO's International
Convention on Load Lines convention 1966 as amended, and is defined as the measurement
from the uppermost continuous watertight deck to the ships waterline at its mid point. To
decide on any the watertight integrity of a particular ship the regulations contain 7 basic
corrections or allowances that are applied to the initial freeboard to get the assigned freeboard.
There are two types of ship which are ‘type A’ mainly bulk liquid ships with small hatch opening
which are allowed a reduced freeboard and ‘type B’ with covers all other ships.
Multiple Load Lines

A ship may have multiple load lines assigned that will result in the ship having assigned
freeboards that are greater than the minimum. This will result in the ship carrying less cargo
when using this freeboard. This increase in the maximum freeboard will have the effect of
reducing the maximum allowable true mean draught and the measured gross tonnage. The
question is now of course why would a ship want to have a reduced maximum true mean draft
and a reduced measured gross tonnage and the answers are in the 1969 tonnage convention.
The 1969 tonnage convention

The IMO 1969 international tonnage convention is used to measure the gross tonnage of ships.
The measured tonnage of a particular ship is a cubic measurement not a measurement of the
deadweight, which is the maximum cargo in tonnes that the ship can carry when at her summer
load-‐line in saltwater. The gross tonnage is normally used to calculate, amongst other things, the
amount of port dues that a ship has to pay. The cost of port and other tonnage-‐based dues can
be significant over the lifetime of the ship so any ship manager will look to reducing them where
possible.
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Increased freeboards
The cost of port dues is the main answers to the question of why it can be advantages to have
several assigned freeboard. The reduction of gross tonnage of the ship by claiming the larger
freeboard can result in lower port dues. If a ship is operating on a trade where there is a draught
restriction in the port, lack of transport demand or where the cargo has a high volumetric value
and the ship does not need to go down to its maximum assigned freeboard operating on the
increased freeboard with a reduced gross tonnage can reduce port dues and other taxes that
use gross tonnage to charge the ship.
The importance of accurate weight declaration

It is very important to be full aware of the cargo to be loaded and discharged so that the route,
cargo and ballast plan can be defined and calculated accurately. In the transport of container by
sea there is currently a problem with the accurate declaration of the weight of the container
before it arrives at the port from an inland location.
Container packing
A Container will normally be stuffed (packed) in a warehouse some miles from the port and
transported to the dock by a truck. As the packing of the container is relatively low qualified
work, often the persons packing the container will have little knowledge of the importance of
lashing the cargo properly. In addition, the weight declaration may be inaccurate.
“This discrepancy is widespread within the container ship industry and is due to many
packers and shippers not having the facilities to weigh containers on their premises. It is
also due to shippers deliberately under-declaring containers’ weights in order to: minimise
import taxes calculated on cargo weight; allow the over-loading of containers; and to keep
the declared weight within limits imposed by road or rail transportation.” (MAIB, 2008)
This leads to the situation where the container is often packed poorly with little regard to the
true weight of the cargo being packed.
The container is then moved to the docks by either truck or rail. When the container arrives at
the dock with it’s manifest of cargo containing the declaration of weights that were declared to
the freight forwarder by the person wanting the cargo shipped there is not normally a check of
the weight of the container before it is removed from the truck or rail carriage. This has lead to a
situation where the declared weights on the cargo declaration are often incorrect.
Accurate weight of the container

The weight of the container will often be measured by the equipment used to load the container
on to the ship but by then it is too late as the particular slot will already have been assigned and
the stevedores loading the ship may have little or no interest in the weight of the container
unless it exceeds the safe working loads of the equipment used to load it.
Once on the ship and loaded and secured it is impossible to weight or in most cases even open
the container to check that the weight inside it are as declared. On some occasions the first the
ship may know that there is a problem is when the cargo is discharged and it is found that it is
too heavy to be lifted by the ships crane or shore facilities.
This has lead to a situation where it is difficult for the ships master to rely on the weights
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declared. This means that the loading plan and the final cargo plan provide to the ship, which
will have the declared weights are often inaccurate. This can lead to major problems particularly
if the container is carrying dangerous goods that have not been declared correctly in a poorly
packed container with incorrectly declared weights. The other issue is that if the cargo weight is
not declared correctly loading heavy containers on top of light container outside the
requirements contained in the ships, cargo-‐securing manual can lead to a failure of the structure
of the containers on deck and the parting of the container lashings. Such poor loading could and
has led to containers collapsing on-‐deck/cargo holds or overboard in heavy weather.
Pre calculation of optimum trim and ballast

The importance of knowing accurate the weight of each container with regard to the reduction
of GHG is that is that if the ships officers do not know exactly the weight and physical location of
each cargo transport unit (CTU) or container they can not accurately calculate the draft, trim
and stability of the vessel. This means that it is not possible to pre-‐calculate the optimum trim or
optimum ballast so that the ship has adequate stability at the start of the voyage.
The ships master must therefore rely on the ships final drafts to ensure that stability is
maintained though out the intended voyage taking into account the consumption of fuel oil and
any international load-‐line requirements. The master will then ballast the ship to get the
optimum trim for the actual draft. This situation does not normally apply to general cargo ships
with block stowage as such weight are normally accurately declared but may do if they are also
carrying a number of incorrectly declared containers.
Distribution of cargo on board

The distribution of cargo onboard and the amount of ballast needed to maintain adequate
stability, particularly with ships that carry a large amount of deck cargo is critical information
required to calculate an optimum trim and have a optimum amount of ballast onboard for a
particular voyage. This subject will be dealt with in full in section 5 but the previous few
paragraphs should be kept in mind when these issues are discussed.
Upgrade of cargo equipment

The port mainly dictates the cargo handling equipment available for loading and discharge of
the ship. The shipmanager and the cargo handling facility in the port should look at the ship
shore interface and formulate and decide ways of optimising the facilities to match the ship with
the port. Small changes in the way the operation is carried out can reap significant benefits in
regard to the reduction of GHG. These changes may well involve the whole transport chain
including road and rail transshipment.
It may be possible in some situations to upgrade the cargo equipment either fitted to the ship or
used ashore to improve the energy efficiency of the operation. This may require the
development and installation of more advanced equipment which can be expensive, however,
this cost may well be off set by a more speedy, as well as efficient, load and discharge of the
vessel reducing downtime and the need to pay demurrage. Both the owner and the ports
concerned should consider such options.
Efficiency depends on the power source

If a ship is using its own cranes or other self-‐discharge gear the power consumption can be high.
This will normally be in the form of marine diesel oil adding to the ships CO2 production. If the
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method of discharge or loading is from shore equipment the amount of CO2 produced will
depend on the source of the power. If it is from hydroelectric source the CO2 production will be
low but is the power is produced from coal powered power stations the ships own generators
could be a more efficient source.
Risk of installing GHG reducing equipment in present regulatory context
If new equipment is installed to reduce GHG in many cases it will result in the internal measured
dimensions of the ship on which the gross tonnage is measured increasing. The international
tonnage regulations do give some allowances for the parts of the ship that do not carry cargo
but if a ship is designed with GHG reducing equipment that increase the gross tonnage (GT)
there will be a financial penalty over the whole lifetime of the ship. This situation could be
resolved by amending the 1969 convention at the IMO so that allowances can be made for
installation of equipment that reduce GHG but this has proved to be very difficult to do even for
safety reasons. The shipmanager must take these considerations into account when deciding if it
is viable to install any new equipment to reduce GHG on a new or existing ship if the
modification leading to an increase in the measured gross tonnage.
The type of ships and equipment to be considered

All types of ships should be considered including; tankers, bulk carriers, container ships, reefers,
roro cargo, roro passenger, passenger and specialised ships such as dredgers and cable laying
ships. The loading, discharging and cargo care equipment that should be considered would
include the following;
1. ventilation (all ships)

2. mooring (all ships)
3. lighting (all ships)
4. electrical services (all ships)
5. reductions of CFCs (reefer)
6. heating coils (tankers)
7. cooling (reefer)
8. cooling (container)
9. cargo temperature optimisation (tanker)
10. cargo vapour control procedures (crude carriers)
11. ballasting/de-‐ballasting (all ships)
12. water-‐cooled reefer plant with lower energy consumption
13. insulation of heating pipes

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2 Ship Technical Management

2.1 Role of the technical management to support GHG reductions.
The importance of the technical management in supporting and encouraging the reduction of
GHG on board ships in the companies' fleet should not be underestimated. The role of the
technical management to support GHG savings should also consider any limitations, in terms of
safety, cost and regulatory conflict that may apply to a particular ship.
Overall energy management

The ships technical manage should consider the overall energy management of all the ships and
how that may be implemented in each individual ship SEEMP. This should include not only the
vessels main engine but also the overall energy consumption of the vessel and the cargo it is
carrying. Some ships also carry cargo gear that requires high power when loading and unloading.
Ships have transverse thrusters, for manoeuvring at low speed, which need significant power
but are used only for short periods. Besides the power needed for propulsion, electric power is
needed to sustain the crew (the hotel load) as well as various ancillary systems, such as cooling-‐
water pumps, ventilation fans, control and navigational systems. Passenger ferries and cruise
ships will have significant power demands for passenger accommodation, ventilation and air-‐
conditioning. Significant heat demands may also be required for passenger comfort and for
production of fresh water and treatment of sewage and waste.
Shipmanagers options
There are many different ways to reduce the power on board for example, low energy lighting,
energy efficient heating, ventilation and air conditioning. The technical manager should also be
aware that a GHG reduction strategy that may work on a particular type of ship on particular
trade might not work on other ships operating on different routes and carrying different
cargoes. This section will look at the options the ship manager has managed the energy of the
fleet and where GHG savings can be made.
Cost of fuel
Financial viability
Perhaps the most important factor when considering energy management is the cost of fuel
which can either make or break any GHG strategy particularly when it involves buying expensive
equipment. Some approaches to reduce GHGs are only financially viable when oil prices reach a
specific level and are expected to stay above that level long enough to provide an adequate
financial return on the investment in the particular energy efficiency improvement method.
Element of Risk

There will therefore always be an element of risk when deciding on such policy’s as the price of
fuel is volatile as it depends on both economic and political factors. However, many measures
are now becoming cost effective as a result of higher oil prices and measures previously too
expensive are becoming commercially viable and example of this are given in the section on ‘The
importance of innovation’ later in this section. Many GHG reduction measure will depend on the
remaining service life of the ship as well as the cost of fuel so the situation will require continual
monitoring to ensure that options are not over looked.
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Economies of scale
Fuel consumption is measured in tonne per mile

Since fuel consumption per tonne mile is in general higher for smaller than larger ships, fuel
savings can be gained by using larger instead of smaller ships as long as there is sufficient
transport demand. The use of large ships may be constrained by port, canal, lock, berth
dimensions cargo gear capacity and dimensions, depth of the approach channel.
The importance of innovation

The ship-‐manager should be aware of the importance of innovation and be aware of new
technological advances that have the potential to reduce the overall GHG production of the
fleet.
Solar Cells and Batteries

Examples of this are the use of solar energy and storage batteries to utilise the energy produced
by the sun and store it on board for future use. Solar cells can be placed on ships that have
sufficient deck space available and the power generated stored in batteries for later use.

EXAMPLE
In June 2012 the world's

first hybrid car carrier the ‘Emerald Ace’ was completed. The car carrier is expected to
achieve zero emissions while berthed. The Emerald Ace electric power supply system
combines a 160kW solar powered system along with lithium batteries that can store 2.2MWh
of electricity to achieve zero emissions while berthed. The system generates electricity
though solar panels while the vessel is underway and stores the power in the lithium
batteries. When berthed the diesel generator can be shut down and the energy stored in the
batteries used.
Figure 7: Solar cells and batteries
Hull form
Other operators have concentrated on different technologies that are aimed at increasing the
overall efficiency of the hull to reduce the power needed to push the vessel though the water
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EXAMPLE

The Vectis Falcon is one of four 8,556 DWT sister-‐ships designed in the Netherlands and
built with a number of GHG reducing features including a hydrodynamically-‐optimised
hull form and large ducted propeller that enable the ship to operate with de-‐rated
24,000kW main engines and to perform at similar levels to more powerful vessels. The
ship also has a Groot Cross-‐Bow that reduces pitching and helps cut down the amount
of water that is shipped on deck in heavy weather resulting in reduced load fluctuations
of the main engine and speed losses.
Figure 8: hull design
Wind power
With a kite that is attached to the bow of the ship wind energy can be used to substitute the
power or the ships engines. Can be used on vessels with a minimum average length of 30m and
works best on ships with an average speed of no higher than 16 knots. This system can be
retrospectively fitted.
EXAMPLE

The Sky Sails kite is expected to reduce annual fuel bills and GHG by 10-‐35%. The kite
operates at 10 to 300m above sea level where wins are stronger and more stable and can
be use in winds of up to 40 knots.
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Figure 9: Wind power
Flettner Rotors
Rotors place on deck of a ship can generate thrust, taking advantage of the ‘Magnus Effect’.
Enercon has built a cargo ship equipped with four wind engines that started operation in 2011
carrying turbine blades for wind farms. The likely future application will probable be with large
oil tankers and bulk carriers.
EXAMPLE

The E-‐Ship is equipped with nine Mitsubishi marine diesel engines with a total output of
35 MW. The ship’s exhaust gas boilers are connected to a Siemens downstream steam
turbine, which in turn drives four Enercon-‐developed Flettner rotors. These rotors
resemble four large cylinders mounted on the ship’s deck, are 27m tall and 4m in
diameter. The system relies on the ‘Magnus’ effect, that is a force on a spinning body in a
moving air stream, which acts perpendicular to the direction of the air stream. Anton
Fetter who discovered the concept built a ship named the ‘Buckau’ in the 1920’s where
this effect was used.
Figure 10: Flettner rotors
Eco Ship 2030

The technical manager should also consider what might be available in the future. The Eco Ship
2030 was developed by a number of companies to give a benchmark of what could be achieved
in the future.
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EXAMPLE

NYK Super Eco Ship 2030 is used as a benchmark for evaluating the technical advances
made in reducing GHG at the year 2030.The project was carried out by NYK Line / MTI,
(Japan), Elomatic Marine, (Finland) and Garroni Design, (Italy).
Figure 11: Eco Ship 2030
Alternative fuels
Making use of alternative fuels will lead to a reduction of CO2 emissions from heating and
separating of heavy fuel oil. CO2 emissions can be reduced when alternative fuels are used
instead of or as well as diesel oil. LNG and biofuels are alternative fuels that are associated with
lower life-‐cycle CO2 emissions. For instance the carbon the plants absorbed while growing
offsets the carbon emitted when burning biofuels. Biofuels currently include the “first-‐
generation” biofuels made from sugar, starch, vegetable oil or animal fats, using conventional
technology. Among these, biodiesel (Fatty Acid Methyl Esters or ‘FAME’) and vegetable oils can
be used for ship diesel engines. Biodiesel could substitute distillate fuels and vegetable oils
could substitute residual fuels. With some biofuels, there may be issues with stability during
storage, acidity, lack of water shedding, blocking of fuel filters and wax formation. This means
that care must be exercised in selecting the fuel and adapting the engine. Blending bio-‐derived
fuel fractions into diesel or heavy fuel oil is also possible but the compatibility must be checked.
Future processes to convert biomass into liquid fuels could be designed to produce fuels that
are suitable for use on board ships. Currently, biofuels are significantly more expensive than oil-‐
derived fuels.
LNG is a marine fuel that delivers very significant reduction of NOx, SOx and PM emissions and
also at the same time a reduction in CO2 equivalents. Where available, LNG is expected to
remain a less expensive fuel than distillate fuels. This combination makes it particularly
interesting for use within future ECAs. There are however problems with using LNG on certain
types of ships such as passenger ships with the need to store large tanks of fuel and biofuel is
available on the market but there is only a limited supply.
Hybrid Propulsion
Currently most tankers, bulk carriers, container ships and general cargo ships have one large low
speed propulsion engine directly connected to the propeller. This arrangement has proven to be
very efficient and, since the ships operate mainly at high engine load, there is little to gain by
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complex multi-‐engine machinery arrangements or by using hybrid propulsion systems. In the

roro passenger and cruise market it is currently common to use multiple engines and two or
more propellers. The primary reasons for this are lower draughts and high power demand but
an additional reason is the space restrictions imposed on the engine room and the need to use
several more compact medium-‐speed engines. This means that there is already a need for a
gearbox that will give transmission losses. This multi-‐engine situation opens up some
possibilities for designing systems that can handle variable loads. The ship can use the correct
number of engine necessary to maintain the required speed with those engines operating at
their maximum efficiency.
Cargo lashing stress monitoring equipment

An options that may be considered for a container ship, RoRo or other ship that carries deck
cargo is the use of computer controlled ship movement monitoring equipment to monitor the
roll and pitch of the vessel in real time. These systems compare the vessel current heading and
speed with measurements of the level of torsional stress the vessel is experiencing. This
equipment can give the master additional information on the best speed and course to follow to
reduce resistance though the water in heavy weather thereby increasing speed for less fuel
consumption.
Reefer containers using water-‐cooling systems for condenser

Reefer containers can be stored on deck or inside the cargo holds and a large amount of heat
from the condensers is removed from the inside of the container through the evaporator. When
reefer containers are stored on-‐deck in the open air, heat from the condensers can be
discharged into the atmosphere, allowing air-‐cooled condensers to be used.
Heat given out by the condensers from the reefer containers operating inside the cargo hold
should be vented outside, otherwise heat will build up inside the cargo hold and the
refrigeration machinery will not function efficiently. The ship's cargo hold ventilation system
should be designed to allow the required number of air changes to maintain the temperature
inside the hold within the pre-‐set limits.
Water cooled reefer plants have a much lower energy consumption so can lead to substantial
reduction in the production of GHGs than current systems. When water-‐cooled condensers are
used the cargo hold is equipped with a water circulating system. Pipelines running along the
sides of the cargo hold can be connected to the individual reefer containers through a pair of
flexible pipes, one each for the inlet and the outlet.
Although reefer containers are usually equipped by default with air-‐cooled condensers, some
are designed to run as water-‐cooled units. To improve the heat transfer across the condenser
coil, all reefer units have a condenser fan. When fitted with an optional water cooled condenser
and running as a water cooled unit a pressure switch turns off the condenser fan once the water
pressure is high enough, and turns it on again if the pressure drops.
Care should be taken that reefer containers are not positioned with their machinery facing each
other, otherwise the hot air discharged from the condensers will simply be cycled back through,
adversely affecting each condenser's performance. In addition, enough space should be always
be left around condensers to allow air to flow freely to and from them, ensuring optimum
performance.
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The ship's power supply is usually designed to handle the power needed by the maximum
number of reefer containers the ship can carry. Each reefer container is estimated to consume
about 5KW of power and a 4,600 TEU Panamax container ship will typically have capacity for
700 reefer plugs. With a full load, 18 tonnes of HFO per day will be consumed in powering them.
Adequate lighting of the vessel.

Considerable saving in energy can be achieved by using the lighting on board effectively.
However, care should be taken to avoid the creation of new safety or security hazards when
turning off the ships lighting. The Shipboard management team should explore the possibility of
savings in this area taking the following into account;
• Lights in all common places such as recreation room for officers and crew, gymnasium,
cargo control room, ship’s office, pantry, galley, dining halls may be switched off after
use during night and day and specially between 2200 and 0600.
• Cabin lighting including toilet lights to be switched off when not required.
• All personnel on board to be briefed in initial familiarisation and during onboard
training conducted by shipboard management team.
• Where practicable, bulbs are to be changed to power saving bulbs such as compact
fluorescent lamps or halogen or sodium vapour lamps to improve luminosity/watt.
Incandescent bulbs consume more energy and have shorter life span than compact
fluorescent bulbs. However, more recently, tube fluorescent lamp (TFL) technology has
also improved. Ordering the newer (T8 or T5) TFL lamps over the standard TFL (T10)
options will reduce energy consumption levels.
• The use of halogen or sodium vapour lamp in engine room is to be regulated and put
off when not required.
• The use high power lights only when it is necessary.
• Painting scheme should take into consideration shades that would give better light
effect.
Other power saving methods

Other power saving methods can be considers such as the turn off of computers when not in use
and the turn off and plug out items such as DVDs/TVs/audio systems and microwaves as these
use several watts when in standby mode. Sensible use of washing machines and dryers can also
save water and watts.
Energy Audit
An Energy Audit is an independent survey and assessment of the overall energy consumption
and efficiency of on board equipment that use electricity. These surveys and assessments
involve the regular survey of the vessel’s engine room and other locations for sources of energy
loss. This can be done with infrared detectors that can look for heat sinks, steam leaks and
inefficient electrical motors. The crew can conduct the energy audit but it may be necessary to
contract independent experts in energy to initially train them.
Energy Audit has the potential to reduce GHG emissions by;
• Locating and minimising heat sinks and steam leaks by using infrared detectors and
reducing the effects.
• Identifying inefficient electrical motors and installing variable frequency drives on high
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energy consuming circulating pumps and forced draft fans. To allow soft stating of
large motors like fire and bilge pumps
• As electrical motors need to be replaced, install new motors with higher energy
efficiency ratings.
• If may e necessary to contract independent expert in energy to train the crew to
undertake onboard audits.
Electrical services
The Energy Audit should include a review of the electrical services on-‐board which can produce
several efficiency gains and area that should be looked at are;
• Fridge
• Lighting
• Sewerage systems
• Washing machines
• Galley stove
Air Conditioning
Where savings can be made

Air conditioning is one of the major energy consumers in the ships accommodation at sea with
losses thought windows account for nearly 50% of the heat or heat loss and accounting for 50%
of the workload on the air conditioning system or heating system. If windows are untreated they
will allow about 20 times more heat into a space than an equivalent amount of insulated wall
space. The ships crew can limit the consumption by keeping the blinds closed when sunlight is
not needed or the space is unoccupied. All accommodation doors should be properly shut and
weather tight in order to prevent outside hot air leaking into accommodation so that air
conditioning plant can be run at low load to maintain the temperature. The air conditioning
ducts of empty spaces should be kept closed when not in use and appropriate adjustment of air
conditioning or fresh air intake and re-‐circulation dampers should be applied.
The air conditioning plant should shut off when ambient temperature permits and the
accommodation heating used only when the outside temperature warrant it. It is important that
the air conditioning plant is maintained properly so that it will not waste energy.
Refrigeration System
Cold rooms and refrigeration plant should be maintained properly to avoid running refrigeration
plant for longer than necessary. As the refrigerant gases can leak and cause a significant impact
on GHG emissions regular inspections of the entire refrigerant systems should be undertaken to
reduce and leaks and improve the systems efficiency.
Exhaust Gas Boilers (EGB)
Temperature important for Efficiency

A diesel engine loses approximately 30% of the energy to the exhaust gases. A turbocharger
recovers some of the lost energy but there are still heat losses that can be recovered by means
of an Exhaust Gas Boiler, EGB. Utilisation of the energy in the exhaust gas is restricted due to
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risk of low temperature corrosion on the gas side of the tubes. The sulphuric acid dew point
temperature is assumed to be at 130-‐140°C. A temperature difference of 40°C must be
considered in order to obtain a margin when the gas temperature decreases due to low load on
the main engine. This means that Exhaust Gas Boilers are not designed to reduce the gas
temperature at the EGB outlet below 170-‐180°C at the continuous service rating (CSR) of the
engine. At a gas temperatures below 170-‐180°C, the vaporised unburned oil particles in the gas
condense to an adhesive mixture of soot and oil resulting in deposits on the tubes and the
heating surface of the exhaust gas boiler.
2.2 Continuous performance monitoring

Preventive Maintenance
Preventive Maintenance Scheme

Maintenance in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions in the Preventive Maintenance
Scheme (PMS) will maintain efficiency and enhance fuel savings. The use of engine condition
monitoring can be a useful tool in maintaining high efficiency. The aim is to give a detailed
indication of the performance of the engine and to be able to assess when deterioration of
engine condition is occurring. If an engine is not running properly it will waste fuel and the only
way to establish this fully is to monitor the performance of the engine to verify it is operating
within the appropriate parameters. The maintenance of the engine should always be carried out
as described by the engine manufacture and at the agreed maintenance periods. The preventive
maintained system on a ship will normal form part of the ships safety management system
under the ISM code.
Fix it before it is broke

It is always preferable to prevent deterioration in the performance of the ship by conducting
regular maintenance than waiting until there is a problem to fix. Preventive maintenance will
always save money in the long run as well as making the ship more GHG efficient. Once a
problem has been identified by the ship this should rectified onboard or be passed on to the
technical management as soon as possible so that the fault or necessary repairs can be rectified
or completed.
Monitoring data for the fleet
Collection of Data

The energy efficiency of the fleet as a whole should be monitored so that the overall energy
efficiency of the company can be gauged. It is therefore important that the energy monitoring of
each ship in the fleet is done in a similar way so that the data can be compared. The monitoring
should be conducted “quantitatively’ and preferably using the individual ships ‘Energy Efficiency
Operational Index (EEOI) but this is not mandatory. This does not preclude the company using
other quantitative measures to collect data or using other monitoring methods and
mathematical or computer based tools. The company could for instance develop its own
mathematical model for a ships energy efficiency based on the ships data collected from ship
board electronic sensors that could provide data on the cargo carried, speed, position and fuel
used on a particular voyage. Such information could be obtained from the ships electronic
navigation systems and cargo loading systems but should not be used to instruct the master on
the passage plan of a particular voyage.
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Company wide procedures

Company wide procedures should be developed for the methods of collecting data and the
person responsible for the collection of the data defined. In order to avoid an unnecessary
administration burden on ships staff the monitoring should be carried out, as far as possible, by
shore staff using data obtained from existing records such as the official log-‐book, deck log-‐
book, engineering log-‐book, oil record book or the SECA logbook with additional data obtained
as appropriate.

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2.3 Waste heat recovery and exhaust boiler management

Waste Heat Recovery
Waste heat recovery systems use thermal heat losses from the exhaust gas for either electricity
generation or additional propulsion with a shaft motor. The waste heat of the engine can be
used to drive turbines for electricity production leading to less fuel consumption by the auxiliary
engines. A water heat recovery system can be applied to ships with a high production of waste
heat and a high consumption of electricity. This method does have the disadvantage that as the
efficiency of the main engine increases the potential for waste heat recovery becomes less.
Waste heat recovery is now a commercially available technology for some ships but not an
option that can be applied to all ships. Waste heat recovery system will tend to work well on
passenger ships with a high auxiliary power requirements both at sea and in port but may not
work on bulk carriers that are mainly on long ocean passages and do not have a high auxiliary
engine requirement at sea.
Retrospective fitting of waste heat recover systems and there uses
It may not be possible to retrospectively fit such systems into existing ships but they may be a
beneficial option for new ships and ship designers and builders should be encouraged to
incorporate such new technology into their designs. If auxiliary boilers on diesel driven ships are
used for supplying steam and hot water for non-‐propulsion uses then wastes heat recovery
systems may be an option. On a tanker where cargo-‐heating systems are used on passage to
keep the cargo at optimum temperature and in port steam turbines are used to offload
petroleum crude significant energy efficiency gains can be made. On passengers ships with high
power demand both at sea and in port for heating, lighting and cooling the accommodation
waste heat recovery can be effective. Reefers and container ships carrying significant amounts
of refrigerated cargo could also benefit from a waste heat recovery system.
Energy Recovery from Gas-‐Fuelled Engines

Due to increasing prices of fuel oil and regulations to control exhaust emissions there is an
increasing interest in using gas engines, burning natural gas, in marine applications. The
currently available gas-‐fuelled engines for ship propulsion have slightly higher shaft efficiency at
a maximum continuous rating (MCR) compared to their diesel counterparts. This is normally in
the range of 44.5% to 47% depending on engine size and engine type either spark-‐ignited or
dual-‐fuel. The gas engines offer a higher potential for energy recovery that comes from the
higher exhaust temperatures (normally in the range of 400°C to 430°C) and the possibility of
running with an exhaust stack temperature of below 100°C. This can be achieved because the
fuel does not contain sulphur and the combustion produces very small quantities of particles
and the exhaust system is little affected by the low temperature of the exhaust gas.
Main Engine Energy Recovery
Exhaust Gas Turbine

Energy-‐recovery systems for ship engines have been available from producers of low-‐speed
engines for many years. The first system offered was usually based on an additional exhaust
turbine that was fed from the exhaust receiver by a small part of the engine exhaust flow that
was in the range of 10%. The exhaust turbine could be connected to the engine’s crankshaft or
alternatively to an electric generator. Since fuel prices in the past have been too low to make
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these systems profitable, the number of installed systems is relatively small. For some years,
more advanced systems have been developed and are commercial viable for some low-‐speed
engines.
B&W’s system TES (thermo efficiency system) combines a turbine in the exhaust gas
with a steam cycle that is driven by exhaust heat and running a steam turbine. The two
turbines are coupled to a generator for production of electrical power. The power can
then be used to drive a shaft generator/motor to assist the main engine, or consumed
elsewhere in the ship. The corresponding increase in engine power is estimated to be
EXAMPLE
in the range of 9 to 11%, which, in terms of shaft efficiency, increases to about 55%
(from about 49.5%). The contributions from the two systems are respectively 5% and
6%, from the exhaust turbine and the steam turbine. The efficiency of the steam cycle
is somewhat limited by the minimum recommended temperature of the exhaust stack,
which must be above 180°C to control the formation of deposits and the corrosion by
sulphur oxides that are related to the use of heavy fuel oils.
Figure 12: Thermo Efficient System
A significant barrier to the use of such systems is the very large size, weight and complexity. This
causes issue of space required in the engine room and the reduction of the cargo carrier
capacity due to the increase in weight. These installations are also optimised for a single
operating point with the power production rapidly decreasing at other loads that do not make
them suitable for ships that vary their engine speed a lot.
Medium speed engine fuel efficiency

Medium-‐speed diesel engines have a lower fuel efficiency compared to low speed engines,
usually in the range 42% to 44.5%. These engines normally have an exhaust gas temperature in
the range of 300°C to 360°C. While the minimum temperature of the exhaust stack is 180°C or
above, which gives a limitation to heat recovery, the energy utilisation is calculated to be in the
range of about 3.5% of the shaft power.
Organic Rankine Cycle

As a means of energy recovery steam cycles have some properties that make its use difficult on
board a ship. The relatively low temperature levels tend to make the systems relatively bulky
and the condenser operates at the low steam density that exists at the condensation
temperature. There are some interesting forthcoming developments that are expected to make
a significant impact on the gain in engine efficiency. Organic Rankine Cycle systems have been
designed and are already commercial and show more favourable properties, in particular much
smaller space requirements compared to a steam system. The Organic Rankine Cycle principle is
really just a fridge in reverse and is a way of recovering heat at a relatively low temperature. The
working fluid is currently alkanes or refrigerates but there are potential fire hazards and ozone-‐
depletion issues however the planned use of CO2 is a more desirable working fluid.
Oil Fired Boiler Efficiency and Exhaust O2 level

Providing the correct amount of air for the combustion demand can improve thermal efficiency
of the oil-‐fired boilers. For example, too much air may cool the boilers and in turn reduce the
thermal efficiency. The risk of soot accumulation on a vessel not made for slow steaming should
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also be highlighted. It is important to maintain clean surfaces on all exhaust gas economisers
and auxiliary boilers and the differential pressure across the economiser and its gas inlets. The
exhaust temperatures should be constantly monitored and adjusted if they are out of the
optimum range. Any fouling of the boiler surface either on the water or gas side will reduce
efficiency so auxiliary boiler exhaust side must be cleaned regularly to keep the tube surfaces
clean. The O analyser and the piping system must be checked prior to every operation as if the
2
sensing or sampling lines are not cleaned and either condensation or dirt in the line which
prevents a good flow of sample gas to the analyser an incorrect O readings will be obtained.
2
Incorrect readings can mean fuel wastage, as the load on the boiler will be increased to produce
the correct O reading.
2
Maintenance and Operational considerations

The following maintenance and operational considerations should be taken into account;
Composite boiler exhaust side must be cleaned regularly to keep the tube surfaces clean.
• Use of hot water calorifier to be regulated between steam / electric heating depending
upon easy availability of steam. Steam trap maintenance should be carried out
regularly. Steam traps that are not working correctly may lead to the loss of an
excessive amount of additional energy.
• All steam leakage to be minimised and when a steam leak is discovered this should be
recorded so that they can be repairs at the same time to avoid frequent change over to
diesel oil.
• Composite boiler is to be used during anchorages and other relevant opportunities.
• Starting of auxiliary boilers too far in advance of intended use is to be avoided.
• Boiler controls setting such as burner control and water level setting for the feed pump
should be selected so a to minimise energy consumption.
• Steam dumping when possible is to be avoided.
• Pipe/ valve lagging is to be maintained in good order to minimise heat loss.
• Steam tracing is to be used judiciously.
• Bunker tank heating is to be optimised.
• Auxiliary boilers should only be shut down if they are not needed for a reasonable
amount of time.
Exhaust Gas Economiser Efficiency

The following maintenance should be considered;
1. The efficiency of an exhaust gas economiser can be improved by increased soot

blowing frequency to once or twice a day when at sea.
2. Recording the exhaust gas temperature difference and pressure drop can provide
an indication of economiser cleanliness.
3. Water washing should be scheduled into major repair periods. Economiser

maintenance will not only improve energy efficiency but also reduce maintenance
overall costs and reduce safety risks associated with soot fires.
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2.4 Hull and propeller maintenance including monitoring and planning

Maintaining a clean hull and propeller is important for fuel efficiency and many ship-‐owners
have made substantial savings by increasing the frequency of cleaning of the hull and propellers.
The use of more effective hull coatings can lead to the reduction of hull resistance and reduce
intervals between dry-‐docking. The main factors to consider when assessing hull friction are the
surface finishing, hull coating and the condition of the hull plating. Applying the correct hull
coating and having an effective hull maintenance program alone can lead to a 5%. reduction in
energy requirements. From recent tests it was found that the hull fouling of tank ships typically
results in speed reductions of ~5% between docking, corresponding to a power increase of ~15%
and an increase in frictional resistance of 20%. By increasing the docking frequency, the average
loss could be reduced which could result in a net power saving of about 5%.
Hull surface water resistance

Frictional resistance is a very significant contributor to total resistance particularly at lower
speeds. When the hull moves through the water, water will be dragged along, creating a body of
water following the ship that is called a “boundary layer”. In the forward part of the ship this
layer will be comparatively thin, but it grows in thickness along the sides of the hull. A boundary
layer will form even on completely smooth hull surfaces. Increasing the roughness of the hull
surface tends to increase the boundary layer, consequently increasing the frictional resistance.
The effect of surface roughness on the resistance depends on the effective speed of the water
relative to the hull, and this varies over the hull surface. For example increased surface
roughness in the bow area will cause greater resistance than, in the aft areas or under the hull
bottom because the effective speed of the water will be less.
The smother the hull the less resistance the ship will have to the water it is moving though and
the faster it will go for the same power output saving fuel and reducing GHG. Fouling will reduce
the smoothness of the hull and may add weight to the vessel reducing the cargo carrying
capacity. The main factors that influence hull fouling are;
1 The salinity of the water

2 Initial roughness of the hull
3 Robustness of the coating with respect to mechanical damage
4 The areas of the hull where there is sunlight, along the sides of the hull and near the
waterline.
5 Temperature of water (colder water generally means less fouling)
6 Amount of algae in the water
7 Quality of hull coating
8 Hull moving or static
9 Hull maintenance

Biological fouling is a very complex process that depends on factors such as the ship’s loading
condition, its operating zones, the effectiveness of anti-‐fouling paint and environmental
conditions. If a ship is constantly moving it will not gather as much marine growth as one that
spends long periods in port or at anchor. If a vessel is left static for extended periods it will allow
the marine growth, that cause fouling, to attach it self to the hull and propeller which will
reduce the speed of the ship and increase the fuel consumption. Hull cathodic protection also
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tends to work better when the ship is moving.
Salinity and temperature of water

Anti-‐foul hull coatings used on seagoing vessels are generally designed for saltwater and ships
that spend extended periods in fresh water or brackish water will tend to foul quicker. If a vessel
is going to operate in fresh water on a particular charter for some time it will be worth
considering reducing the hull cleaning period or changing the type of anti-‐foul paint used. In
winter when the temperature of the water drops below a certain level fouling of the hull is
reduced but will increases in the summer months when the temperature of the water rises. In
temperate zones the maximum fouling occurs in late spring though to early autumn. An in-‐water
inspection of the hull in the summer month may be beneficial for ships operating in such
conditions such as short sea passenger ships.
In water inspections
Regular in water inspections of the hull or dry-‐docking is the only certain way of assessing what
the condition of the hull coating is. The speed and power output of the vessel should be
continually monitored to establish if fouling is reducing the vessels performance. This can help
the ship operator decide what the in-‐ water cleaning or dry docking interval should be. The
condition on the hull should be assessed regularly in line with the period detailed on the SEEMP
and this period my need may need to be reduced if substantial fouling is evident. If a ship is laid
up for any period of time an in-‐water survey of the hull is advisable and if the fouling is
significant the ships hull should be cleaned and the anti-‐foul reapplied.
Hull cathodic protection system

The installation of a hull cathodic protection system should also be considered and as it can
reduce the corrosion of the hull. Corrosion will increase the hulls friction and resistance to the
water flow past the hull and thereby increase fuel consumption. It has the added benefit or
reducing pitting of the hull plating which reduces the strength of the hull. The fitting of cathodic
protection may also be considered as part of the SEEMP.
Lay-‐up
If a ship has been in lay up in a high fouling area for a long time it may need to be taken to dry
dock to be cleaned before it can be put into service. When laying up a ship for any period of
time it is worth considering where the ship is going to be moored and if possible avoid an area
that is subject to high fouling.
Application of hull coating maintenance

The surface roughness of new ships depend on the quality of manufacture of the wetted plates
of the hull and the type of coating that is used and the quality of application of the coating. In
applying the paint it is important to achieve the correct thickness over the whole hull and avoid
contamination with foreign bodies.
The factors that govern the type of under water hull coating that may be applied to a ship are;
1. Cost (the more effective anti fouls tend to be more expensive)
2. Speed of vessel (fast vessels such as HSC tend to have harder coatings)
3. Fresh-‐water or salt-‐water.
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4. Compatibility (some coatings cannot be used on top of others
5. National regulations (some types of anti fouls are banned in certain countries)
6. Severity of fouling in area vessel is trading (some sea areas are much worse than others)

Since the banning of TBT (The International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-‐fouling
Substances on Ships, 2001) most anti-‐fouls are self polishing copper and tin based paints but it
should be borne in mind that some countries are either banning or considering banning the use
of copper based paints in certain areas particularly in inland waters. Manufacturers tend to keep
a closed lid on the make up of their product so it is often difficult to establish exactly what is in
them. These coatings work by degrade over time to release substances that inhibit to organic
growth.
Biocide-‐free silicon-‐based coatings are also available but their market share is very small due to
their high cost. These coatings are commonly referred to as “foul-‐release coatings” as they have
a soft surface onto which it is difficult for most organic growth to hold. Research has show that
these new coatings are equally as effective as TBT-‐based systems but there is still some debate
and not everyone is totally convinced.
In general the more advanced products do yield better results however if a particular ship
operating in a particular area is fouling up significant with one product is it worth considering
changing to a different one. It is also worth talking to other operators operating ships in the
same area and asking which produce they find works best as they can give unbiased advice
which you may not get from a paint manufacturer.
During the operation of the ship, surface roughness can increase due to cracking and damage to
the coating as well corrosion which can also attract marine growth. The growth of organic
species will include slime, weed fouling, and barnacles. Current antifouling paints tend to last for
a maximum period of 3–5 years when the self-‐polishing coating must be renewed however its
performance is reduced gradually over time but generally the first 6 months will give the best
performance. The hull will also require brushing that can either be performed by divers or
automatically with either the whole hull or just critical parts being targeted. Having a shorter
interval between the applications of coatings may therefore reduce energy consumption but
there are some problems as the ship will require an additional dry-‐docking that is very costly
and the number of dry docks is limited. Another problem is that invasive species which may be
removed into the surrounding waters when cleaning which have made many ports reluctant in
allowing this in their port and have introduced restrictions on brushing.
For the ship operator to assess the performance of the hull, which is the speed obtained in
relation to the consumption of power or of fuel then they must know the ships speed though
the water without the effects of weather, tides or currents. This is very difficult to calculate
accurately, particularly on a voyage, as these outside factors may vary quit a bit over the
duration of the voyage. The best option would be to conduct performance monitoring in the
form of periodic speed trials over a set distance, in both direction and in calm water but this is
not always possible.
Future coatings and the application of polymers and air lubrication
Modifying the wetted surface of the hull, such as by introducing riblets that mimic shark scales
can reduce frictional resistance. It can also be reduced by applying artificial enhancement such
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as air bubbles and/or air cavities and polymers. Such improvements to the wetted surfaces of
the hull may also inhibit organic growth.
Research is taking place regarding air lubrication on hull forms but it has not provided significant
improvements to date and none of the above technologies have been proven in service.
Additionally, an air-‐bubble system (e.g. ACS) requires energy to produce the bubbles that would
have a negative impact on GHG reduction.
Hull coatings based on nanotechnology are being developed and it is claimed that these coatings
have the potential of reducing the basic viscous frictional resistance of the underwater hull to a
considerably and to delay the onset of marine growth for a long time and if the claims are
correct then power reductions of 15% may be expected. These new types of coating of the
underwater hull could be the most important contributions toward reducing fuel consumption
and CO2 emissions for both new and existing ships.
Propeller cleaned and polished

Maintaining a clean hull and propeller is important for fuel efficiency and many ship-‐owners
have made substantial savings by increasing the frequency of cleaning on the hull and propellers
or by implementing condition-‐based cleaning. The effect will be greatest for propellers with
large area aspect ratios and for propellers running at high rates of rotation. Polishing will mainly
reduce the frictional loss of the propeller but will in many cases also reduce the rotational loss.
It has been estimated that polishing a roughened propeller surface may result in a decrease in
fuel consumption of up to 3%.
Cleaning polishing and coating

The importance of the propeller being clean with a polished smooth surface cannot be over
emphasised as the efficiency of any propeller can fall off rapidly if it becomes pitted and covered
in marine growth. If the propeller is constantly moving there should not be a problem with
marine growth but if there is not sufficient cathodic protection or the propeller is allowed to
operate close to the surface that can cause cavitation pitting can be a major problem. Marine
growth will tend to accumulate much more when the propeller is not moving such as when the
vessel is in port or at anchor. Running the engine everyday for a short period can reduce this
build up if this is possible but the ship will then produce addition a GHG every time the engine is
started. Preventive maintenance can be taken by polishing and applying coating to the propeller
to reduce the build up of marine growth and regular in-‐water surveys to inspect the propeller
for damaged, pitting and marine growth.
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2.5 Engine Operation, Maintenance and Repair

Operations and Maintenance to improve fuel efficiency
It is important that both the main and auxiliary engines are performance tested and the tests
are evaluated for efficiency. These tests should form part of the ships planned maintenance
system under its safety management system (SMS). If a reduction in efficient of either the main
or auxiliary power units is detected then the cause should be identified and then rectified as
soon as it is practical. Identified problems and their solutions if resolved should be
communicated to the ships management so that they can be sent to appropriate vessels in the
fleet. The maintenance should be adequate and on time and in line with both the requirements
of the classification society and the Administration with regard to the issue of the ‘Safety
Construction Certificate’ SAFCON and the ‘Classification’ of the vessel.
Improve ship board maintenance and operational practices

A number of general shipboard practices concerning the operation and maintenance of the ship
that may improve energy efficiency are listed below. The list is not exhaustive and will not apply
to all ships but it does give the ship manager some indication of the options available.
• While draining fuel tanks, ensure that only water is drained and not the fuel. This will
avoid wastage of fuel and avoid unnecessary accumulation of fuel in waste oil tanks
which will require burning in incinerator thereby causing more fuel wastage;
• Fuel combustion equipment is maintained in optimum working condition (especially
the injectors) to ensure good combustion of fuel;
• Reduce leakage of fuel and compressed air so that machinery runs more efficiently
and for less time;
• In ports/anchorages/storage periods, M.E jacket water temperatures/ bunker tanks
temperatures/fuel oil temperatures of M.E to be regulated/monitored to keep load
sufficiently low on composite boiler.;
• Number of Engine room ventilation fans running should be regulated in engine room
especially during colder climates and in ports related to running
machinery/equipment requirements.
• Optimal maintenance of main engines to ensure that they are operating at the most
effective pressures. Savings of 1–2% of the fuel consumption of the main engine
through “tuning” have been achieved with more in some cases with an the average
potential of around 1%.
Engine efficiency and testing

Marine diesel engines have a very high thermal efficiency of about 50% which is currently only
exceeded by fuel cell technology with an average thermal efficiency of 60%. This should be
compared to coal* which drops down to about 20 to 30%. The operation of an engine at a
constant RPM rather than continually adjusting the engine to match the speed is more efficient.
If a ship is fitted with more than one engine it may be possible to shut down one of the engines
so that the optimum speed can be maintained using significantly less fuel. Gradual increase in
speed when leaving port or estuary will also reduce fuel consumption.
* This is the reason it can be counter productive to use shore electricity

from coal-‐powered power stations if only GHG emissions are
95


considered.
RPM range and injection systems

It is very important to make sure that the engine is used in the proper RPM range and injection
systems are adapted to the speed requirements taking into account booster pumps, injection
pumps, injectors and fuel control and monitoring systems.
Electronically controlled engines and fuel valves

Major improvements in engine performance and fuel consumption has been achieved by state
of the art engines with electronically controlled fuel valves and exhaust valves with specific fuel
consumption (SFC) values that are equal to the mechanically controlled optimising point, but
lower over a wide range of power because the electronic controls can match fuel and exhaust
settings to engine load. Some engines such as the B&W MAN ME have the capability to provide
a 2.2 improvement in the EEDI compared to the mechanical equivalent. For the engine to
achieve optimum efficiency with this type of new technology it is important that the relevant
staff both on the ship and ashore are properly trained. This will include the technical manager
and superintendents as well as the chief engineer and the engineering officers.
Note; SFC is taken at 75 % of the MCR in accordance with the NOX

technical code and contained on the EIAPP certificate
De-‐rating of engines

If a shipowner decides to operate at reduced speed on a permanent basis the engine can be de-‐
rated. This will result in better performances and fuel economy. In the past de-‐rating has been
applied to save fuel where the standard MCR rating and speed is not used. The traditional de-‐
rating procedure was a reduction of power combined with the advancing of the injection timing
to restore peak combustion pressure. This would achieve a gain in shaft efficiency taking into
account the design limitation in the peak combustion pressure that the engine must not
exceeded. Since the introduction of Annex VI of MARPOL, which limits NOx emissions, this
method is generally not permissible because it may constitute a “significant modification” as
defined in the NOx Technical Code that could require the complete engine to be re-‐approval.
Modern approaches to de-‐rating

The modern approach to de-‐rating is to increase the efficiency while at the same time
maintaining or even reducing the NOx emissions by an overall reduction of power output of the
engine. Increasing the compression ratio and adjusting the ignition timing to adjust NOx
emission so that they still comply with the NOx technical code restores the reduction of peak
firing pressure that comes from power reduction. By comparing a certain power reduction
combined with the maximum allowed firing pressure it is possible to calculate the response in
fuel consumption and NOx emissions using state-‐of-‐the-‐art engine simulators. This method has
been proven as successful, particularly on older engines as they are usually built with a low
compression ratio and have a significant potential to increase efficiency.
Engine Upgrades
Incentives for engine up-‐grades

Engine upgrading has the potential to reduce NOx emissions, reduce fuel consumption or,
96


increase power output and upgrade packages are becoming more common as fuel prices are
rise. The revised MARPOL Annex VI and its provisions for existing engines may make engine
upgrading more attractive and create an incentive for engine upgrades. It could offer an
extended service life to older engines and business opportunities to engine manufacturers. A
typical engine upgrade, targeted at reducing NOx emissions, must also include components to
restore and even reduce the fuel consumption caused by the retarded fuel timing. These
components of the upgrade are usually included in an upgrade package for example:
• Turbocharger or parts for re-‐matching, in order to increase charge air pressure
• Pistons or piston crowns, with design modifications to increase compression ratio
• Fuel pumps or fuel cams to increase injection rate
• Fuel nozzles, with increased flow capacity, to match the increase in injection rate.
• More efficient charge air cooler.
• Piston rings.
• Bearing shells for connecting rods and main bearings.
The results on engine parameters of a well-‐balanced upgrade package could reduced NOx
emissions by 20–30%, reduced smoke emissions, reduced CO emissions, reduced SFOC by up to
3% with even higher figures possible for older engines.
Barriers to engine up-‐grades

A major barrier to engine an upgrades is the significant engineering work in developing the
design of the upgrade, the cost of the upgrade and that they are best applied to older engines
which means that they may have a shorter residual lifetime and be less efficient in other areas.
The introduction of Annex VI of MARPOL may make an engine upgrade a “significant
modification”, as defined in the IMO NOx Technical Code that may require the engine to be re-‐
approval that can be very costly.
Auxiliary Engines Operation and Maintenance
Assessing potential savings in GHG

The energy-‐saving potential of ‘auxiliary engine’ energy-‐management measures is difficult to
assess, as it will depends on how efficiently the vessel was previously being operated and on the
share of auxiliary power consumption but saving of 10% on auxiliary power has been achieved in
some cases. GHG emission reduction can be gained by considering the use of the auxiliary
generators and the aim should be to maximise the use of the diesel generator by running on one
when it is possible and safe to do so.
In Port
All non-‐essential machinery and equipment not affecting safety should be stopped whilst in port
to reduce the load on generators. In mooring operations in port and anchoring hydraulic power
pumps, pump room blowers should be stopped immediately after completion of work. Pumps
such as ballast pumps, fire pumps should not be run unnecessarily sea to sea. Mooring winches
and windlass power should be switched off when not in use and hydraulic motors should not be
run unnecessarily. Hydraulic leakage should be eliminated to ensure efficient functioning of the
equipment. After finishing with main engines systems such as lubricating oil camshaft pumps
should be switched off as soon as possible inline with the engine manufactures
recommendations. To reduce load on the generator a check should be kept on compressed air
97


leakage in engine room and on deck. Any leakage should be repaired to avoid frequent cutting in
and out or continuous running of air compressors. This will also reduce maintenance costs on air
compressors.
Variable speed/power motors

Installation of a speed/power variable control unit for engine room fans and pumps will
conserve electrical energy demand where these units are not required to be operated at their
full speed rating. A direct ducting of air to the main engine from outside will also considerably
reduce the need for fans in engine room. Engine room fans should not be run unnecessarily.
Work related to shut down or attending to steam leakage should be monitored and recorded so
that they can be planned to be completed in one repair period to avoiding frequently changing
over to diesel generator oil.
Co-‐ordination between deck and engine

There should be co-‐ordination between the deck and engine department for use of;
1. Windlass;
2. Steering motors;
3. Fire-‐pumps;
4. Winch power
5. Deck crane power;
6. Cargo pumps;
7. Cargo hold fans;
8. Ballast pump;
9. Hold bilge pumps;
10. Deck air;
11. Hydro blaster-‐grit blaster;

and any other equipment used on deck to ensure that the generator is not kept running idle for
long periods. If possible work should be programmed so that two generators are run for a set
period instead of completing work that require additional deck or engine room power
independently. The aim should be to promote better communication between the deck and
engine department on cargo and ballast pump usage to avoid running pumps unnecessarily for
long periods. The ship should have regular meeting to discuss the impacts of running deck
machinery listed above and look at ways of reducing wastage of power. At sea the fresh water
hydrophore should be properly charged in order to prevent frequent running of hydrophore
pump.
The importance of determining the correct fuel type for the engine and the potential GHG
reduction
Bunkers come in a wide variety of quality levels and are blended in various ways to meet the ISO
specification 8217. The optimum usage of heavy fuel oil and lubrication oil purifiers can reduce
wear on the diesel engines. Using better quality fuel or a higher grade of fuel can lead to an
improvement in engine efficiency and prevent degradation. The requirements contained in
Annex VI of MARPOL to reduce the levels of sulphur in bunker fuel is increasing the danger of
higher levels of catalytic fines (small highly abrasive particles) getting into the fuel from the
dilutant used to make the fuel workable. Every precaution should be taken to try to avoid mixing
98


incompatible parcels of fuel which is the most common problem with the bunker fuel mixing
leading to clogged of filters and the possibility of engine shut down. Fuel should be consumed in
a first in -‐ first out basis and the ship should, if possible, avoid carrying fuel that is over a few
months old. The longer fuel is kept onboard, the longer the solids in the fuel are likely to drop
out, with a higher potential for reliability problems such as filter clogging. Fuel that cannot be
used for any reason should be de-‐bunkered as soon as possible in consultation with vessel’s
technical superintendent. The vessels should only carry the most economical amount of bunkers
that is permissible for the current trading pattern taking into account the need to have an
adequate reserve and any requirements of the charter-‐party.
Fuel Oil Additives

Various fuel oil additives are available on the market and the treatment of fuel oil does have
some energy efficiency improvement but must always be carried out in accordance with maker’s
advice to ensure optimum performance from the combustion of fuel. The addition of certain
additives may improve combustion and overall engine performance and efficiency but must not
jeopardise the safety of the ship, be harmful to personnel or increase air emissions as per
Regulation 18.3.1.3 of Annex VI to MARPOL 73/78.
Main Engine Cylinder Oil and Lubrication Control

If the engine is installed with a variable cylinder oil injection system there is the possibility of the
controlled reduction in the consumption of cylinder oils in line with the manufacturer’s
recommendations for the relevant fuel quality and sulphur content. This can result in cleaner
engines and a reduction in emissions but this will require precise calibration in line with the fuel
quality or maker’s recommendation.
Difficulties with slow speed steaming and the main engine

It is to be borne in mind that prolonged running of engine machinery below its optimum design
criteria particularly with very slow speeds without required engine adjustments can give rise to
poor combustion which in turn will lead to increase GHG emissions. If appropriate cleaning and
maintenance is not carried out it can also lead to a build-‐up of soot deposits in the uptake
economiser increasing the risk of an exhaust uptake fire. In severe cases this may lead to the
meltdown of the economiser or in a worst-‐case situation of an uncontrolled engine room fire.
Slow speed steaming can mean increase vibration, carbon deposits in combustion chambers and
exhaust ports. Slower engine speeds mean a reduced exhaust gas velocity to drive the
turbocharger resulting in the charge air not working at maximum efficiency. If proper care is not
taken then excess cylinder oil can collect in scavenge and exhaust trucking spaces with the
possibility of savage fires or explosions. The possibility of increased wear on the stern tube
bearing should also be considered as the reduced speed can lead to the loss of the dynamic oil
wedge that is required for proper lubrication. This issue is a particular problem for large slow
speed engines.
Existing older ships

Speed reductions on existing ships may result in sustained operation on low power. This can
produce a small reduction in thermal efficiency of the engine and may also result in less
complete combustion with more deposits being formed within the engine. This is particularly
the case for engines with traditional cam-‐driven fuel pumps, where the injection pressure of the
fuel is speed-‐dependent. Engines with common-‐rail fuel injection that provide low-‐load
99


operational modes do perform better but many older engines will use this system.
Technical manager responsibilities

Slow speed steaming has the potential of substantially reducing GHG emission of some shipping
operations but the technical manager should ensure that the main engine and auxiliary units do
not suffer as a consequence of employing a particular GHG reduction strategy. The technical
manager should liaise closely with the ship’s engine manufactures to establish the correct
procedures and engine speed parameters are applied to reduce GHG with out damaging the
engine. It should be borne in mind that this strategy may require an alternative or additional
engine maintenance programs.
EXERCISE 6: A FINAL SHORT EXERCISE NOW FOLLOWS.
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3 Conclusion Module 2
This relatively short introduction to the issues facing the ship-‐manager in formulating an
effective fleet energy efficient plan is intended to highlight the importance of multi-‐
stakeholders’ involvement and commitment. This paper also stressed the link between fuel
saving and GHG reduction creating incentive for the owner to reduce GHG emission. The
importance of taking full account of the contact of carriage is also emphasised particularly with
relationship between bill of lading and charter parties. Fleet optimisation and slow speed
steaming were also discussed including the importance of taking account of the loading and
discharging of the cargo at the ship shore interface. The paper also covered the technical
management of the ship and the importance of the role of the technical management to
support GHG savings including any limitations that may be imposed on the grounds of safety,
cost and regulatory conflict. The importance of the overall energy management of the fleet as a
whole is vital if the company is to produce an effective energy management policy. The
company should undertake continues performance monitoring of all equipment that uses
energy on board and have a coherent policy on heat management. Essential areas for GHG
emission savings will include the hull and propeller and the main and auxiliary engines.
Operations should be planned and monitored and there should be an effective planned
maintenance and repair regime that is included in the ships safety management system.
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Annex 1 Training Program

Part 1 Ship Management (1.5 hours).
1. The link between fuel savings and GHG reduction and the incentives for operators to
improve fuel consumption.
2. The impact of shipping contract of carriage and conflicts of interest.
20 minute lecture with 10-‐minute exercise
3. The Energy efficiency policy and commitments and the need to adjust the policy for
specific ships on specific trades. The importance of awareness and training.
4. Fleet optimisation and adjusted steaming speed including slow speed steaming and its
limitations and the determination of the optimum speed.
5. Loading and proper cargo weight management.
Part 2 Ship Technical Management (1.5 hours).
The role of the technical management to support GHG savings and the considerations, including
any limitations, in terms of safety, cost and regulatory conflict for the following;
1. Overall energy management.
2. Continuous performance monitoring
3. Policy on heat management
4. Hull & propeller maintenance including monitoring and planning
5. Engine operation, maintenance and repair.
Note all times are approximate and exercises could be completed at the end of each part
rather than each section.
102


References and recommended Reading

NJJ Gaskell, C Debattista and RJ Swatton. Chorley & Giles Shipping Law (Pitman Publishing)
David A. Glass &Chris Cashmore. Introduction to the law of carriage of goods. (Sweet & Maxwell)
Martin Stopford. Maritime Economics (Routledge)
Marine Accident Investigation Branch (MAIB) (2008). Report on the investigation of the
structural failure of MSC Napoli English Channel on 18 January 2007. Report No 9/2008. UK
Alan E Branch. Economics of shipping practice and management. (Chapman and Hall)
Timothy Portwood. Law of International Trade Casebook (HTL publications)
Timothy Portswood. Commercial Law Textbook Volume II International Trade (HTL publications)
The Nautical Institute. Improving ship operational Design (The Nautical Institute)
E.R. Hardy Ivamy Mozley & Whiteleys Law Dictonary (Butterworths)

References on CSR
Carroll, A.B. and Shabana, K.M. (2010) The business case for Corporate Social Responsibility: A
review of concepts, research and practice. International Journal of Management Reviews, 12 (1):
85-‐105.
Coady, L. and Strandberg C. (2012) Corporate Social responsibility and the Shipping Industry”.
Paper prepared for the Nippon Foundation, April, 2012.
Dahlsrud, A. (2006) How Corporate Social Responsibility is defined: An analysis of 37 definitions,
Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 15: 1-‐13.
Den Norske Veritas (2004) Corporate Social Responsibility and the Shipping Industry. Report No.
2004-‐1535. Hovik: Det Norske Veritas.
Friedman M. (1970) The social responsibility of business is to increase its profits, New York
Times, September, 126.
Montiel, I. (2008) Corporate Social Responsibility and corporate sustainability: Separate pasts,
common futures. Organization and Environment, 21: 245-‐269.
Veiga, J.L. (2002) Safety culture in Shipping. WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs 1 (1), 17-‐3.

103

MODULE 3

Port stay and its impacts

104

Contents
List of Figures ....................................................................................................................................... 107
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................................ 107
Module Aims and Learning Objectives .................................................................................................... 108
1 Port operations and the importance of time in port ........................................................................ 109
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 109
1.2 Activities in port operations ....................................................................................................... 110
1.3 Impact of port time on efficient ship operation ......................................................................... 111
1.3.1 Ship’s (voyage) time: time at sea and time in port ............................................................. 111
1.3.2 Time in port ......................................................................................................................... 112
1.3.3 The importance of “time-‐in-‐port” for efficient ship operations ......................................... 113
1.4 Just-‐in-‐time arrival/departure and improved cargo handling .................................................... 119
1.4.1 Just-‐in-‐time arrival and departure ...................................................................................... 120
1.4.2 Improved cargo handling .................................................................................................... 127

1.5 Case study .................................................................................................................................. 128
1.5.1 Results ................................................................................................................................. 128
1.5.2 Sensitive analysis ................................................................................................................. 131
1.5.3 Implication of analyses ........................................................................................................ 133
1.6 References and additional sources of information .................................................................... 134
1.7 Annex ......................................................................................................................................... 135

1.7.1 Case Study ........................................................................................................................... 135
1.7.2 Exercise ............................................................................................................................... 138
2 Onshore Power Supply (OPS) ............................................................................................................ 139

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 139
2.2 The case for OPS ........................................................................................................................ 140
2.3 Infrastructure requirements ...................................................................................................... 141
2.3.1 Shore-‐side requirements ..................................................................................................... 141
2.3.2 Ship-‐side requirements ....................................................................................................... 142
2.4 Standardisation .......................................................................................................................... 142

2.5 Port related initiatives ................................................................................................................ 143

105

2.6 Proposed regulation aspects ...................................................................................................... 143

2.7 OPS and energy efficiency .......................................................................................................... 144
2.7.1 Energy efficiency ................................................................................................................. 144

2.7.2 Energy cost .......................................................................................................................... 145
2.8 Green port initiatives ................................................................................................................. 145
2.8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 145

2.8.2 Port related VOC management ........................................................................................... 145
2.8.3 Differentiated port dues ..................................................................................................... 147
2.8.4 Differentiated ship registration fees based on EEDI ........................................................... 147
2.8.5 Environmental Ship Index (ESI) ........................................................................................... 148
2.9 References ................................................................................................................................. 149

106

List of Figures

Figure 1: Schematic diagram on container terminal operations ............................................................. 110
Figure 2: Composition of ship's voyage time in container shipping line ................................................. 112
Figure 3: Breakdown of ship's time in port .............................................................................................. 113
Figure 4: Relationships among ship operating profit, berthing time and waiting time ........................... 117
Figure 5: Ship operating profit in relation to ship speed with port time as a parameter ........................ 118
Figure 6: Schematic diagram of container terminal operations with activities ....................................... 120
Figure 7: Application of berthing request ................................................................................................ 121
Figure 8: MPOS and port services ............................................................................................................ 122
Figure 9: Overview of the Virtual Arrival process .................................................................................... 126
Figure 10: Fuel consumption (8,000 TEU) ................................................................................................ 129
Figure 11: Annual fuel cost (8,000 TEU) .................................................................................................. 129
Figure 12: Annual fixed costs and port cost (8,000 TEU) ......................................................................... 130
Figure 13: Annual operating cost (8,000 TEU) ......................................................................................... 130
Figure 14: Annual amount of GHG emissions (8,000 TEU) ...................................................................... 131
Figure 15: Annual external cost (8,000 TEU) ........................................................................................... 131
Figure 16: The changes of operating cost in each type of vessel ............................................................ 132
Figure 17: Annual amount of GHG emissions in each type of vessel ....................................................... 132
Figure 18: Selected service loop on Asia-‐Europe route ........................................................................... 135

List of Tables

Table 1: Ship journey cost model ............................................................................................................ 114
Table 2: Practical example of ship journey cost model ........................................................................... 116
Table 3: Berth productivity and average port time ................................................................................. 135
Table 4: Basic service pattern of service loop .......................................................................................... 136
Table 5: The fixed costs of each type of vessel ........................................................................................ 136
Table 6: Characteristics of each type of vessel ........................................................................................ 137
Table 7: Scenario ..................................................................................................................................... 137

107

Module Aims and Learning Objectives

This Module, in general, consists of 2 parts, namely:
1 Port operations and the importance of time in port
2 Onshore Power Supply (OPS) and green port initiatives

The aim of Part 1 is to investigate the operational issues on how time in port affects the efficient ship
operation in terms of fuel consumption, operating costs, and in particular GHG emissions.
The aim of Part 2 is to introduce the concept of onshore power supply as the main way of reducing air
emissions in ports while also considering other port-‐related green initiatives.

By the completion of this Module, participants will be able to:
• Explain the activities of port operations;
• Recognise the importance of port time in the efficient ship operation context;
• Identify factors in port operations that affect efficient ship operations;
• Describe the close relationships between port authorities and ship operators in terms of just-‐
in-‐time arrival/departure and reliability;
• Calculate how much fuel can be saved by reducing port time in a case study;
• Explain why onshore power combined with just-‐in-‐time operations can significantly reduce
port-‐related pollutions;
• Discuss the requirements at port-‐side and ship-‐side to enable an effective and universal OPS
system;
• Be able to analyse the impact of OPS on ship-‐at-‐berth air emissions and energy efficiency;
• Become familiar with port-‐related ship-‐related green initiatives.

108

Part 1 – Just-‐In-‐Time Port Operations
1 Port operations and the importance of time in port

1.1 Introduction
International shipping is not only the most energy efficient mode of transport in world trade but also a
major contributor to a group of pollutants together with greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Recently, its
better energy efficiency and effective emission control has been a hot topic of discussion, in particular at
the International Maritime Organization (IMO) from the viewpoint of both technical and operational
measures. Among others, under the pressure of high oil prices, international shipping lines have focused
on efficient ship operations that relate to energy efficiency issues in shipping, and particularly
operational issues, to minimise fuel consumption and the resulting GHG emissions. Speed reduction, by
slow steaming, has often been mentioned as an easily-‐applicable operational measure to shipping lines.
When it comes to the efficient ship operations of container lines, slow steaming at sea is again closely
related to the ship’s time in port. Reduction in port time through the high quality of port operations
allows shipping lines to improve the operational efficiency of a liner service through slow steaming that
leads to reducing fuel consumption of a ship at sea and resulting GHG emissions. With the increase of
ship time at sea by reducing ship speed, there is a need to examine practicable ways to cut down on ship
port time.
One possible way we can consider is to make a ship just-‐in-‐time arrival that can get rid of the waiting
time in port. This will not only help shipping lines to get the maximum notice of berth availability, but
also facilitate the use of optimum ship speed at sea. Further, reduction of gross berth time (GBT)1 by
improved cargo handling could be another way to reduce ship time in port. Few studies, however, have
been done to identify the relationship between ship time in port and efficient ship operation at sea.
The main goal of Part 1 is to investigate the operational issues on how time in port affects the efficient
ship operation in terms of operating costs, GHG emissions and externalities. For this, a case study is
introduced to analyse the relationship between ship speed, operating costs and external effects.

1
Growth Berth Time (GBT) is defined as number of container moves or tons of cargo (for break-‐bulk and bulk
cargoes) divided by the vessel’s total time at berth measured from first line to pier to last line let go.

109

1.2 Activities in port operations

As shown in Figure 1, activities in port operations are largely divided into 2 parts: ship related activities
and cargo related ones. In the case of import cargoes, the latter consists of activities that are cargo
handling in the apron area, transfer to storage, yard storage and gate processing.
When a ship arrives at the entrance buoy of a port, the pilot comes aboard the ship to help the Captain
maneuver to the designated place. If no berth is available on arrival, the ship is assigned an anchorage
area. If the berth is available, the ship is berthed with the help of tug(s), depending on ship size and
port’s R/R (rules and regulations). At this point, line handling services are provided at the berth.2 In
particular, the time when a first line is connected to the pier (or dock) is very important since it is the
starting point of the so-‐called ‘berthing time’. The berthing time stops when the last line from the ship
let’s go of the bollard as it leaves the berth.

Figure 1: Schematic diagram on container terminal operations

When berthed, the CIQ (custom, immigration and quarantine) authorities may board the ship. Usually
cargo handling is not made until the authorities have completed their inspections, with the exception of
the container shipping business.
In dedicated container terminals, container boxes3 are unloaded and loaded usually using a gantry
crane4 at the apron where containers are moved to or from storage by in-‐terminal movement vehicles
(IMV).
Once the container cargoes are unloaded, they are transferred to an assigned slot; this is a space in the
yard where storage operations occur.

2
Line handling boat(s) could be employed, if necessary.
3
Container size is measured in terms of 20-‐foot equivalent unit (TEU). A typical container is one TEU (20 footer) or
1 FEU (40 footer) that is two TEUs.
4
Some ships, referred to as “geared” vessels, have their own cranes, but these are not as productive as gantry
cranes.

110

The containers are stored until they are inspected and claimed by the consignee (importers). The
containers, then, are moved from the yard onto trucks (or railcars) for their final destinations through
the gate operation.
Gate processing includes weighing the container, reviewing paperwork, and conducting a security check.
1.3 Impact of port time on efficient ship operation
1.3.1 Ship’s (voyage) time: time at sea and time in port
Tough competition in the last couple of decades has caused container shipping, in particular, to be able
to achieve profit only through economies of scale. This has led to larger ships, and ever shorter cargo
handling times and demurrage5. Today, new potential for economisation can only be achieved by
reducing operating costs. The result is that any shift in energy prices directly impacts the profitability of
operations. Two ways out of this predicament are either to use "slow steaming", meaning a ship's speed
is reduced to save fuel, or to deploy even bigger ships, allowing the higher fuel costs to be spread over
the additional tonnage. However, increasingly strict environmental requirements in harbors and on
routes limit the engine size and thus the size of the ships. Concurrently the expected return on
investment (ROI) for new ships will fall well below expectations in the coming years due to a prevailing
overcapacity at present.6
When it comes to the operation of container shipping lines, the timetables of the routes are normally
fixed. If the ships are delayed in port at some points, they are forced to make up for the lost time by
increasing their speeds at sea. As illustrated in Figure 2, ship’s (voyage) time is composed of ‘time at
sea’ and ‘time in port’.

5
Demurrage, by definition, refers to 1. the delay of a ship at mooring beyond the time stipulated for unloading or
other purposes and 2. the charge levied for such delay. The charge levied by the shipping line on the consignee if
the container is not cleared and returned to the nominated empty depot within the specified free days offered by
the line. For example, it can be calculated from the day the container unloaded from the vessel or other
conveyance, until the day the consignee picks up the container.
6
Industry Sector -‐ Drive Technologies Division (2012). Press: Siemens delivers transparency for sustainable ship
operations. SIEMENS. Nuremberg, Hamburg (Germany), September 5, 2012.

111


Figure 2: Composition of ship's voyage time in container shipping line
1.3.2 Time in port7
Ports are essentially providers of service activities, in particular for vessels, cargo and inland transport.
The degree of satisfaction that is obtained on the basis of pre-‐set standards will indicate the level of port
performance achieved. It is obvious that port performance levels will be different depending on the
ships, cargoes or inland transport vehicles that are served. Port performance cannot be assessed on the
basis of a single value or measure. In fact, a meaningful evaluation of a port’s performance will require
sets of measures that include a ship’s time in port.8
Figure 3 shows the times at which each step starts and stops as documented in the port, allowing for the
calculation of a variety of parameters (or indicators) that the shipping industry uses to calculate
performance.

7
Otherwise called as ‘port time’ or ‘ship turnaround time (in port)’
8
G. De Monie (1987). Measuring and evaluating port performance and productivity. UNCTAD Monographs on Port
Management. A series of monographs prepared for UNCTAD in collaboration with the International Association of
Ports and Harbours (IAPH).

112


Figure 3: Breakdown of ship's time in port

The ship’s time in port of a given vessel on a given call is an important concern in an efficient ship
operation for shipping lines. The shorter the better!9
Port time (or Ship’s time in port or Ship turnaround time) is the time duration between a ship’s arrival at
the entrance buoy and ship’s departure from the same buoy. It consists of waiting time, manoeuvring
time, berthing time, productive time and idle time.
A reduction of any of these will improve the overall productivity of the ship in port. Among these times,
in particular ‘waiting time’ and ‘berthing time’ must be emphasised since they are crucial criteria in
ports facing latent or acute port congestion.
In a nutshell, measures of the duration of a ‘ship’s stay in port’ are key indicators of the service quality
that is offered to shipping lines.

1.3.3 The importance of “time-‐in-‐port” for efficient ship operations
Ship journey cost model
A simple model is introduced here as a means of coming to grips with the essentials of time in port. A
hypothetical ship is carrying cargo from its port of origin to the port of destination, then making the
return trip in ballast.10

9
From the viewpoint of transport economics, this is true. Whatever the transport mode, e.g. ship, airplane, train,
taxi, etc, it must move to make operating profits; when standing still no income is generated!

113

For analysis, some definitions are made with denotations as shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Ship journey cost model

If we define Td as ‘the number of days spent per return trip at sea’,
then Td = DAB / Vsp (1)

Total port time (Tp) Tp = Tp1 + Tp2 (2)
where, Tp1 = Ts1 + Tw1, Tp2 = Ts2 + Tw2
• Ts1 = total service time in Port 1
• Ts2 = total service time in Port 2
• Tw1 = total waiting time in Port 1
• Tw2 = total waiting time in Port 2
Therefore, Ts = Ts1 + Ts2, Tw = Tw1 + Tw2

Tp = Ts + Tw (3)
Φ = Tp / ( Td + Tp ) = ( Ts + Tw ) / ( Td + Ts + Tw ) (4)

Annual ship operating cost (Sp) is as follows:
($/year) (5)
Total crew cost = aw·∙ Ncw ($/year)

10
Junichi Imakita (1979). A Techno-‐Economic Analysis of the Port Transport System. Saxon House.

114

(6)
Total ship operating cost (Csp)
($/year) (7)
Total income (Rsp)
($/year) (8)

From equations (7) and (8), the annual operating profit (Psp) can be calculated as follows:

(9)
Annual operating profit per ton (Psp’) can also be calculated as follows:
(10)

From the equation (10), if the ship’s speed is not greatly changed to compensate for the delay in port,
the profit per freight ton for operating the ship, in terms of the length of port time, is the function of the
coefficients including the annual ship operating cost and annual crew cost.

Practical example
Taking a practical example, as shown in Table 2, suppose that a ship with a capacity of 27,000dwt is
operated at about 15 knots; a normal cruising speed (namely, 360 nautical miles per day). It consumes
50 tons of bunker oil per day at USD150 per ton, for a return voyage distance of 5,000 nm.

115


Table 2: Practical example of ship journey cost model

From equation (5), Sp = USD4,140,808.92
From equation (9), the ship operating profit that is the function of a ship’s time in port can be shown as
in Equation (11):
(11)
Here, the crew cost is not affected by the change of ship journey frequency and the ship speed is not to
be greatly changed to make up for the excess delays.
As far as ship operating profit on a yearly basis is concerned, what would happen if port time increases
from 20 to 25 days?
From Equation (11),
If Tp = 20 days, then Φ = 59% 11

Psp = 0.25 m $ / year
If Tp = 25 days, then Φ = 64.3%
Psp = -‐0.35 m $ / year
If the total port time including delay is estimated, let’s say 20 days, the percentage of port time is 59%,
and the operating profit per annum will be USD250,000. However, on the contrary, if the total port time
is increased to 25 days, this ship will make a loss of USD350,000.
From Figure 4, it is found that the point of break-‐even time for operating this ship, in this particular case,
is bound by the port time at Tp = 21.9 days. By considering that a ship’s operating profit is the function
of service time at the berth and waiting time in port, the total port time (Tp) should be the same as the
total service time at berth (Ts) without any delay (Tw) in port.

11
20 / {(20 + 5,000/360)}

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Figure 4: Relationships among ship operating profit, berthing time and waiting time

This implies that, if either or both of the operations of the two ports are disrupted for any reason, and
the aggregate port time exceeds about 22 days, then an operating loss will be incurred.

Sensitivity to ship speed with port time as a parameter
With the practical model mentioned above, it is also possible to check the effects of varying ship speeds.
As expected from Equation (9), there is a trade-‐off between the freight revenue and the fuel cost. The
former increases as the ship speed increases, through quicker and more ship voyage turnover, while the
latter also increases with the increase of ship speed that leads to reduction of the profit margin. The
sensitivity of ship operating profit depends definitely on ship speed as well as on port time.
By using all the constraints given in the practical example, but leaving only Vsp and Tp as variables, we
get the following Equation (12) from Equation (9).
(12)
With Equation (12), we can construct Figure 5 that shows the ship operating profit in relation to the ship
speed, with port time as a parameter. Ship speed zero means the lay-‐up of the ship, thus incurring only
the fixed cost (capital plus labour) with no freight revenues. For the three cases given in Figure 5 where
port time is 15, 20 and 25 days, the ship operating profit (SOP) increases as ship speed becomes greater,
but only up until a certain point, where the SOP reaches its maximum, and beyond which it gradually
decreases.

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Figure 5: Ship operating profit in relation to ship speed with port time as a parameter

No profit can be realised from a port time of 25 days in this case, no matter what speed is selected, as
the curve never reaches the break-‐even point. In such an event, the ship operator could try only to
minimise the loss, by setting the ship speed, which is precisely determined from Equation (9), so that it
corresponds to the apex of the curve. Coming back to the original example, where ship speed was
initially assumed to be fixed, we can see from Figure 5 that the ship happens to be operating near the
apex of the profit curve.
It is important to note that Equation (9) gives a theoretically exact value of ship speed for the maximum
SOP. But since the various constants are assumed to be only rough estimates anyway, one need not
insist upon finding the exact apex of the curve. It should suffice merely to understand the qualitative
reasoning behind the model, and the desirability of choosing some point or other suitably near to the
apex of the curve.
Container ships have been operated according to a fixed schedule. Therefore, it is important to know if
these vessels are able to keep their schedule. In particular, in the case of the liner shipping industry, the
ship schedule reliability in all trade lanes is the foremost target in achieving customer satisfaction,
among others. Most shipping lines have tried to improve their overall vessel schedule reliability, e.g.
Maersk Line has achieved schedule reliability of 97 percent for its Daily Maersk service from Asia to
Europe since its launch in October 2011 and at best has even hit 99 percent in recent months in 2012. 12
In container shipping operation, voyage time per loop is normally fixed. If unexpected delay occurs at
one place, e.g. a port, then the ship must increase its speed to compensate for the time loss at that port.

12
According to Drewry, there are 7 KPIs that are the criteria for monitoring container carrier service quality: (1)
Vessel schedule reliability; (2) Elapsed time between shipping instruction and bill of lading issue; (3) On-‐time
shipment of cargo; (4) Port-‐to-‐port transit time against schedule; (5) Cargo availability at destination port; (6)
Average US inland transit times; and (7) Port dwell times. [Peter T. Leach. Container Ship Schedule Reliability
Improves. The Journal of Commerce. May 16, 2012.]

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1.4 Just-‐in-‐time arrival/departure and improved cargo handling

The search for efficiency across the entire transport chain takes responsibility beyond what can be
delivered by the owner/operator alone. A list of all the possible stakeholders in the efficiency of a single
voyage is long; obvious parties are designers, shipyards and engine manufacturers for the characteristics
of the ship, and charterers, ports and vessel traffic management services, etc., for the specific voyage.
All the involved parties should consider the inclusion of efficiency measures in their operations both
individually and collectively.
When it comes to efficient port operations that aim to reduce ship’s time in port, from Figure 3, ‘waiting
time’ and ‘berthing time’ are two key components to consider in more detail.
If the ship involved gets on-‐arrival service at berth, there will be no waiting time. In this regard, just-‐in-‐
time arrival and departure is very important for shipping lines to operate their fleet efficiently.
According to 2012 “Guidelines for the development of a Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan
(SEEMP)”13, good early communication with the next port of call should be an aim in order to give
maximum notice of berth availability and facilitate the use of optimum speed where port operational
procedures support this approach. Optimised port operation could involve a change in procedures that
are engaged in different handling arrangements in ports. Port authorities should be encouraged to
maximise efficiency and minimise delay.
Regarding the just-‐in-‐time arrival/departure of ships, from the viewpoint of ship operators, the reliability
of the berthing window is another issue to be looked at. In another words, on-‐arrival services for ships
have to be guaranteed between port authorities and shipping lines. Otherwise, even though ships are
already in port, they might have to wait until the berths are available. This will definitely make the
shortened time at sea useless in terms of efficiency of total voyage time.
In this sense, the relationships between ship operators and ports must be kept closely to enhance
reliability for securing on-‐arrival services in port. Having a contract for a dedicated (exclusive) terminal
with shipping companies on a long-‐term basis is an exemplary case of showing this kind of reliability
issue.
Berthing time normally consists of two parts: productive time and idle times (preparation time and
arrangement time). The preparation time is the time before starting cargo handling after the ship is
berthed, while the arrangement time is the time after finishing cargo handling until the ship is
unberthed. To increase the productivity at the berth14, these non-‐production times must be minimised.
Further, to make productive time more efficient, there should be no stoppage time that is related to
breakdown, maintenance, etc.

13
IMO MEPC 63/23, ANNEX 9, RESOLUTION MEPC.213(63), Adopted on 2 March 2012.
14
Shipping lines calculate the so-‐called gross berth productivity (GBP) that is “the number of container moves or
tons of cargo (for break-‐bulk and bulk cargoes) divided by the vessel’s total time at berth measured from first line
to last line”.

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1.4.1 Just-‐in-‐time arrival and departure
As shown in Figure 6, the main activities of the whole container terminal operation can be divided into
three operations: berth operation, yard operation and gate operation.
The berth operation mainly concerns the schedules of arriving vessels and the allocation of berth space
and quay crane resources to serve the vessels. The key concern of the berthing operation is the turn-‐
around time of vessels. It also involves the unloading and loading of containers on-‐board the vessel that
is handled by gantry cranes. To achieve high crane rates (number of containers moved per hour), the
planner has to optimise the crane working sequence (a detailed list of crane moves).
The yard operation is perhaps the busiest of all the activities in the terminal. The operation involves the
unloading of containers from the ships, the loading of containers onto vessels, the shuffling of
containers that are out of sequence in the yard block, the redistribution of containers to other blocks
(yard shifting) for more efficient loading onto the second vessels and the inter-‐terminal haulage where
containers are moved to other yards in another terminal.15
The gate operation deals with external freight forwarders. Two activities are involved, namely export
delivery where the freight forwarders bring in export containers to the yard or wharf to be loaded onto
the vessels, and import receiving, where the freight forwarders receive containers from the yard or
wharf to bring into the country.

Figure 6: Schematic diagram of container terminal operations with activities

15
Iris F.A. Vis and Ren_E De Koster (2003). Invited Review. Transshipment of Containers at a Container Terminal:
An Overview. European Journal of Operational Research. 147. 1–16.

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Application of berthing request

Each port (or terminal) has its own port management system, let us say Maritime and Port Operation
System (MPOS), for the efficient and effective operation of port. This is a customised management tool
that focuses and optimises the work of “agents”, “entities” and “port services on ships” by coordinating
the actions, controlling them and allowing them to analyse how best to reduce the cost/time.

Figure 7: Application of berthing request

All the parties concerned, including the ships, must participate in the MPOS from prior to the ship’s
arrival in the port to the ship’s departure from the port. Whenever the ship wishes to enter a port, ‘the
Request for Berth’ is made through (Web) Communication Services well before arrival and is confirmed
by the MPOS, against the ISPS and Dangerous Goods Codes, before issuing the Preliminary Authorisation
to Berthing. (See Figure 7)
After issuing the Preliminary Berthing Authorisation, the MPOS compares it with information from the
anchoring area and with activities of any anchored or berthed ships, nautical activities inside the
harbour, status of maritime signals, maintenance status of berths, and informs the berthing operation to
the ship and to the pilot service. It supervises at all times compliance with the Operating Procedures.
The MPOS informs and coordinates all Port Services regarding berthing manoeuvres, informing also the
other agents. Furthermore, throughout this phase, the MPOS is capable of performing the control
actions and coordination tasks with other agents as shown in Figure 8.

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Figure 8: MPOS and port services

Generally, the MPOS controls port activities relating to maritime safety and the protection of the marine
environment. Typically, the MPOS is part of the port authority organisation and is responsible for
ensuring the efficient flow of traffic through port and coastal waters (including allocation of vessels to
berths) and—on behalf of the government or port authority—for coordinating all marine services.
Major port services that are related to MPOS can be as follows:
• Pilotage services: These are services given by maritime pilots that provide an essential and
unique service to the shipping industry.Their principal role is to provide critical independent
local knowledge and navigational information to vessels and to bring the highest level of ship-‐
handling skills to manoeuvre vessels within their port. The prime obligation of pilots is to
provide a critical public safety service by ensuring the careful management and free flow of all
traffic within their pilotage area, thus protecting the environment.16
• Towage services: These are services provided by a small, strongly built powerful tugboat that is
used to guide large ships into and out of port and to tow barges, dredging and salvage
equipment, and disabled vessels. Tugboat operations are typically carried out by private firms. If
the volume of vessel traffic is not sufficient to support a tugboat service on a commercial basis,
a port authority may be obliged to provide such a service itself.
• Line handling services by line boats: These are the services given by line boats that help the ship
to be berthed. When berthing, once the lines from the ship are given to line boats, they
approach a berth and try to throw a line to someone on land who ties off the lines at the dock.
• Mooring services: These are the services that secure a ship to the designated place, i.e. a berth
or a dock or a buoy, or anchoring with two anchors. Mooring services in smaller ports can be
provided by the local stevedore. In larger ports, a mooring service is usually performed by a
specialised private firm. Especially in a complicated nautical situation (for example, single point

16
http://www.impahq.org

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mooring buoys, specialised piers for chemicals or gases, or ports with large tidal differences),
mooring activities require expert skills and equipment. A port authority may choose to regulate
this activity when only one specialised firm exists.17
• Vessel traffic services (VTS) and aids to navigation: This is a marine traffic monitoring system
established by port authorities. VTS is a service designed to improve vessel traffic safety and
efficiency and to protect the environment; it offers the potential to respond appropriately to
traffic situations emerging in an area. VTS is usually part of a port or a maritime authority. Such
services are provided in port areas and in densely used maritime straits or along a national
coastline. VTS should be regulated by the competent authority. Responsibility for aids to
navigation usually rests with the national maritime authority in port approaches and in coastal
areas, and with the port authority in port areas. Often, provision and maintenance of buoys and
beacons are contracted out. Because aids to navigation are generally part of an integrated
maritime infrastructure, the costs of providing these services are included in the general port
dues.
• The control of dangerous goods: This is usually performed by a specialised branch of the port
authority. The same goes for the handling of dangerous goods in port terminals. The oversight
and regulation of the land transport of dangerous goods is normally the responsibility of
government.18
• Waste management services: These are privatised under the strict control of a port authority or
another competent body. Privatisation carries risks, however, especially with respect to the
disposal of dangerous chemicals. Proper waste management can be expensive for shipping lines.
With high costs, ship captains might be tempted to dump waste into the sea or into port waters.
The control of such dumping practices is extremely difficult, especially for chemical cargoes. To
spread waste management costs, ports can include all or part of the waste management costs in
the general port dues. The transport of waste from the ship to a reception facility also poses a
challenge, especially in larger port areas. Port authorities should directly provide or organize the
provision of transport barges or trucks for this purpose. The entire waste management system,
including personnel and facilities, should be closely controlled by the competent authority.
When private firms are engaged in waste handling, the authority should employ experts from its
organisation to ensure compliance with all relevant laws, rules, and regulations.19
• Emergency response services: These are carried out by a variety of public organisations such as
the port authority, fire brigade, health services, and police. Some ports have sophisticated tools
available to aid in crisis management, such as prediction models for gas clouds. Such tools are
often integrated in a traffic centre of the local vessel traffic management system (VTMS). Private
firms (for example, tugboat companies) may play a subsidiary role in crisis management in the
event that they are equipped with fire-‐fighting equipment. Larger ports use patrol vessels and
vehicles for a variety of public control functions. In some ports, such patrol vessels also have

17
World Bank (2008). Port Reform Tool Kit, 2nd Edition, Washington D.C., United States, p.127.
18
19

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fire-‐fighting equipment on board. When a port does not have patrol vessels available, a contract
with a tugboat company should be arranged to guarantee the availability of floating fire-‐fighting
capability.20
• Control of dredging operations: These are normally given by a port authority. Often, the port
authority or the competent maritime administration does not have enough expertise to exercise
sufficient control over both maintenance and capital dredging. Port authorities with large water
areas under their control should employ sufficient competent personnel to prepare dredging
contracts and oversee dredging operations. Sounding is an activity that should preferably be
carried out (or contracted out) by the port authority itself. Dredging is usually carried out by
private firms. It might be cost effective for some ports to use their own dredgers, especially
when continuous and important maintenance dredging is required.21

Tool for avoiding ship’s waiting time in port: Virtual Arrival22
When it comes to port operations, among others, the berth operation is closely related to the schedules
of ship’s arrivals and its major concern is the turnaround time of ships in port. The best berth operation
is definitely to provide on-‐arrival berthing services to shipping lines with minimising ship’s waiting times.
It is inherently wasteful for a vessel to steam at full speed to a port where known delays to cargo
handling have already been identified. By mutually agreeing to reduce speed to make an agreed arrival
time, the vessel can avoid spending time at anchor awaiting a berth, tank space or cargo availability.
Emissions can thus be reduced, congestion avoided and safety improved in port areas.
INTERTANKO together with OCIMF (Oil Companies International Marine Forum) published a manual
entitled Virtual Arrival in 2010. This is a process that involves an agreement to reduce a vessel’s speed
on voyage to meet a revised arrival time when there is a known delay at the destination port. The
reduction in speed could result in reduced fuel consumption, thereby reducing GHG and other exhaust
gas emissions. The following summarises the steps that are typically involved when implementing the
Virtual Arrival process:
1. Before a vessel’s departure from the load port, or while en route to the destination port, a
delay is identified at the destination port, for example, due to congestion at the berth or
lack of receiving space.
2. In view of the known delay, the vessel owner/operator and the vessel charterer may agree
to consider entering into a Virtual Arrival agreement for the voyage.
3. The ship owner/operator is requested to provide ship performance information to enable
an initial assessment of the voyage to be made based on the service speed of the ship.
4. The charterer and owner/operator agree a Required Time of Arrival23 at the destination

20
21
22
INTERTANKO and OCIMF (2010). Virtual Arrival: Optimising Voyage Management and Reducing Vessel Emissions
– an Emissions Management Framework. Oil Companies International Marine Forum. Bermuda.

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port and agree on the methodology for calculating voyage data and the associated
reporting requirements, or alternatively agree on a WASP24 to be used for calculating
voyage data and to provide supporting reports.
5. An agreement to undertake Virtual Arrival is implemented using an agreed Charter Party
Clause.
6. The initial report should include:
a. the methodology to be used to determine speed and consumption calculation
b. the calculated ETA25, based on normal service speed
c. the calculated ETA, based on normal service speed and anticipated weather, the
“Virtual Arrival” ETA
d. the Required Time of Arrival (RTA)
e. the speed or RPM to achieve RTA
f. the bunkers on board at the Virtual Arrival decision point
7. The vessel reduces speed in order to make the Required Time of Arrival.
8. On completion of the voyage, if agreed, a WASP or an entity that specialises in weather
and or vessel performance analysis produces a final report providing the post-‐voyage
analysis and data to support confirmation of the vessel’s Virtual Arrival time and the
calculations of the fuel saved and emission reductions.
9. In finalising the Virtual Arrival time26, an assessment is to be made of the impact of the
weather, sea and current conditions on the voyage by comparing the actual weather
encountered with that anticipated when establishing the provisional Virtual Arrival ETA.
10. The agreed time of Virtual Arrival, the “Deemed Arrival” time27, is used as the time when
considering demurrage exposure.

23
A mutually-‐agreed time for a vessel to arrive at a named destination.
24
Weather Analysis Service Provider.
25
Estimated Time of Arrival. The date and time a vessel is expected to arrive at a named destination based on a
stated speed.
26
An estimation of a vessel’s time of arrival at a named destination at normal service speed, taking into account
the anticipated weather.
27
An adjusted ‘Virtual Arrival Time’ that takes into account the actual weather experienced on a passage. The DAT
may be used as the time laytime starts when considering demurrage exposures.

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28
Figure 9: Overview of the Virtual Arrival process

28
INTERTANKO and OCIMF (2010). Virtual Arrival: Optimising Voyage Management and Reducing Vessel Emissions
– an Emissions Management Framework. Oil Companies International Marine Forum, Bermuda.

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1.4.2 Improved cargo handling
Cargo handling is, in most cases, under the control of the port and the optimum solutions matched to
the ship and port requirements should be explored. Whatever solutions that might be thought of, they
should contribute to increasing the gross berth productivity (GBP) that can lead to reduce the berthing
time.
When it comes to container terminal optimisation, for example, the integrated planning and scheduling
of all the activities of a terminal could be suggested to increase moves per hour and reduce costs.29
• Berth planning
• Quay crane scheduling
• Prime mover scheduling
• RTG/RMG scheduling
• Operational planning, typically day(s) ahead

These activities are closely connected to cargo handling in port where efficient operations can bring
about the reduction of ship’s time in port as well as giving environmental benefits.
Efficient cargo handling in port can definitely be helpful for the environment.30 The liner shipping
industry has been developed and upgraded to tackle the problem of environmental pollution by ships.
Many references, including IMO’s resolutions along with modern technology, are being used to
counteract this problem.31
A well-‐planned cargo operation, both in port and on board can reduce the level of emissions from the
ship’s machinery that leads to reduced energy consumption per transported unit.

29
QUINTIQ (2012). Advanced Planning, Scheduling and Supply Chain Optimisation Solutions for the Container
Shipping Industry. Solution paper.
30
http://www.marineinsight.com/marine/environment/how-‐efficient-‐cargo-‐handling-‐can-‐be-‐helpful-‐for-‐the-‐
marine-‐environment/
31
1.IMO, 2012 GUIDELINES ON THE METHOD OF CALCULATION OF THE ATTAINED ENERGY EFFICIENCY DESIGN
INDEX (EEDI) FOR NEW SHIPS, RESOLUTION MEPC.212(63), Adopted on 2 March 2012.
2.IMO, 2012 GUIDELINES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF A SHIP ENERGY EFFICIENCY MANAGEMENT PLAN (SEEMP),
RESOLUTION MEPC.213(63), Adopted on 2 March 2012.
3.IMO, 2012 GUIDELINES ON SURVEY AND CERTIFICATION OF THE ENERGY EFFICIENCY DESIGN INDEX (EEDI),
4.IMO, GUIDELINES FOR CALCULATION OF REFERENCE LINES FOR USE WITH THE ENERGY EFFICIENCY DESIGN
INDEX (EEDI), RESOLUTION MEPC.215(63), Adopted on 2 March 2012.
5. IMO, GUIDELINES FOR VOLUNTARY USE OF THE SHIP ENERGY EFFICIENCY OPERATIONAL INDICATOR (EEOI),
MEPC.1/Circ.684, 17 August 2009.
6. IMO, AMENDMENTS TO THE ANNEX OF THE PROTOCOL OF 1997 TO AMEND THE INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION
FOR THE PREVENTION OF POLLUTION FROM SHIPS, 1973, AS MODIFIED BY THE PROTOCOL OF 1978 RELATING
THERETO (Inclusion of regulations on energy efficiency for ships in MARPOL Annex VI), RESOLUTION
MEPC.203(62), Adopted on 15 July 2011.

127

Ways to improve cargo handling resulting in environmental benefits include:
• The use of an internal movement vehicle that has less fuel consumption per cargo unit
• The introduction of high capacity loading and unloading operations with lower emissions to
reduce the ship’s time in port
• Safer and easier cargo operations and monitoring
• The application of new technology with advanced software tools
• The use of eco-‐friendly and user-‐ friendly cargo handling products
• Well trained shore-‐staff and ship-‐ staff who are keen on safety and environment matters

Quick ship turnaround time in port will ensure slow steaming at sea and this will again contribute to
reducing emissions.
1.5 Case study

As mentioned in the previous section, the concept of just-‐in-‐time arrival is based upon an agreement to
reduce a ship’s speed on the voyage to meet a revised arrival time when there is a known delay at the
destination port. The reduction in ship’s speed will result in reduced fuel consumption, thereby reducing
GHG and other exhaust gas emissions. Further, ships do not necessarily wait for the berth to be available
when they arrive in port. This efficient berth operation makes the ship turnaround time in port shorter.
In brief, reduction in port time allows shipping lines to improve the operational efficiency of a ship and
the quality of port operations by reducing the fuel consumption of a ship at sea and the resulting GHG
emissions.
In order to know the relationships between ship’s speed, fuel consumption, ship operating cost and CO2
emission, a case study with a vessel class of 8,000 TEU is presented.
1.5.1 Results
The impacts of changes of port time on the operating costs
According to the result of analysis, the annual operating cost of the basic service loop that consists of
nine vessels of 8,000 TEU class is estimated at 1,173.68 million US$. It is found that the annual operating
cost on this service loop is very sensitive to the changes of port time and is directly influenced by the
changes in fuel cost and port cost.
Figure 10 shows how annual fuel consumption changes in each port time. In this diagram, the annual
fuel consumption has changed in proportion to the changes of port time. For example, when port time is
reduced by 30%, the annual fuel consumption is reduced by a maximum of 36.8% (from 0.82 million
tons to 0.6 million tons). On the contrary, when port time is increased by 30%, it is increased by a
maximum of 30.69% (from 0.82 million tons to 1.18 million tons).

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Figure 10: Fuel consumption (8,000 TEU)

Consequently, the changes of annual fuel consumption affect the annual fuel cost accordingly. When
port time is reduced by 30%, shipping lines can reduce their annual fuel cost from 530.26 million US$ to
387.5 million US$ (36.8%) as shown in Figure 11. However, if port time is increased by 30%, the annual
fuel cost can also be increased to 765 million US$ (30.7%).

Figure 11: Annual fuel cost (8,000 TEU)
The annual port cost is again influenced by the changes of port time. The annual port cost is reduced by
a maximum of 28% (from 250.7 million US$ to 195.9 million US$) when the port time is decreased by
30%, whereas it increases by 17.9% (from 250.7 million US$ to 305.6 million US$) in the opposite
situation as shown in Figure 12. However, the annual fixed costs are not changed, because the fleet mix
and its size are already fixed on this service loop.

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Figure 12: Annual fixed costs and port cost (8,000 TEU)
On the other hand, Figure 13 shows the substantial changes of the annual operating cost on a loop by
the changes of port time. In this diagram, the annual operating cost is directly influenced by the changes
of fuel cost and port cost. When port time is reduced by 30%, the annual operating cost can be
decreased by a maximum of 20.2% (from 1,173.7 million US$ to 976.1 million US$). However, when port
time is increased by 30%, the annual operating cost can be increased by a maximum of 19.8% (from
1,173.7 million US$ to 1,463.3 million US$).

Figure 13: Annual operating cost (8,000 TEU)
The impacts on GHG emissions and external cost

According to the result of the analysis, 2.55 million tons of CO2 emissions are produced by vessels
engaged in this service loop, along with the production of a huge external cost (51.07 million US$).
However, the amounts of GHG emissions and external cost on a loop are also very sensitive to the
changes of port time. Figure 14 shows how much CO2 emissions change in each port time. In this
diagram, as port time decreases, the amount of CO2 emissions is reduced. Thus, the sensitivity of the
amount of GHG depends on port time. Therefore, when port time is reduced by 30%, the amount of
GHG emissions decreases by a maximum of 36.8% (from 2.55 million tons to 1.87 million tons). On the

130

contrary, when port time increases by 30%, the amount of CO2 emissions increases by 30.7% (from 2.55
million tons to 3.68 million tons).

Figure 14: Annual amount of GHG emissions (8,000 TEU)

These changes influence the annual external cost immediately as shown in Figure 15. This cost is
changed in proportion to the changes of the annual amount of CO2 emissions. Thus, if port time is
decreased by 30%, the annual external cost can be reduced by a maximum of 36.8% (37.3 million US$).
However, in the opposite condition, the annual external cost increases by a maximum of 30.7% (73.7
million US$).

Figure 15: Annual external cost (8,000 TEU)
1.5.2 Sensitive analysis
A sensitive analysis was conducted to investigate how much the changes of port time can influence the
operating cost and the amount of GHG emissions by changes in the type of vessel within the range of

131

8,000 TEU to 14,000 TEU. Nowadays, shipping lines have increased their employed vessel size
competitively to reduce the average cost per TEU. An average vessel size on the Asia-‐Europe route was
around 8,300 TEU in 2012, and it is expected to be more than 10,000 TEU in 2014 (Alphaliner, 2012).

Figure 16: The changes of operating cost in each type of vessel
According to the result of the analysis, the more the employed vessel size on a loop, the higher the
operating cost. As shown in the left-‐side diagram in Figure 16, when the employed vessel size on a loop
increases, the operating cost curve shifts upward. However, the change rate of the operating cost of
each type of vessel is different in each case. As shown in the right-‐side diagram in Figure 16, as the
employed vessel size on a loop increases, the operating cost becomes more sensitive to the changes in
port time. Therefore, if port time is decreased, as the employed vessel size on a loop increases, the
operating cost can also be reduced. However, in the opposite situation, a shipping line can suffer more
losses. In this sense, according to the result of the analysis it can be defined that the bigger the
employed vessel size on a loop, the more the sensitivity of operating cost against the changes of port
time.

Figure 17: Annual amount of GHG emissions in each type of vessel

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Regarding the amount of GHG emissions, the larger the employed vessel size on a loop, the more the
amount of GHG emissions, as shown in Figure 17. Therefore, the increase in employed vessel size is not
helpful in reducing the amount of GHG emissions when the voyage speed is fixed. However, in this
situation the reduction of port time influences the reduction of GHG emissions positively. On the other
hand, the change rate of GHG emissions is the same in each service loop as shown in the right-‐side
diagram in Figure 17. This means that the change rate of the amount of GHG emissions with the changes
in port time is equal in each service loop that employs different types of vessel.
1.5.3 Implication of analyses
In this case study, the impacts of the changes of port time on the operating costs and the amount of CO2
emissions considering the vessel size were analysed, and some implications are derived from these
analyses.
Firstly, the operating cost and the amount of CO2 emissions are sensitive to the changes of port time. As
port time decreases, the operating cost and the amount of CO2 emissions are sharply reduced. This
result means that port time has a big impact on efficient ship operations. The reduction of port time, or
minimisation of waiting time through just-‐in-‐time arrival and departure, improvement of berth
productivity and simplification of the administration process, lead not only to the reduction of the
operating cost but also to the improvement of the environmental performance of the shipping industry.
In particular, this result tells us why port selection (or choice) is important to shipping lines. In other
words, when a shipping line establishes and/or improves their service loop based on the calling ports
that have high productivity and efficiency, they can improve their ship operational efficiency by
minimising their operating cost and the amount of CO2 emissions.
Secondly, as vessel size increases, the impacts of the changes of port time on the operating cost and the
amount of CO2 emissions also increase. This result implies why port time is more important to a shipping
line that operates larger vessels. Moreover, this result tells us why shipping lines have been focusing on
the development of their own container terminals on the major routes. Namely, the larger vessel is
more sensitive to unstable port operations and non-‐production times in port, and this leads to an
increase in operating costs and an acceleration in the amount of CO2 emissions.
In summary, terminal operators have to improve their operational efficiency. This is because the
improvement of operational efficiency leads not only to strengthen their own competitiveness but also
to contribute to the reduction of costs and the amount of CO2 emissions in the liner shipping industry.

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1.6 References and additional sources of information

De Monie, G. (1987). Measuring and evaluating port performance and productivity. UNCTAD Monographs on Port
Management. A series of monographs prepared for UNCTAD in collaboration with the International Association of
Ports and Harbours (IAPH).
Drewry. (2000-‐2010). Container Market: Annual Review and Forecasting 2000-‐2010, Drewry Shipping Consultant.
INTERTANKO and OCIMF (2010). Virtual Arrival: Optimising Voyage Management and Reducing Vessel Emissions –
an Emissions Management Framework. Oil Companies International Marine Forum, Bermuda.
IMO (2012). Guidelines on the method of calculation of the attained energy efficiency design index (EEDI) for new
ships, RESOLUTION MEPC.212(63), Adopted on 2 March 2012.

IMO (2012). Guidelines for the development of a ship energy efficiency management plan (SEEMP), RESOLUTION
MEPC.213(63), Adopted on 2 March 2012.

IMO (2012). Guidelines on survey and certification of the energy efficiency design index (EEDI), RESOLUTION
MEPC.214(63), Adopted on 2 March 2012.

IMO (2012). Guidelines for calculation of reference lines for use with the energy efficiency design index (EEDI),

IMO (2009). Guidelines for voluntary use of the ship energy efficiency operational indicator (EEOI),
MEPC.1/Circ.684, 17 August 2009.

IMO (2011). Amendments to the annex of the protocol of 1997 to amend the international convention for the
prevention of pollution from ships, 1973, as modified by the protocol of 1978 relating thereto (Inclusion of
regulations on energy efficiency for ships in MARPOL Annex VI), RESOLUTION MEPC.203(62), Adopted on 15 July
2011.

Imakita, J. (1979). A Techno-‐Economic Analysis of the Port Transport System. Saxon House.

Kågeson, P. (2007). Linking CO2 emissions from International Shipping to the EU ETS. Federal Environment Agency
of Germany.

Leach, P.T. (2012). Container Ship Schedule Reliability Improves. The Journal of Commerce. May 16, 2012.
MAN Diesel & TURBO. (2012). Propulsion Trends in Container Vessels. MAN Diesel & Turbo.
QUINTIQ (2012). Advanced Planning, Scheduling and Supply Chain Optimization Solutions for the Container
Shipping Industry. Solution paper.
Samsung Heavy Industry. (2011). The comparison of the operating costs at different types of container vessel.
Sam-‐Sung Heavy Industry (internal data).
The World Bank (2007). Port Reform Toolkit. Second Edition.

Vis, Iris F.A. and Koster, Ren_E De (2003). Invited Review. Transshipment of Containers at a Container Terminal: An
Overview. European Journal of Operational Research. 147. 1–16.

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1.7 Annex
1.7.1 Case Study
Assumptions
The aim of a case study is to analyse the impacts of the changes of port time on fuel consumption,
operating costs and the amount of GHG emissions on a loop. To achieve the aim, an integrated cost
model was established with some assumptions.
Firstly, as shown in Figure 18, there are ten ports on this loop that are regularly called by scheduled
ships. The routeing plan is designed as ‘Shanghai-‐Ningbo-‐Yantian-‐Tanjung Pelepas-‐Rotterdam-‐
Bremerhaven-‐Felixstowe-‐Tanjung Pelepas-‐Yantian-‐Ningbo-‐Shanghai’, being a total voyage distance of
21,897 miles.

Figure 18: Selected service loop on Asia-‐Europe route
Secondly, the berth productivity and the average port time in each calling port were estimated by
considering actual port data (Drewry, 2010)32 as indicated in Table 3. The berth productivity is 240
moves/hours, and the in-‐out time33 is two hours in each calling port, so an average port time in each
calling port is 54.4 hours.
Table 3: Berth productivity and average port time

32
Drewry (2000-‐2010). Container Market: Annual Review and Forecasting 2000-‐2010, Drewry Shipping Consultant.
33
waiting time plus manoeuvring time in port.

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Thirdly, we assume a basic service loop by considering the basic conditions of this loop such as the
voyage distance, voyage speed, average port time and etc. (see Table 4). It is organised by using nine
vessels of 8,000 TEU class, with a total voyage time of 62.9 days made up of a total voyage time at sea
(40.2 days) and a total voyage time in ports (22.7 days).
Table 4: Basic service pattern of service loop
Fourthly, we consider the annual operating cost is the sum of three costs of the fixed costs, port cost
and fuel cost. The fixed costs consist of five costs (see Table 5), and the characteristics of each type of
container vessel are described in Table 6. We also assume that the port cost consists of three costs that
are the dockage cost, handling cost and canal transit charges (dockage cost=20US$ per metre hours/
canal transit charges=54US$ per registered TEU/ handling cost=50US$/TEU). Moreover, the fuel price is
650 US$/ton (average prices in 2011) and the value of CO2 emissions/ton is 20 US$ (Per Kågeson,
2007)34.
Table 5: The fixed costs of each type of vessel
Unit: Million US$
Source: Sam Sung Heavy Industry internal data

34
Kågeson, P. (2007). Linking CO2 emissions from International Shipping to the EU ETS. Federal Environment
Agency of Germany.

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Table 6: Characteristics of each type of vessel
Source: MAN Diesel & Turbo. (2012). Propulsion Trends in Container Vessels. MAN Diesel & Turbo.
Scenario
This study sets up a scenario focusing on the changes of port time to investigate the potential impacts of
the changes of port time on the operating costs and the amount of GHG emissions on a loop as shown in
Table 7. In this scenario, for example, port time changes within the range between 38.1 hours (-‐30% in
comparison with the basic port time) and 70.7 hours (+30%). The changes of port time lead to the
changes of the voyage time at sea, thus, in this situation a shipping line has to control voyage speed to
keep the berth window at the next port calling and the announced service schedule (weekly service
pattern). Moreover, the changes of voyage speed have a direct influence on the fuel consumption, fuel
cost, the amount of GHG emissions and external cost.
Table 7: Scenario

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1.7.2 Exercise
Shipping line A operates a service loop that is organised by using eight vessels of 8,000 TEU class on
a/the Asia-‐Europe route. Shipping line A has a plan to reduce the average port time from 47 hours to 42
hours by changingthe calling ports in this service loop.
The Table below shows the relevant data for the service pattern, container vessel and fuel prices on
both service loops, i.e. original service loop and improved service loop. Using these data, calculate how
much fuel cost can be reduced by the reduction of port time?
NOTE: All empty spaces must be completed
Original Service Improved

Unit
loop service loop
Service Pattern
Designed voyage speed Knots 25.0 25.0
Service voyage speed Knots 25.0 23.6
Average vessel size TEU 8,000 8,000
Voyage distance Mile 21,900 21,900
Number of vessel Number 8 8
Frequency Number 6.5 6.5
Number of calling port Number 10 10
Average port time Hours 47 42
Total port time Hours 470 420
Characteristics of container vessel
Main engine power Kw 68,500 68,500
Installed Aux. Power Kw 12,000 12,000
SFOC: at sea g/kW h 286 286
SFOC: in port g/kW h 24 24
Fuel price US$/ton 650 650
Results
Total voyage time days
voyage time at sea days
voyage time in port days
Daily fuel consumption at sea ton
Daily fuel consumption in port ton
Annual fuel consumption: at sea ton
Annual fuel consumption: in port ton
Total annual fuel consumption ton

Annual fuel cost on a loop M US$

Reduced annual fuel consumption on a loop ton

Reduced annual fuel cost on a loop M US$

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Part 2 – Onshore Power Supply (OPS)
2 Onshore Power Supply (OPS)

2.1 Introduction
During the ship’s port operations and at berth, auxiliary engines are run in order to generate electricity
for supply to ship-‐board systems as well as to the cargo loading or unloading machinery, where
applicable. The amount of power generated and fuel consumed is dependent on type of ships and could
be anything from a few hundred kW to several MW of electric power. The operation of auxiliary engines
is a major source of SOx, NOx and particulate emissions at port. The amount of emissions is generally
proportional to the amount of fuel used. The longer the ship stays at berth, the more the ?fuel
consumption increases and thereby the more the exhaust pollutants emitted to the port.
Concern over air quality in ports has led to growing pressure on port operators to reduce exhaust
emissions; in particular pollutants of SOx, NOx and Particulate Matter (PM). The supply of power from
onshore (port) to ship is one system that has been advocated for this purpose. Use of this system allows
ships to turn off their engines when in port and plug into a shore-‐side electricity supply. As a result, not
only are the air emissions in port reduced but also this helps positively with other aspects of the ship
and port operations It is claimed that these systems, in addition to the environmental and social
benefits, could provide economical savings to all stakeholders.
Onshore Power Supply (OPS), as defined above, has been known for a long time in particular for naval
ships, where the ship normally stays at berth for a long period of time. Under such conditions, it is cost
effective to run the vessel via a supply of electricity from shore. This was used by the US Navy originally
and the term “cold ironing” originates from this naval application. Over years, other terms have also
been used for OPS; some of which are listed below:
• Alternative Maritime Power (AMP)

• Shore side electricity
• Shore power
In this section, the term Onshore Power Supply (OPS) will be used throughout. Figure 2.1 shows a typical
OPS system.

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Figure 2.1 – Typical OPS arrangement

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/
2.2 The case for OPS

Ships normally use base electricity levels for essential services all the time, including while at berth. For
a case of a typical mid-‐size tanker, this could be about 400 kW (excluding the electricity needed for
cargo operations and ballast operations). For this tanker staying at port for 30 hours, it would require 12
MWh of electricity; the longer the vessel stays at berth, the larger this figure will be. For an average
cruise ship, the electrical requirement could be about 8 MW. For such a cruise vessel, staying at berth
for 12 hours will require 96 MWh of electric power. In addition, generating this power results in NOx,
SOx, PM and CO2 emissions that could be significant if the number of ships at berth, and/or their
duration of stay, increase.
The environmental profile of electricity generated by power plants on land versus ships’ diesel electric
generators, running on bunker fuels, is one of the main advantages of OPS technology. In land-‐based
power plants, electricity can be generated at high energy efficiency with the use of either clean fuel or
exhaust gas cleaning systems. Also, electricity is generally generated in remote areas beyond population
centres. Therefore, their environmental impact is minimised. On the contrary, ship-‐board generation is
not as energy efficient as land-‐based plants and also any exhaust emissions from engines directly
pollutes the port and surrounding areas.
The use of OPS may be regulated as a response to a specific, local problem (pollution) with a specific,
local solution. For ports, the ability to supply power to ships at berth enables them to establish a more
efficient overall electrical supply and also act as a utility. For the port area community, there is an
additional benefit of reduced noise and vibration in harbour areas. For ship staff, when the system is
fully operational, more time will be available to deal with maintenance and other aspects of port-‐related
activities.

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2.3 Infrastructure requirements

To use OPS, there will be a need for extra investment both at shore-‐side (port) and ship side. As the
responsibility for supply of electricity to ship is with port, the capital investment of ports will be more
significant. Additional investments stem from construction and installation at the quay and potential
needs related to strengthening the port’s electricity grid.
2.3.1 Shore-‐side requirements
Power supply in ports is typically equivalent to that of a small factory, with electricity needed for shore
side loading and unloading infrastructure such as cranes, belts and gantries, cooling, heating as well as
incidentals. Most ports have access to enough power to run these consumers, with an additional 2 to 3
MW for secondary needs.
Given that a vessel’s at-‐berth power needs may be as much as 10 MW, depending on the type of vessel,
(this high value is for cruise ships; for cargo ships it will be up to a maximum of 3 MW), the electrical
infrastructure at many ports will be insufficient to handle significant shore-‐to-‐ship power connections
without a major improvement to their grid. This may involve investing in a new substation or installing a
new incoming power line with the associated costs for the port and power supplier.
OPS solutions often comprise the entire chain from the incoming substation and include transformers
and frequency converters to match the grid power voltage and frequency to the ship’s connection
between the onshore power supply grid and the ship’s internal system. A typical port-‐based system is
shown in Figure 2.2:
(a) Shore-‐side facility in Juneau, Alaska

Source: T M Dow presentation, www.aapa-ports.org
Source: http://www.cruisecritic.co.uk/
Figure 2.2 – Typical shore-‐side requirements

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Accordingly, the shore side system requires the following:
Transformer for voltage reduction: The transformer steps down the power supply from a voltage level
optimized for distribution (eg, 20 kV) to one of the two voltage levels standardized for shore-‐ship power
connections for 11 or 6.6 kV as required by the ship.
Switchgear for electrical safety: Each shore-‐based power connection point requires some sort of
medium-‐voltage switchgear with an automated earthing switch. In essence, the switchgear interrupts
the power supply and ensures that there is absolutely no power in the cables between the ship and
shore while they are being handled and connected.
Frequency converter: The majority of ships operate with a 60 Hz supply, whereas local power grids in
many parts of the world use 50 Hz. As a result, most shore-‐based power connections will require a
frequency conversion. Static frequency converters provide an economical solution to connect any ship
to any grid independent of the required frequency.
Automation system: The shore side infrastructure for a shore-‐to-‐ship power connection must include an
automation and communications system that allows personnel to coordinate the connection of cables
and synchronize the ship’s electrical load to the shore side supply.
2.3.2 Ship-‐side requirements
To use power from the shore-‐side electricity grid, ships must be either built or retrofitted with
equipment that enables the connection to shore to synchronise the power changeover from shore to
ship and connects the incoming power supply to the ship’s auxiliary power system.
Ships can be safely retrofitted in a relatively short time while in operation or dry docking, without major
interruption to normal operations. Currently, the majority of ships equipped with the infrastructure to
receive shore-‐side power are container vessels and to some extent cruise ships that are mainly the
retrofitted equipment.
2.4 Standardisation
In order for OPS to become widespread among various ports and ship-‐owners, the nature and
arrangement of power connections must be standardized. Neither a port owner nor a ship-‐owner can
justify investment in expensive equipment to enable a shore connection system without assurance that
such a system will be functional across many jurisdictions and for a defined period of time.
Work on a common standard for OPS for ships at berth began early in 2005. Major players in this effort
have included technology suppliers, governments, port authorities, ship-‐owners (particularly cruise line,
tanker and container ship companies), classification societies and others. The IEC, ISO and IEEE have
joined forces with the international standard "ISO/IEC/IEEE 80005-‐1 Cold ironing -‐-‐ Part 1: High Voltage
Shore Connection (HVSC) Systems -‐-‐ General requirements" is in final preparation. This standard revises
"IEC/PAS 60092-‐510:2009 Electrical installations in ships -‐-‐ Special features – High Voltage Shore

142

Connection Systems (HVSC-‐Systems)" and addresses the connection between ship and shore and the
procedures for safe operation.
2.5 Port related initiatives

The International Association of Ports and Harbours has provided information to IMO on the World
Ports Climate Initiative35 and also established a website36 to provide practical information about OPS for
seagoing vessels and shore installations. The website provides information on numerous issues
connected with OPS such as power generation, voltage and frequency, safety and health, costs,
implementation, ports utilizing OPS, etc.
The latest list of ports with some degree of OPS capability is given in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 – Ports with OPS at 6 June 2012
Source: http://wpci.iaphworldports.org/onshore-‐power-‐supply
2.6 Proposed regulation aspects

There are proposals to add some new regulations to MARPOL Annex VI on introducing requirements for
the future wider use of OPS. Accordingly, ships should undertake an assessment of the environmental
benefits and of the cost benefit of addressing emissions from ships at berth. As part of this, it should be

35
MEPC 61/INF.12
36
http://www.ops.wpci.nl/

143

taken into account how the supplied electrical power is generated, and if similar environmental benefits
could be achieved by other more cost-‐effective means.
As part of the regulation, it is suggested:

1. Ships that can document that their on-‐board power production has lower total emissions than
the supplied shore side electricity should, if no other local circumstances dictate otherwise, be
exempted from the requirement to connect to shore side electrical power.

2. No ship should be required to connect to OPS when the planned port stay at the actual berth is
less than a couple of hours (e.g. 2 hours).

3. The port or terminal shall provide sufficient electrical power to sustain all normal operations
during the port call, including calculated peak consumption.

4. The costs for the ship to connect to shore power at berth should not exceed the average
comparable costs of port services in general and the cost of supplied electricity to shore-‐based
consumers within the vicinity of the port or terminal.
2.7 OPS and energy efficiency

There is no doubt that OPS leads to significant reduction in air pollutants in ports and areas at their
vicinity. However, the case for overall energy efficiency of the OPS, and also the cost of energy to the
ship-‐owner, has not yet been clearly identified.
2.7.1 Energy efficiency
The energy efficiency of OPS relative to ship-‐board generation needs to take into account all the various
forms of energy transfer and transformation losses along the transfer route. In addition, the thermal
efficiency of a land-‐based power plant versus ship-‐board systems needs to identified.
In general, it is estimated that transmission losses from a land-‐based power plant to the ship will be
around 10 to 25% depending on the supply transmission network. This means that from the energy
efficiency and CO2 reduction points of view, the land-‐based power plant needs to be more CO2 efficient
by at least 10 to 25%. As indicated above, this will vary from case to case and needs specific studies for
various ports.
On the other hand, the case in favour of OPS is the operating condition of auxiliary diesel engines while
at berth. This should be borne in mind while at berth, since the auxiliary engines normally work at a part
load of about 40 to 50%. Under this loading condition, the engine efficiency is lower than the optimum
value and the emissions are higher.

144

There is occasionally discussion on how low carbon electricity can be supplied by ports to ships. There
are a number of solutions, such as the use of greener energy in port. As an example, there have been
cases where LNG-‐based power plants are advocated for port-‐side power generation. Such cases yield a
significant reduction in both CO2 and pollutants, even if the power generation is in the port itself. For
ports deciding on self-‐generation, there is a case to help the grid when they have excess electricity and
thereby impose less overall load on the grid.
2.7.2 Energy cost
The issue of energy cost is important for ship-‐owners. There is evidence that the overall cost of OPS
electricity may be higher than the on-‐board generation for the following reasons:
• A tax on electricity will normally be applied if it comes from OPS. The tax level may change
from case to case.

• The base cost of electricity as supplied to ports.

• The port charges which are intended to cover the investment and running costs.

All the above require detailed studies for each port. To reduce the cost of pollutants on society, there
may be a need to transfer the burden of cost to ships as they represent the main source of pollutant.
However, since this may vary from port to port, it will have an impact on port business as well.

2.8 Green port initiatives
2.8.1 Introduction
Apart from Onshore Power Supply (OPS) that could lead to energy efficiency and improved air quality in
port areas, various ports are promoting green initiatives that aim to reduce air emissions from ships.
Green port initiatives are in place in particular in USA, Europe and to some extent Asia. In the majority of
cases, air pollution is at the core of the green port initiatives. As a result of IMO regulations on reception
facilities and port-‐level initiatives, the port services go much beyond the traditional ship cargo loading
and discharging. In this section, a number of port related green activities that relate to air emissions are
presented and discussed.
2.8.2 Port related VOC management
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are the lighter parts of crude oil, or their products, that vaporise
during the ship loading process in the loading tanks. This then normally vents to the atmosphere causing
air pollution in port areas.

145

IMO MARPOL Annex VI regulations allow the Flag State to designate ports that intend to control and
reduce VOC from tankers. This is embodied in Annex VI Regulation 15 on VOC. The regulation enables
ports and terminals to implement VOC controls.
For compliance purposes, these ports should have reception facility for such gases (e.g. the collection
and safe disposal or use of gases). Tankers that visit such ports should also have a Vapour Emissions
Control System (VECS) to be compliant with IMO MSC/Circ. 585 on Standards for VECS system. Figure
2.3 shows a schematic of such a ship-‐board VECS.

Figure 2.3 – Schematic of an oil tanker’s VOC emissions control system
Additionally, crude oil tankers are required to have an approved VOC manual. This should contain
procedures for minimizing VOC emissions during loading, sea passage and discharge and additional VOC
during washing.
Currently, a number of ports have been assigned as VOC control ports; see the list below (Table2.2).

146


Table 2.2 – Designated ports with VOC emissions control37
2.8.3 Differentiated port dues
Some of the ports provide incentives for efficient and clean shipping via reduced port dues based on
their regulated emissions levels. Examples are the Swedish ports that currently provide differentiated
port dues based on environmental criteria. About 20-‐25 of the bigger ports in Sweden have
differentiated the port dues on the basis of the sulphur content of the fuel used and the NOx emissions
from the engines on-‐board. For example, in Gothenburg, Sweden the port dues are increased if the
sulphur content of the fuel exceeds 0.2%. For ships with a NOx emission level lower than 12 g/kWh, a
discount is applied that increases progressively38.
2.8.4 Differentiated ship registration fees based on EEDI
The EEDI (Energy Efficiency Design Index) is part of the new regulation under MARPOL Annex VI that
aims to improve shipping CO2 emissions via enforcing future targets for ship designs that will provide
major reductions to EEDI. Some administrations have taken, or are evaluating, to use this index for a
differentiated registration fee or tonnage taxation. An example of such an initiative is the one by

37
IMO MEPC.1/Circ.774, 21 December 2011 on regulated VOC emissions control ports

38
http://cleantech.cnss.no/policies-‐and-‐instruments/voluntary-‐instruments/clean-‐shipping-‐index/

147

Singapore MPA (Maritime Port Authority) in 2011 that was undertaken under the Singapore Green Ship
Programme39.
The Green Ship Programme targets Singapore-‐flagged ships. The MPA will provide incentives to ship
owners who adopt energy efficient ship designs that will reduce fuel consumption and carbon dioxide
emissions. Accordingly, Singapore-‐flagged ships registered on or after 1 July 2011, which go beyond the
requirements of the International Maritime Organization’s EEDI, will enjoy a 50% reduction on the Initial
Registration Fees under both the normal registration and the Block Transfer Scheme during the
registration of the ship. They will also enjoy a 20% rebate on Annual Tonnage Tax payable every year for
a number of years based on a scheme that uses EEDI.
Existing ships which utilise energy efficient ship designs that meet the requirements for the Green Ship
Programme can also take part in this programme, but will only enjoy the 20% rebate on Annual Tonnage
Tax payable every year until the ship ceases to exceed the requirements of IMO EEDI reference lines.
2.8.5 Environmental Ship Index (ESI)
A large number of the world’s key ports have committed themselves to reducing the port-‐related GHG.
This commitment is called the World Port Climate Initiative (WPCI)40. One aspect of this initiative is
giving incentives to ships that visit such ports as a way of reducing port-‐related emissions.
One of the projects within WPCI is the development of an Environmental Ship Index (ESI). The ESI
identifies seagoing ships that perform better in reducing air emissions than the levels required by the
IMO. The ESI evaluates the amount of nitrogen oxide (NOx), sulphur oxide (SOx) that is released by a
ship and includes a reporting scheme on the greenhouse gas emission of the ship.
The ESI aims to identify cleaner ships in a general way. The index is intended to be used by ports to
reward ships when they participate in the scheme for promoting clean shipping. Also, WPCI encourages
the shippers and ship owners to use the index as their own promotional instrument.
ESI is a voluntary scheme designed to improve the environmental performance of sea going vessels. It
can be applied to all types of seagoing ships. It is easy to calculate and simple in its approach.
ESI relies on various formulas for the calculation of various parts for NOx, SOx and CO2. It additionally
awards a bonus for the presence of OPS. The ESI Score ranges from 0 for a ship that meets the IMO
environmental regulations that is already in force and 100 for a ship that emits no SOx and no NOx and
reports or monitors its energy efficiency. In other words, a ship with a score of 0 points is actually in full
compliance with the applicable requirements and thus OK and the ship with 100 points has zero air
emissions. In reality, the best performing ships currently score at around 40 points.

39
http://www.mpa.gov.sg/sites/maritime_singapore/msgi/green-‐shipping-‐programme.page

40
www.wpci.nl

148

2.9 References
The following list provides useful references on onshore power supply for ships:
• MEPC 61/INF.12
• http://www.ops.wpci.nl/
• http://www.mpa.gov.sg/sites/maritime_singapore/msgi/green-‐shipping-‐programme.page
• http://cleantech.cnss.no/policies-‐and-‐instruments/voluntary-‐instruments/clean-‐shipping-‐index/
• http://wpci.iaphworldports.org/onshore-‐power-‐supply/environment-‐and-‐health/air-‐
quality.html
• IMO MEPC.1/Circ.774, 21 December 2011 on regulated VOC emissions control ports.

149

MODULE 4

En Route

150

Contents
Module Aims and Objectives ............................................................................................................. 154
1. Voyage Management: Just in Time (JIT) and Virtual Arrival (VA) ............................................... 155
1.1 Definitions ............................................................................................................................ 155
1.2 Introduction and current practices ...................................................................................... 155

1.3 Just in Time (JIT) ................................................................................................................... 156
1.3.1 Best Practice ...................................................................................................................... 156
1.3.2 Barriers to JIT .................................................................................................................... 157

1.4 Virtual Arrival (VA) ............................................................................................................... 157
1.4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 157
1.4.2 Virtual Arrival process ....................................................................................................... 158

1.4.3 Virtual Arrival agreement .................................................................................................. 159
1.4.4 Other benefits of Virtual Arrival ........................................................................................ 159
1.5 Tools to support energy efficient ship operations ............................................................... 160
1.5.1 Weather routing ................................................................................................................ 160
1.5.2 Tools to support energy efficient ship operations at sea .................................................. 161
1.5.3 Tools to support energy efficient ship operations in coastal areas and harbours ............ 161
1.6 Outlook – potential impact of e-‐navigation developments ................................................. 163
1.7 Appendix I -‐ Exercise ............................................................................................................ 165
2 Engine Load Management .......................................................................................................... 166

2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 166
2.2 Load management for main engine ..................................................................................... 166
2.3 Load management for auxiliary engines .............................................................................. 167

2.4 Case study ............................................................................................................................ 168
3 System Planning For Energy Efficiency ........................................................................................ 170
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 170
3.2 Electrical load reduction ...................................................................................................... 170
3.3 Auxiliary boiler operation ..................................................................................................... 171
3.4 Auxiliary machinery use reduction ....................................................................................... 172

3.5 Ballast water management on board ................................................................................... 173
3.5.1 Energy efficiency aspects .................................................................................................. 174
3.5.2 Port and voyage planning aspects ..................................................................................... 175

151

3.5.3 Typical ballast water systems without treatment ............................................................. 175

3.5.4 Ballast water management plan (BWMP) ......................................................................... 176
3.5.5 Method of ballast exchange .............................................................................................. 177

3.6 Plan for ballast exchange and trim optimisation ................................................................. 178
3.7 Pitch optimisation ................................................................................................................ 178
4 Trim Optimisation ....................................................................................................................... 179

4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 179
4.2 Definitions ............................................................................................................................ 180
4.3 Physics of trim ...................................................................................................................... 181

4.4 Impact of trim on powering requirement ............................................................................ 181
4.5 How to determine optimum trim ......................................................................................... 182
4.6 Impact of sea conditions ...................................................................................................... 183

4.7 Impact of ship speed ............................................................................................................ 184
4.8 Operation guidance .............................................................................................................. 184
4.9 Tools for support .................................................................................................................. 185

4.10 Barriers to trim optimisation ............................................................................................. 185
4.11 Frequently asked questions ............................................................................................... 186
4.12 Summary ............................................................................................................................ 186
4.13 Exercises ............................................................................................................................. 187
5 References and additional sources of information ..................................................................... 188

Figure 1: Virtual Arrival processes [1] ................................................................................................ 158
Figure 2: Particle concentration (left), NOx and COx emissions during different manoeuvring phases of
a ferry (source: Winnes&Fridell [source2] ......................................................................................... 162
Figure 3: Principle outline and basic elements of the e-‐Navigation concept (taken from IMO/IALA
documents) ........................................................................................................................................ 164
Figure 4: Engine SFC as a function of load factor .............................................................................. 166
Figure 5: Periods for 1-‐DG and 2-‐DG operation ................................................................................. 168
Figure 6: Examples of a cargo heating process .................................................................................. 172
Figure 7: Transfer of bio-‐species due to ballast operations .............................................................. 173
Figure 8: Typical ballast and bilge pump arrangement ...................................................................... 175
Figure 9: Ballast overflow (Source: http://www.ukpandi.com/) ....................................................... 177

Figure 10: Fuel saving examples due to trim optimisation [4] .......................................................... 180

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Figure 11: Concept of trim ................................................................................................................. 181

Figure 12: Typical prediction of flow field and impact of trim by CFD .............................................. 182
Figure 13: Trim guidance at different drafts ...................................................................................... 183

Figure 14: Impact of waves relative to calm waters .......................................................................... 183
Figure 15: Propulsion power as a function of trim ............................................................................ 184

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This module is intended to provide the awareness, knowledge, skills and motivation required of
Masters and Officers in operation and management positions for efficient ship operation with the
main aim of reducing GHG emissions. This is in accordance with the MARPOL Convention, Annex VI
as amended and in support of the IMO's carbon reduction targets without compromising safety.
The overall learning objectives of this module are to:
• Appreciate the current practices of en-‐route ship operation with particular regard to voyage
and itinerary management.
• Be able to describe the main methods of ship energy efficiency in passage (en-‐route) and
carry out simple calculations of fuel saving levels for each method.
• Appreciate the importance of just in time operations and the barriers facing its
implementation.
• Fully appreciate what virtual arrival is and be able to explain how it could be achieved
including its likely contractual requirements.
• Appreciate the importance of diesel generator load management from the energy efficiency
and maintenance points of views; also to be able to make simple calculations on the impact
of diesel generator load management on ship’s fuel consumption.
• Be able to name and explain various elements of “system planning” to ensure en-‐route
energy efficient operations.
• Demonstrate a full understanding of the weather routing topic.
• Demonstrate knowledge of routing utilisation currents and tidal streams.
• Demonstrate knowledge of routing for bad weather (wind and waves).
• Demonstrate knowledge of how to select optimum energy efficient operations in coastal
areas and harbours.
• Demonstrate knowledge of how systems can be managed efficiently during maneouvring to
increase fuel efficiency
• Demonstrate knowledge of how ballast loading can be optimised to achieve the most
efficient trim angle.
• Demonstrate knowledge of how to select the optimum propeller pitch (for controllable pitch
propellers) to achieve fuel efficiency.

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1. Voyage Management: Just in Time (JIT) and Virtual Arrival (VA)
1.1 Definitions
Just In Time (JIT): The Just in Time (JIT) concept and practices originate from the manufacturing
industry where it is used to improve business performance via reducing the inventory levels and
associated costs. This concept then moved to other industries and today normally refers to process
improvements for the reduction of the unnecessary and idle periods of capital assets. In the case of
shipping, JIT normally refers to process improvement to reduce the unnecessary waiting and idle
periods of ship operations.
Itinerary optimisation: A ship itinerary optimisation refers to deciding on the best ship operation
schedule/profile for a certain purpose. Itinerary optimisation for energy efficiency normally means
the choice of ship schedules that would yield overall lower fuel consumption. Itinerary optimisation
for energy saving could generally conflict with the commercial aspects of shipping as dictated by the
wishes of shipping clients (cargo owners or passengers).
Voyage management: Voyage management refers to all ship management activities that lead to the
optimal planning and execution of a voyage. To ensure best-‐practice voyage management, all
aspects of planning, execution, monitoring and review of a voyage are included in this concept.
1.2 Introduction and current practices

It is well know that ship speed reduction leads to fuel economy. Speed can be reduced if for the
voyage, the amount of time in passage can be increased. Improved itinerary and voyage planning
optimisation is regarded as a major area that could be used for this purpose.
A commercial ship's movement is influenced by many factors, some of which are listed below:
• The requirements of the “cargo owner” (mainly charterers) on when and where the cargo
should be loaded and discharged. This is normally mentioned as the most likely reason for
changes to the ship operation plan and time table.
• The slotting issue in ports in terms of berth availability. Early arrival and competing for early
loading/discharge is common industry practice.
• Regulatory issues that may lead to prevention of entry to certain ports or detention for
some period of time. The lost time normally recovered later via over-‐speeding.
• Technical failures that lead to loss of ship availability.
• Lack of business (cargo), resulting in short or long idle times.
Itinerary optimisation, proper voyage planning and voyage execution are areas of interlink between
shore managers and ship’s masters. As such, the link between the shore managers (charterer and
ship manager) and the master is critical for optimal operation management.
In practice, the simplest models of working relationship are normally established. For example, the
shore-‐based managers specify the ports of call and timings. In some cases, they change their orders
and ship itinerary while the ship is underway. The master then decides how to move and at what
speed in order to meet the above timings. Normally, the master tries to reach the port of destination
as soon as possible within the contractual limits.
The above processes generally lead to the following:
• Ship voyage speed is normally maximised (usually at design speed).

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• Total ship stay in ports and waiting in anchor is normally maximised.
This practice is not energy efficient. To make it efficient, the shore-‐based manager and the vessel’s
master should be given the responsibility to maximise the sailing periods and minimise the waiting
periods. Unfortunately, itinerary optimisation and voyage management could easily be sacrificed by
either poor planning or poor execution due to commercial pressures.
The improvement to ship itineraries requires efforts to be made by all the parties involved. For this
purpose, the collaboration and coordination of the following bodies are essential:
• Charterer operation department: The charterer is ultimately responsible for decision making
on the ship itinerary and overall steaming speed. Orders issued by the charterer to the ship
are normally the basis for ship movement.
• Ship master: The master, based on the orders received, operates the ship and ensures that
the designated dates and times are achieved, within the terms of the charter party. The
master can play a major role in improving the ship itinerary via more interaction with the
charterers/owners decision makers.
• Port authorities: The Port authorities influence the plans drawn up by both the commercial
department and master through the planning of the port operation.
It is the interaction between the above parties that leads to the actual (achieved) ship itinerary.
Better coordination and awareness of the impact of their decisions on ship fuel consumption could
improve operations.
1.3 Just in Time (JIT)

Contrary to the current practices as described above, Just-‐In-‐Time (JIT) operation represents the
optimal ship’s operation management from the perspectives mentioned. The JIT operation differs
from slow steaming as the aim of JIT is not to go for drastic slow steaming but use all the measures
possible within the voyage constraints (e.g. weather, charter party contracts, etc.) to reduce the
voyage speed and thereby save fuel.
The main purpose of the JIT operation is to ensure that the ship’s operations are performed
according to a “planned and optimised itinerary” with minimal deviations. This means that vessels
should never leave ports late or arrive in port of destination earlier than the planned itinerary. This
will lead to the overall efficiency of the ship and port operations and to significant ship energy
efficiency.
The JIT operation benefit arises from the ship’s less waiting times and more passage time; thereby
scope for speed reduction and thereby fuel efficiency.
1.3.1 Best Practice

To approach the JIT operation, there is a set of good practices that ships and ship managers could
follow. It is proposed that the following sets of guidelines should be observed for the JIT operation:
• Avoid waiting periods in all phases of a voyage or modes of operation.
• Aim for early communications with the next port in order to give maximum notice of berth
availability and facilitate the use of optimum speed.
• Encourage good communications between fleet department, master and charterer in
support of JIT operation.

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• Improve cargo handling operation and avoid delays at berth to the extent possible. Cargo
handling in most cases is under the control of the port and optimum solutions matched to
ship and port requirements should be explored.
• Operate at constant shaft RPM while en-‐route.
• When leaving ports or estuaries, increase the shaft rpm gradually in harmony with increases
in ship speed.
• Avoid going fast in shallow waters. Reduce speed in shallow water if possible.
• Measure, monitor and report the “ship duty cycle” in terms of time duration in various
phases of operation, including period of times in passage, port, waiting, bunkering, etc.
• Perform benchmarking of the “ship duty cycle” against the fleet and similar ships
1.3.2 Barriers to JIT

The JIT operation is hampered by a significant number of major constraints. The following gives the
list of constraints put on the master as far as the execution of the voyage is concerned:
• Charter party constraints: These include clauses on various aspects of ship operation that
practically restrict some aspects of voyage management for energy efficiency. Charter part
contracts normally put most of the power for ship speed management in the hands of the
charters.
• Weather constraints: The weather along the route has impacts on the voyage management
and vessel itinerary. To limit this impact, weather information and weather routing can be
used.
• Route constraint: The route of the vessel may involve channel crossings, passing through
pirate areas and the need for operations such as bunkering.
• Port constraints: Various ports impose various constraints on vessels. One major aspect is
the competition between ships to arrive at port of destination in order to beat the queue.
The system that dominates now is that most ships try to arrive early to the port in order to
give their notice of readiness and stay in the berth queue.
• Other ship/owner/charterer specific constraints: These are specific constraints that may
apply to various parties involved in ship operations.
All the above basically work against the JIT operation. They need to be avoided via improvement to
the ship operation charter party, culture, use of modern information technologies and systems such
as weather routing and voyage monitoring systems.
1.4 Virtual Arrival (VA)
1.4.1 Introduction
One major initiative for the removal of some of the Just-‐In-‐Time barriers, as explained in the
previous section, is the adoption of the “Virtual Arrival” concept that has been introduced in recent
years, mainly in the tanker segment. Virtual arrival aims to reduce waiting times and achieve longer
passage times and thereby reducing the ship’s voyage average speed. A significant level of energy
saving is expected with virtual arrival. Appendix I (section 1.7) shows an example of changes in ship
itinerary that is expected to be achieved via initiatives such as virtual arrival. This example indicates
an estimated level of savings that is significant if the virtual arrival case can be successfully
implemented. This example also shows that port-‐related air emissions could be reduced significantly
via this initiative.

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It is well-‐known in the industry that it is not efficient for a vessel to steam at full speed to a port
where known delays to cargo handling / transfer have already been identified. By mutually agreeing
to reduce speed to make an agreed arrival time, the vessel can avoid spending time at anchor,
awaiting a berth, tank spaces or cargo availability. Emissions can thus be reduced, congestion
avoided and the safety improved in port areas.
For Virtual Arrival (VA) to succeed there is a need to establish an “agreement or contract” between
the parties involved in ship operations (e.g. ship operator, ship owner, charterer, port, etc.). The
contract aims to remove the barriers that are currently put in place by existing charter party
contracts and also facilitates the sharing of any revenues that result from VA implementation. The
agreement will allow all the parties to agree to reduce a vessel’s speed on voyage to meet a revised
arrival time when there is a known delay at the destination port, cargo delivery date, etc. The
reduction in speed will result in reduced fuel consumption, thereby reducing GHG and other exhaust
emissions.
The VA agreement, by virtue of reducing emissions and costs, is of mutual benefit to vessel owners
and charterers. Furthermore, by minimising vessel waiting times, a reduction in emissions and
improved safety within the port areas are also realised.
1.4.2 Virtual Arrival process

Figure 1 shows the steps that are involved when VA processes are agreed [1]. The implementation of
these steps is essential to the success of VA objectives.

Figure 1: Virtual Arrival processes [1]
Source: http://www.intertanko.com/upload/virtualarrival/virtualarrivalinformationpaper.pdf
Accordingly, the processes may be described as below:
• Identification of change in itinerary: The main part of the process is to identify a delay at
the next port of destination, for example, due to congestion at the berth or lack of receiving
space.
• Agreement to new itinerary: The next step is for parties involved including the vessel
owner/operator and the charterer and possibly port to agree on the change of itinerary. In

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particular the port, charterer and owner/operator agree to a new “Required Time of Arrival”
at the destination port.
• Speed adjustment: As a result of the newly agreed Required Time of Arrival (or itinerary),
the ship’s speed or the engine RPM is reduced.
VA is intended to be a dynamic and flexible process and, if conditions change during a voyage, the
orders can be revised to enable the ship to achieve, for example, a new arrival time. Therefore, the
above processes are best supported by ship scheduling software systems accessible to all parties to
VA agreement parties to facilitate better control and monitoring.
1.4.3 Virtual Arrival agreement

To facilitate the implementation of the VA, there is a need for contractual arrangements either as
part of the current charter party agreement or a new agreement. This new arrangement is referred
to as “VA agreement”. As part of the VA agreement, the charterer and owner/operator will be able
to change the Required Time of Arrival at the destination port (or new ship itinerary) and also agree
on the methodology for calculating voyage data and the associated reporting requirements. For
estimation purposes, the parties of the VA agreement may choose service providers such as the
weather routing service providers to support the implementation.
At the end of the trip, or based on the terms of the VA agreement, the voyage estimates are made
and the financial and contractual arrangement is settled. To reduce post-‐voyage disputes, it is
important that there is a clear understanding of, and agreement to, the method of calculation of the
vessel's voyage performance, the speed and other data to be used, the reports to be issued and the
timing of these reports.
Therefore, the charter party agreement will need amending to allow for the additional VA
agreement. It should be noted that VA aims to create win-‐win scenarios for all parties that have
influence/impact on the ship itinerary and operation via creating not only workable methodologies
but also shared financial incentives.
1.4.4 Other benefits of Virtual Arrival

The adoption of VA has benefits beyond those associated with fuel savings. Its effective
implementation requires good cooperation and a dialogue between the vessel owner/operator and
the charterer; this serving to remove many of the commercial obstacles in reducing emissions that
have hampered some past initiatives. Such obstacles have been associated, for example, with third
party and contractual implications; the fact that the party paying for the fuel may not be the
technical operator of the ship and the lack of flexibility for speed adjustment.
The improved cooperation between vessel owners/operators and charterers also has benefits
associated with overall voyage planning. For example, parties can agree that some of the available
time may be used for planned maintenance activities, statutory surveys, crew changes or vessel
storing.
The improved planning of in-‐port activities that is possible through the early identification of an
agreed arrival time may also assist in reducing crew fatigue. Operations can be planned well in
advance and uncertainties associated with waiting time and periods at anchor are reduced.
Virtual arrival, by virtue of reducing waiting in a port area, has many benefits for ports including less
port congestion, lower emissions, reduced noise and enhanced safety.

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1.5 Tools to support energy efficient ship operations

Several technical systems and tools are available on the market dedicated to the support of energy
efficient and environmentally friendly ship operations during several phases of a voyage.
1.5.1 Weather routing

The use of weather information supports the ship operation to avoid unforeseen circumstances that
may influence the ship itinerary and voyage plan. Also weather routing service providers can develop
proper estimation tools to assess the fuel saving levels for reconciliation according to the VA
agreement between the parties.
The fuel consumption for a ship not only depends on speed, but also on water depth and weather
conditions. The optimal speed distribution along the route can be calculated in advance, if a weather
forecast is available.
The following table shows the fuel consumption increase (%) for different water depths d and
speeds x [3].

Table 1 Increase in fuel consumption (%) due to limited water depth at different speeds
X D Increase (%)
10 8 5
10 10 3
10 100 0
17 8 20
17 15 10
17 100 0
20 8 30
20 15 20
20 100 0
The following table describes a typical and approximate relation between increased wind strength,
direction, and increased fuel consumption for each unit of Beaufort [3].

Table 2 Increase in fuel consumption (%) due to wind from different directions
wd Type Increase (%)

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315-360, 0-45 Head wind 4
45-135, 225-315 Side wind 2
135-225 Tail wind 1
Example: This specific example is to calculate fuel consumption increase based on the figures given
in the above tables. The ship’s speed is 18 knots. The current is 1 knot along the direction of the
ship. The wind blows 4 Beaufort points straight against the starboard side of the ship (wd=90). The
water depth d is 15 meters below the keel. The speed through water in then 18 – 1 = 17 knots. The
fuel consumption at 17 knots before the wind and limited depth effects is 1,300.00 liters/hours.
According to Table 1, fuel consumption increases by 10% caused by the water depth. According to
Table 2, fuel consumption increases by 8% (4*2) due to the side wind.
The total estimated fuel consumption is therefore 1,300.00 * 1.10 * 1.08 = 1,544.00 liters/hour.
Weather routing develops an optimum track for ocean voyages based on weather forecasts, sea
conditions, and a ship’s individual features for a particular transit. Within specified weather limits
and sea conditions, the term means minimum fuel consumption while maximising safety and crew
comfort and minimising time underway.
1.5.2 Tools to support energy efficient ship operations at sea
• Voyage performance analyser: There are systems that can routinely measure ship speed,
shaft propulsion power and environmental conditions. These systems could be used for
monitoring voyage performance. They could also help to identify reasons for poor
performance, deviations in speed and so on.
• ECDIS (Electronic Chart Display and Information System): The electronic chart and
information system could be used by means of integrated information for voyage
management purposes and especially may support energy efficient ship operations in
several ways.
• Autopilot: The new generation of Autopilots are under development or already available on
the market and are provided by several manufacturers. Sophisticated autopilot systems
provide technical facilities to also adapt the steering actions to prevailing weather conditions
and especially the sea states, even automatically. Those systems are providing dedicated
functions such as 'precision' and 'economy' modes. An Autopilot operating in Economy
mode reduces rudder movements and consequently contributes to fuel savings. On the
other hand, using Autopilot in the Precision mode allows for the best accuracy and ensures
safe navigation.
1.5.3 Tools to support energy efficient ship operations in coastal areas and
harbours
Generally, ship manoeuvres can be divided into routine manoeuvring and manoeuvring in safety-‐
critical and emergency situations. This division can be developed further by considering different sea
areas where manoeuvres have to be performed: e.g. in open seas, in coastal waters and fairways as
well as in harbour approaches and basins. Routine manoeuvring in open seas covers ship-‐handling
under normal conditions, e.g. in order to follow a planned route from the port of departure to the

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port of destination; this includes simple course change manoeuvres, speed adaptations etc.
according to the voyage plan. Manoeuvring in coastal areas, at entrances to ports and in harbour
basins include manoeuvres, e.g. to embark and disembark a pilot, to pass fairways and channels and
even berthing manoeuvres with or without tug assistance.
However, manoeuvring is always connected to fuel saving and emission reductions and therefore is
crucial for energy-‐efficient and environmentally friendly ship operations.
Ships, during their normal operation, generate different kinds of pollutants emitted into the
atmosphere. For example, the refrigeration plants of ships can contain ozone depleting substances;
these are hydro-‐ and chlorofluorocarbons. On the other hand, greenhouse gases (CO2) are emitted
during the normal combustion processes with fossil fuels. These are mainly generated in the main
and auxiliary engines, the boilers and the incinerators. It is assumed that during combustion all of
the carbon in the fuel is converted into CO2 and that therefore the emission factor is dependent on
the carbon content of the fuel [source].
It is known that shipping is a main contributor to air pollution, especially in coastal zones and
harbour areas where many people are concerned. Measurements in the south Sweden region [2]
have shown that almost 70% of S O2, approximately half of N Ox and 20% of particles in the air are
caused by shipping activities. The manoeuvring activities in coastal zones, port approaches and
harbour areas are usually higher than when sailing in open seas (see figure below).

Figure 2: Particle concentration (left), NOx and COx emissions during different manoeuvring phases of a ferry (source:
Winnes&Fridell [source2]

Optimized manoeuvring regimes have great potential to decrease the negative effects and also may
reduce fuel consumption. This can be realized by using manoeuvring assistance tools.
• Manoeuvring assistance tools: With the introduction of modern information and

communication technologies, more and more assistance tools have been introduced
additionally to standard mandatory navigational bridge equipment. Among those integrated
systems there are tools for planning and monitoring purposes on the macro and micro level.
Macro planning deals with waypoint planning for the sea trail of any voyage from point A to
B (see chapter 1.5.1). Micro planning is dedicated to the planning of detailed steering
sequences for complex manoeuvres in harbour areas, even including berthing operations.
• Sophisticated manoeuvring assistance tools take into account not only the prevailing
environmental conditions (especially wind, current and so on), but also the actual ship status
conditions and the impact of their parameters (beside course, speed and heading also i.a.
currents, draught and water depth). The purpose of using such systems is to foresightedly

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adapt the manoeuvring strategies and regimes into an energy-‐efficient range with the
efficient use of energy and resources and consequently minimize the emissions of GHG. One
of the main aims of pre-‐planning manoeuvres regarding energy-‐efficient ship operations is
the adaptation of the number of elementary manoeuvres. Elementary manoeuvres are
defined as each single manoeuvre or command of rudder, engine and thrusters and any
further steering equipment.
Once the planning process is completed and approved the bridge team can follow the
steering sequence using any dedicated display to check the plan is being kept.
The use of sophisticated planning and monitoring tools optimizes the number of elementary
manoeuvres in order to meet the requirements for the safety of navigation while also
meeting the requirements for the minimum use of the steering equipment and saving fuel
and time and simultaneously reduce GHG emissions when operating in coastal and harbour
areas.
1.6 Outlook – potential impact of e-‐navigation developments

According to the definitions given by IMO and IALA, "e-‐Navigation" is defined as the harmonised
collection, integration, exchange, presentation and analysis of maritime information onboard and
ashore by electronic means to enhance berth-‐to-‐berth navigation and related services, for safety
and security at sea and for the protection of the marine environment. Within this concept new
approaches to provide advanced support for energy-‐efficient and environmentally-‐friendly GHG
reduced ship operations are under development.
According to the plans of IMO and IALA the aim of the e-‐Navigation concept is that "… Onboard
navigation systems will be developed that benefit from integration of own ship sensors, supporting
information, a standard user interface and a comprehensive system for managing guard zones and
alerts." It is quite obvious that such systems will also have strong effects on energy-‐efficient ship
operations and contribute to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.
A principle overview of the e-‐Navigation concept is given in the descriptive model sketched in the
figure below.

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Figure 3: Principle outline and basic elements of the e-‐Navigation concept (taken from IMO/IALA documents)
Those developments related to e-‐Navigation have to be taken into consideration for application
onboard and ashore as well to guarantee the highest standard in environmental protection under all
circumstances (environmental and ship's status) and in all areas at sea.
Some expected future new or enhanced applications are e.g.:
• passage planning with applied dynamic under keel clearance criteria

• on-‐line monitoring of ships' routes related to GHG emissions and further parameters of
energy-‐efficient ship operation
• Integrated Navigation systems with specialized applications for specific users in particular
regions
• Any further integrated solution.
It is stated and intended that e-‐Navigation will not only improve navigation safety. It is also stated
that e-‐Navigation, due to the fact that there will be a reduction in the risks, will also contribute to
the improved protection of the marine environment, especially by the enhanced avoidance of
shipborne pollution caused by collisions and groundings. There are ongoing activities supported by
IMO and IALA to determine if e-‐Navigation may have uses to help reduce carbon, sulphur and
nitrogen emissions from ships through more efficient vessel routeing and handling. It is intended to
potentially use e-‐Navigation as one tool for auditing the measurement of emissions offset claims and
credits trading.
The main and fundamental change of the introduction of e-‐Navigation related applications will be
the closer relation between the OOW on the bridge and the potential assistance provided from
shore-‐based stations in order to meet also environmental rules and regulations.
Developments of centralized shore-‐based traffic organisation regimes, including the strategic
modification of voyage plans and dynamic route changes from ashore in order to ensure safety and
efficiency of the overall traffic in a monitored coastal area, are the subject of several research
projects and under discussion but still far away from introduction. However, technological
developments and implementation, not only of the e-‐Navigation concept, will provide the basis to

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allow for a later introduction of such regimes that will have substantial impact on energy-‐efficient
ship operations.
1.7 Appendix I -‐ Exercise

A ship shows an annual operation profile as follows:
• Total duration of steaming: 60%

• Total duration of manoeuvring: 3%
• Total duration at anchorage, port and berth: 36%
• Ship unavailability (e.g. dry-‐dock): 1%
Using VA, it is estimated that the total duration at anchorage, port and berth can be reduced from
36% to 26%. Assuming that this reduction in waiting time can be used to increase passage time
(assume total voyage time is constant for two cases) and thereby reduce speed:
Calculate the % reduction in ship speed in passage.
The resultant % reduction in fuel consumption in passage.
Also, calculate the % reduction in port-‐area emissions due to this change. In doing this exercise,
assume the speed-‐power curve of the vessel follows the propeller law, i.e.
P = Cons1 * V3 (1)
FC = Cons2 *P * t (2)

Where:
P Shaft power
V Ship speed
t Time duration
FC Fuel consumption
In the calculations, assume that emissions due to port stays (waiting/anchorage/berth/etc.) are
proportional to the corresponding time durations.

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2 Engine Load Management

2.1 Introduction
It is well know that the efficiency of a diesel engine is a function of its load level or its load factor1.
Figure 4 shows the engine Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) as a function of the load factor.

Engine load-BSFC characteristics (rated speed)
1.20 BSFC (Rated speed) BSFC (Prop law)

1.18
1.16
BSFC [rel to min.]
1.14
1.12
1.10
1.08
1.06
1.04
1.02
1.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Load [% of MCR]

Figure 4: Engine SFC as a function of load factor
In Figure 4, the curve for constant rated speed represents power generation engines (auxiliary
engines) and the curve for propeller law shows the main engine. As can be seen there is no
significant difference and for both types of application, the engine’s SFC varies with the engine load.
SFC is a minimum (i.e. efficiency is a maximum) for a certain load level; typically for main engines it is
in the range of 70 to 90% of an engine’s Maximum Continuous Rating (MCR).
The above diagram shows that under low load conditions, the SFC of the engine will increase.
Although the load on the main engine is mainly dictated by ship speed, the load on the auxiliary
engines depends on the ship-‐board electrical loads that are a function of the number of machines
being used at each point in time.
2.2 Load management for main engine

For the main engine, there is not much that can be done as far as load management is concerned for
the following reasons:

1
Load factor: The engine load factor is defined as the actual power output of the engine relative to
its Maximum Continuous Rating (MCR). The Load factor is normally specified in percent.

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• Normally ships have one main engine and load management applies to cases with more than
one engine.
• It is easy to show that slow steaming leads to the main engine’s operation being at a low
load is energy efficient despite the fact that the engine operates in a less efficient load
factor. This is due to the fact that the impact of chance in ship resistances is much more
effective than changes in engine SFC for slow steaming cases.
Despite the above fact, it is mostly recommended that the main engine load should be kept at a
reasonably steady level under normal operation. This is achieved by keeping the engine speed (RPM)
constant. Frequent changes to the engine load (i.e. shaft RPM) are not efficient and must be
avoided.
2.3 Load management for auxiliary engines

There is ample evidence that shows load management for auxiliary engines is an effective way of
reducing the engines’ fuel consumption as well as their maintenance costs. Each ship has normally
three auxiliary engines; each connected to one electric generator. The engine and generator as a
combined system are normally referred to as diesel-‐generator (DG).
On-‐board ships, and often in order to assure against black out, two DGs are operated for long
periods at less than half their MCR load. The periods for which these conditions are sustained can
include all discharge ports, standby periods, tank cleaning periods, movement in restricted waters
and ballast exchange periods.
This often leads to unnecessary simultaneous usage of multiple engines; at low load factors and
beyond requirements. As a result, low load factor leads to poor energy efficiency performance.
Additionally, the operation of diesel engines at low loads causes poor piston ring seal, sub-‐optimum
turbocharger performance, low specific fuel consumption, elevated thermal stresses and increased
specific lube oil consumption. In short, it leads to more maintenance and higher fuel consumption.
In order to evaluate the prevailing practices for the vessel, the following areas need to be
investigated:
• The load factor of various DGs needs to be established via collection and analysis of data.
• Normally, DGs are equipped with automatic “Power Management System (PMS)”. This
system is adjustable and could be set from the engine control room. It is important to
establish the effectiveness and level of use of PMS and utilise its capabilities for improved
engine load management.
• The proper management of a ship’s electrical demand including load reduction and load
scheduling, could be used for reducing the number of DGs in use and also for optimising the
DGs’ performance via a better load level.
As an example, Figure 5 shows the periods for running 1-‐DG and 2-‐DG for a tanker. For the tanker,
an analysis of the operational profile indicated that the period for 2-‐DG operation is excessive and it
may be reduced from 48% of the total time to a lower number. This will result in improved energy
efficiency and maintenance (see case study for an estimation of the benefits at the end of this
section).

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Figure 5: Periods for 1-‐DG and 2-‐DG operation
As discussed under system planning (see next Section), it is important that the demand side is also
managed via better system planning for load reduction. Reduction of loads in this way helps to
provide a better load management on DGs and avoids the running of two engines at low loads.
2.4 Case study

An analysis of ship-‐board data for a tanker shows the following:
• Only 1-‐DG is operated for 52% of the time.

• For the rest of the time (48%), 2-‐DGs are operated simultaneously.
The same analysis shows that with good practice and good load management, the above could
change to 70% of the time with 1-‐DG and 30% of the time with 2-‐DGs.
Using the above data and those in Table 3, complete Table 3, where shown with a ”question mark”.

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Total electric power generation [kW] 550
Engine SFC at 275 kWe [g/kWh] 235
Engine SFC at 550 kWe [g/kWh] 210
Number of hours per year [hours] 8760
Current practice
Period of operation with 1-DG, [%] 52
Period of operation with 2-DG [%] 48
Fuel consumption by diesel genrators [MT/year] ?
DGs total run hours [hour/year] ?
Best practice
Period of operation with 1-DG, [%] 70
Period of operation with 2-DG [%] 30
Fuel consumption by diesel genrators [MT/year] ?
DGs total run hours [hour/year] ?
Fuel consumption reduction by change to best practice [MT/year] ?
CO2 reduction (assume CF = 3.1144 tonne CO2 / tonne fuel) [MT/year] ?
Fuel price [$/MT] 750
Fuel cost saving [$/year] ?
Reduction in auxiliary engines run hours [hours/year] ?

Table 3 – Benefits of auxiliary engine power management

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3 System Planning For Energy Efficiency

3.1 Introduction
Ship operations involve a variety of activities and tasks. Some aspects are listed below such as:
• Loading
• Unloading
• Ballasting and de-‐ballasting
• Inner gas generation and top ups for crude oil and product tankers
• Bunkering
• Manoeuvring
• Stand-‐by
• Normal passage operation
• Waiting and anchorage
• Fresh water generation
• Potable water generation
The nature of the above operations vary from one ship type to another. Also, they may vary with the
area of operations and ports of call.
To improve fuel consumption, the requirements of various operations need to be carefully examined
and ship resources are then used accordingly. Planning of the above requires good coordination
between the deck and engine departments.
In this section examples of planning activities are examined.
3.2 Electrical load reduction

It is often possible to reduce energy consumption on board by working towards a more conscious
and optimal operation of the ship machinery and systems. This could be achieved more effectively if
planned for each mode of operation. Examples of measures that can be considered include:
• Avoidance of unnecessary energy use via switching off the machinery when not needed. All
non-‐essential and not-‐required machinery and equipment that does not affect the ship and
the safety of the personnel should be stopped whilst in port and at sea to reduce the load on
the diesel generators. Such items should be identified first and then procedures
followed/undertaken/prepared/established/developed for the execution of tasks to be
developed and implemented.
• Avoidance of the parallel operation of electrical generators, when one is sufficient for the
purpose. This aspect is covered and fully discussed under “engine load management” in the
previous Section.
• Optimized HVAC operation on board. The HVAC system operation should be aligned to
outside weather conditions either via automatic settings or manual operations.
• Proper coordination should be maintained on board between the deck and engine
departments especially in the use of machinery/equipment items such as steering gear
motors / bilge and fire pumps / winches and mooring equipment / deck cranes / service and
deck air / etc. in order to reduce loads on generators. This is part of the engine load
management process of the diesel generators.

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The above activities will lead to reduced electrical power demand. Moreover, jobs could be co-‐
ordinated and bundled together so that two generators could be run more effectively and for a
shorter period of time. This could be achieved via system planning and more coordinated actions.
3.3 Auxiliary boiler operation

In the majority of ships, under normal sea going conditions, the exhaust gas economiser is sufficient
to produce enough steam for ship services without the need for firing the auxiliary boilers. However,
experience shows that auxiliary boilers are used more than needed due to either poor planning or
poor maintenance of the system.
To avoid the unnecessary use of auxiliary boilers, the requirement for steam needs to be examined
and planned in such a way that the firing of the auxiliary boilers are minimised. Also, the steam
system maintenance aspects, such as state of steam traps and piping insulation, need to be routinely
checked to avoid any unnecessary demands for boiler operation. Additionally, steam is normally
used for heating purposes such as cargo heating. Planning of the cargo heating and its reduction is
an important aspect of such management efforts.
Cargo heating plan
For ships with cargo heating requirements, it is prudent to have and follow a proper cargo heating
plan in order to optimise the requirements for steam and at the same time check the effectiveness
of the actual heating progress. A heating plan should be made soon after loading cargo and
reviewed/updated on a daily basis considering the various factors that affect the heating and
customers' requirements.
The review of the heating log abstract below will help with better future planning and identifying the
gaps:
• Actual vs. planned temperature

• Actual vs. planned fuel oil consumption
• Actual vs. planned heating hours
It is also part of best practice for vessels to complete the heating abstract (daily) after conclusion of
each voyage and send it ashore along with the “Cargo Heating Log”, while also identifying any gaps.
Figure 6 shows two typical cargo heating pattern graphs.

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Figure 6: Examples of a cargo heating process
For best practice cargo heating planning, the following should be noted:
• The vessel's master and chief engineer should have a greater understanding of the voyage
manager/charterer's heating instructions.
• They should seek the receiver/charterer's permission for the allowable range of cargo
temperatures and:
o Prepare a cargo heating plan for the voyage.
o Execute the cargo heating plan and monitor it to verify the effectiveness of the
actual heating progress.
o Closely monitor and analyse the daily cargo heating reports for deviations from the
heating plan.
• They should not heat for short frequent periods and run the boiler at low loads.
• They should follow the recommended condensate temperature and optimum boiler settings
for efficient cargo heating. Heating instructions, accompanying the heating plan, should
further highlight these points.
• And, maintain efficient and good communication between the vessel and the voyage
manager/charterer about the plan and execution.
Cargo should be heated as economically as possible and planned soon after departure. Heating at
the end of the cargo passage may cause off gassing which in turn could delay cargo discharge, for
example, due to off-‐limit Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) usually above 10 ppm.
3.4 Auxiliary machinery use reduction

There is a significant amount of redundant machinery on board ships; this allows the ship to
continue operating when one fails. Also, in some specific operational conditions, the use of more
than one item of machinery is necessary to ensure safe operation. In practice, redundant machinery

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is normally used more than necessary. This could include any type of machinery but in particular fans
and pumps. Any reduction in the use of such machinery can lead to energy efficiency.
Proper planning of the use of machinery versus the operation mode is an effective way of achieving
this objective. For example, the use of machinery could be reduced via advanced planning and
decision making on the number of machines to be used; taking into account the actual operational
requirements.
For example, when a ship is in port, the plan should include switching off one or two engine room
ventilation fans as the main engine is not operating any more. Another example is the mooring
equipment. When mooring equipment is not needed, the related pumps and machinery could be
switched off.
To ensure safe operation, all these items need to be proactively planned and executed. Without
daily planning and the establishment of relevant processes, the task of reduction in energy use
cannot be accomplished. As emphasized before, coordination between the deck and engine
departments are of paramount importance for an effective and at the same time safe action to avoid
misunderstanding or unexpected consequences.
3.5 Ballast water management on board

Ballast water (BW) is essential to control trim, list, draught, stability and stresses of the ship. Ballast
water activities are largely regulated not only because of the above safety implications but also since
they have been recognized to be a pathway for the movement of undesirable and alien bio-‐species
from their natural habitat to other ecosystems (Figure 7).

Figure 7: Transfer of bio-‐species due to ballast operations
(source: http://www.thelivingocean.net/2012/08/ballast-‐water-‐blues.html)
Today, an IMO convention is devoted to ballast water management. In the Convention, two main
methods are highlighted: ballast water exchange (Regulation D-‐1) and achievement of ballast water
standards (Regulation D-‐2).
The impact of Ballast Water Management (BWM) on air emission is barely described despite the
evidence that, regardless of the management method established, the overall energy efficiency of
ships is affected at least because:

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- the exchange requires the additional use of the Ballast Water equipment and in particular
pumps; and
- treatment systems developed to reach D-‐2 standards require the installation of additional
energy consuming equipment on board ships.
In addition to the increasing use of equipment using power, BWM impacts the ship’s energy
efficiency in two additional ways:
• The change in ship displacement, thus wetted surfaces and ship resistance. Generally, the
more ballast water or ballast sediments are carried around, the bigger the ship displacement
will be and the more energy consumption is expected.
• The change in ship trim: trim optimisation via the effective use of ballast water could lead to
gains in energy efficiency as has been discussed elsewhere.
In ballast water operations and management, one should consider serious planning in the present
regulated context because many variables apply including the type and size of ship, ballast tank
configurations and associated pumping systems, trading routes and associated weather conditions,
port State requirements and manning.
3.5.1 Energy efficiency aspects

In general, the following are good for energy efficiency:
• Carrying less ballast water: The displacement of a vessel is a function of lightweight, fuel,
cargo and ballast weights. As such, less ballast water means lower displacement and lower
resistances. Therefore, it is generally desirable to have less ballast from an energy efficiency
point of view. Of course this should not contravene any of the regulations nor compromise
ship safety.
• Optimizing use of the equipment: This item relates to the maintenance of the equipment
and the amount of BW to load, discharge and manage on board the ship.
• Efficient ballast management operations: This means performing ballast exchange or

ballasting and de-‐ballasting in a way that is more energy efficient. For example:
o Gravity assisted ballast exchange is preferred to simple pumping in/out processes.
For the gravity-‐assisted method, there is less need to run the ballast pumps.
o Sequential ballast exchange is more energy efficient than the flow-‐through method.
Again, this is for reasons of the amount of water that needs to be displaced; thus the
number of hours for running the ballast pumps.
o Trim optimisation: Ballast is used to adjust the ship trim with consequences for
energy savings. Trim optimisation using ballast water leads to significant energy
savings on some ships.
o Steam driven ballast pumps: In some ships, ballast pumps are steam driven. The use
of a boiler for this purpose is extremely inefficient. Therefore, minimisation of the
use of ballast pumps by better planning of the ballast water operations can lead to
energy savings.
o Sediment removal: As indicated, sediment removal leads to better cargo capacity
and energy efficiency.

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3.5.2 Port and voyage planning aspects

The amount of BW up-‐loaded in a port depends on the relationship between the vessel and its
cargo. The need to counterbalance the detrimental effects of weight distribution during and after
loading/unloading must be addressed in ports. The cargo distribution should be considered as having
an impact on the quantity of ballast as well as on the ability to optimize the trim without
jeopardizing the ship’s strength and stability.
Therefore, the port/ship relationship must develop plans and procedures to optimize the ballast
water intake through the establishment of the cargo loading/unloading process and the final cargo
plan.
In addition to the anticipated ballast plan, the dynamics of the voyage should be taken into account
especially when ballast water exchange has to be carried out. Ballast water and trim optimisation
and adjustments while in passage should be pre-‐planned relative to the port normally even-‐keel
operation. Sediment uptake and removal should be controlled as part of voyage planning to ensure
the minimal level of sediments.
3.5.3 Typical ballast water systems without treatment

Figure 8 shows a typical ship’s ballast water engineering system. It is comprised of ballast pumps,
relevant piping system and flow control methods. This system is normally installed according to IMO
guidelines and is operated in accordance with the system design criteria and the manufacture’s
operational and maintenance instructions.

Figure 8: Typical ballast and bilge pump arrangement
Source: http://www.machineryspaces.com/bilge-‐and-‐ballast-‐system.html

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The use of this system is normally described in the ship’s Ballast Water Management Plan (BWMP).
All failures and malfunctions of the system are recorded in the Ballast Water Record Book (BWRB)
according to IMO requirements.
3.5.4 Ballast water management plan (BWMP)

As soon as the Ballast Water Management Convention enters into force, it will be a requirement for
each applicable ship to have a BWMP that specifies requirements for this purpose. The following are
normally included in the BWMP:
• Acceptable methods for ballast exchange and relevant procedures.

• Details of the procedures for the disposal of sediments at sea and to shore. Method of the
use of port reception facilities for sediments.
• Designation of the officer on board in charge of the implementation of BWMP. The
identification of a responsible person should enhance the planning of BWM operations. In
this respect, adequate training of such crew members should encompass awareness on the
energy efficient operation of the BWM equipment and optimization for deadweight
management and trim optimization.
Principle of sediment management: to reduce the sediment levels, the following general advice is provided by the IMO:
• All practical steps should be taken during ballast uptake to avoid sediment accumulation.
• When sediment has accumulated, consideration should be given to flushing tank bottoms and other surfaces when in
suitable areas.
• The volume of sediment in each ballast tank should be monitored on a regular basis.
• The frequency and timing of removal will depend on factors such as sediment build up, ship’s trading pattern,
availability of reception facilities, work load of the ship’s personnel and safety considerations.
• Removal of sediment from ballast tanks should preferably be undertaken under controlled conditions in port, at a
repair facility or in dry dock.
• The removed sediment should preferably be disposed of in a sediment reception facility if available, reasonable and
practicable. Disposal should take place in areas outside 200 nm from land and in water depths of over 200 m.

• Method of the sediment removal or reduction at sea, and when cleaning of the ballast tanks
takes place.
Basic tasks and responsibility held by the Officer in charge
• An officer should be made responsible to ensure the maintenance of appropriate records and to ensure that ballast
water management procedures are followed and recorded.
• When carrying out any ballast water operation, the details need to be recorded in the Ballast Water Record Book.
The officer in charge of ballast water management should perform the following duties:
• Ensuring that the ballast water operations follow the procedures in the BWMP.
• Ensuring that the Ballast Water Record Book and any other necessary documentation are maintained.
• Being available to assist the inspection officers authorized by a Party for any sampling that may need to be undertaken.

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Since the Ballast Water Management Convention has not yet entered into force, the management of
BW is not a worldwide obligation. However, an increasing number of countries require proper BWM
before arriving in their waters.
Currently, a small amount of the world’s fleet carries BW treatment systems. Thus, the present
dominant technique to manage BW is the exchange.
3.5.5 Method of ballast exchange

There are three methods of ballast water exchange which have been evaluated and accepted by the
IMO. The three methods are the sequential method, the flow-‐through method and the dilution
method. These can be described as follows:
• Sequential method – A process by which a ballast tank is first emptied and then refilled with
replacement ballast water to achieve at least a 95 per cent volumetric exchange.
• Flow-‐through method – A process by which replacement ballast water is pumped into a
ballast tank, allowing water to overflow from the tank. For effective ballast exchange, the
volume of flow through water should be at least 3 times the volume of the water in the tank.
• Dilution method – A process by which replacement ballast water is supplied through the top
of the ballast tank with simultaneous discharge from the bottom at the same flow rate and
maintaining a constant level in the tank throughout the ballast exchange operation.
•
•
Figure 9: Ballast overflow (Source: http://www.ukpandi.com/)
For ballast water exchange, particular care should be taken of the following:
• Stability, which is to be maintained at all times as regulated by the IMO or flag or port
authorities.
• Longitudinal stress and torsional stress values, not to exceed permitted values with regard to
prevailing sea conditions, where applicable.
• Sloshing impact reduction due to water movement should be considered in order to
minimise the risk of structural damage, in particular at non-‐favourable sea and swell
conditions.
• Wave-‐induced hull vibrations when carrying out ballast water exchange.
• Limitations of the available methods of ballast water exchange in respect of sea and weather
conditions.

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• Forward and aft draughts and trim adjustment, with particular reference to bridge visibility,
slamming, propeller immersion and minimum forward draft; and energy efficiency (optimum
draft).
• Additional workloads on the master and crew.
As explained, the Ballast Water exchange process has implications for both safety and energy use.
Also, it is shown that trim optimisation has a significant impact on ship energy efficiency.
3.6 Plan for ballast exchange and trim optimisation

As part of system planning, the case for these two should be included and discussed at daily
meetings. The voyage should be planned taking into account when ballast water exchange or
adjustments are carried out. Also, trim optimisation and adjustments, while in passage, should be
pre-‐planned relative to the port even-‐keel operation.
3.7 Pitch optimisation

Vessels with controllable pitch propellers (CPP) might benefit through finding the right pitch angle
and rpm. The pitch angle of the blades on a CPP affects the ship’s speed together with the main
engine's revolutions (rpm). The optimal combination of pitch/rpm depends on a number of external
and time-‐varying conditions, and therefore must be subjected to dynamic optimisation to be
optimal. Here the goal is to minimise the consumption of fuel by maintaining an optimal ratio
between the propeller’s pitch and the speed of rotation. The optimization aims at minimizing the
fuel consumption, measured as consumed oil per nautical mile, for a given set speed sset. The directly
measurable entities are water track speed swt (nautical miles per hour) and fuel consumption c (liters
per hour). Both swt and c are functions of the pitch p and main engine revs r. Hence, the pitch
optimizer tries to solve [3]
(ropt, popt) = arg min (c(r,p)/swt(r,p))
With the constraint
Swt(r,p) = sset
Where sset is the set speed for a vessel, which is given explicitly by the operator.

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4 Trim Optimisation
4.1 Introduction
Most ships are designed to carry a certain amount of cargo at a designated speed consuming a
certain amount of fuel under a specified trim condition. Loaded or ballast, trim has a significant
influence on the resistance of the ship through water. Therefore, optimizing the trim can deliver
significant savings.
For any given draft and speed, there is a trim condition that gives minimum resistance. Therefore,
the vessel optimum trim is a function of draft and speed. The optimum trim needs to be established
as part of routine operations or through tank testing or use of computational methods. Nowadays,
computational methods are extensively used to estimate optimal trim settings for energy efficiency.
However, these may require information from ship model tests and /or full-‐scale measurements.
Operationally, design or safety factors may preclude the full use of trim optimization. In this section,
various aspects of trim optimisation are discussed.
The possibility of trimming the ship should be seen in relation to stability, manoeuvrability and other
safety and operational aspects. It is the master or chief officer of the vessel that will ultimately
ensure all situations are considered. To ensure best practice, the concern of masters with regard to
loading and ballasting aspects needs to be taken into account. In any case, it should be emphasised
that even small trim changes can have a large impact on vessel performance; 2 to 4% reduction in
fuel consumption is generally talked about. Therefore, all should try to help with ensuring that this
potential is realised.
Sailing just 5-‐10 centimetres off optimal trim might cause ships to operate at higher fuel
consumption levels than normal.
Ship resistance is altered due to the trim of the vessel through viscous resistance which is the
function of the wetted hull surface area. When trim changes, wetted surface area thereby hull
resistance slightly differs. By definition, if resistance increases, fuel consumption and emissions also
increase.
In this respect, in order to reduce fuel consumption and emissions, trim needs to be optimised
before and during a ship’s voyage through ballasting or loading the ship to be able to achieve a
floating position that consumes the least propulsion power.
Ships record their trim before their voyage by directly reading the draft marks. So, considering that
the weight distributions on the ship allow trim adjustment, finding the appropriate and optimal
floating position before voyage becomes possible. However, knowing the exact trim and draught
during a ship’s voyage, also called dynamic trim, is not an easy task. It requires real-‐time readings
through sensors and on-‐board integrated technology.
Dynamic trim optimization includes collecting and monitoring real-‐time data of propeller thrust and
manoeuvring rudder angles, weather conditions, and sea-‐state. These data are then analysed
constantly and the optimal trim value is calculated and displayed on a real time basis to give advice
to the crew on-‐board.

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The vessel with high trim and draught fluctuations during its voyage might benefit more than the
one with small fluctuations. The following are two real examples of proven savings by trim
optimisation [2]:
Example 1: 5,500 TEU Container Vessel over 136 sea days crossing. It was found that the average
percentage of propulsion power loss due to non-‐optimal trimming was 5%, whilst the vessel was on
long, trans-‐oceanic legs, although lower on shorter and more coastal routes. The trim related savings
potential was calculated at 350 tons of HFO. Even if operational constraints meant that the ship was
only able to follow an optimum trim 80% of the time, 280 tonnes of fuel would still have been saved.
Such a saving translates into around a USD 150,000 reduction in bunker costs (at the prevailing
prices of the study) for the vessel operator in less than five months.
Example 2: The results of a study on the impact of trimming on a VLCC showed that VLCCs can
benefit significantly from trim optimisation due to their size and rate of daily consumption. The
saving is dependent on the rate of usage (ROU) of the suggested optimum trim by the crew. This can
be influenced by external conditions, such as extreme weather, as well as the crew’s commitment to
apply the trim guidance of the technology available. This study showed a positive ROU of 69%,
translating into proven propulsion energy savings of 1.8%, which equates to USD 330,000 or 505
tonnes annually.
The following figure shows two examples of approximate savings when using a trim optimisation
software (Easeacon’s FuelSaver) [4]:

Figure 10: Fuel saving examples due to trim optimisation [4]
4.2 Definitions
Trim: Trim is normally defined as the difference between the aft draft and the forward draft:
Trim = TA-‐TF
Where:
TA Aft draft (m)
TF Forward draft (m)
When the trim is positive, it means that the stern of the vessel is more inside the water than
forward. Accordingly, positive trim means trim to aft and negative values of trim means trim to
forward. The concept of trim is shown in Figure 11.

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Figure 11: Concept of trim
Optimum trim: Optimum trim refers to a ship trim under which the required propulsive power is
minimal for the specific speed and draft of the vessel.
Load planning: The ship loading plan specifies the loading levels and how the loads should be
distributed in different cargo spaces. The load planning considers corresponding regulations but
above all the ship stability. Execution of the loading of the ship is with staveroses and other loading
superintendents but the master or chief officer is eventually responsible for all the loading and
unloading operations.
Loading computer: A loading computer system is a computer-‐based system for the calculation and
control of ship loading conditions for compliance with the applicable stability requirements and
longitudinal and local strength requirements. The ship-‐board loading computer system consists of
software (calculation program) and an appropriate computer (hardware).
4.3 Physics of trim

The ship resistance and the ship’s trim are closely related to each other. This is due to the fact that
trim could change parameters that impact the hydrodynamic performance of a ship. The high impact
of trim on ship performance is well known in particular for container ships and RoRo vessels. Large
fuel savings are claimed due to changes to the ship trim.
The possible explanations for the relatively large dependencies of ship performance on the trim
could be attributed to the following impacts of trim:
• Changes to wave resistance
• Changes to wetted surfaces and thereby the frictional resistance.
• Changes to form resistance due to transom submergence
• Changes to various propulsion coefficients including:
o Resistance coefficients
o Thrust deduction
o Wake fraction
• Changes to propulsive efficiencies including:
o Relative rotative efficiency.
o Propeller efficiency
On fast container ships and RoRo vessels, there is much to be gained by introducing the correct
(optimum) trim. However, a reduction in fuel consumption due to changes to trim might be achieved
even on tankers and bulk carriers.
4.4 Impact of trim on powering requirement

There are different methods of determining a ship’s optimum trim. The best results are obtained
from self-‐propulsion tests using a scale model [10]. In self-‐propulsion tests, not only are the changes
in hull resistance investigated but the propulsion coefficients are also measured. These tests, if
performed over a sufficient range of speed and draft, could provide input in identifying optimum
trim. Alternatively, with today’s accuracy, trim tables based on advanced CFD (Computational Fluid

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Dynamics) calculations can be comparable to resistance model tests. However, both resistance tests
and CFD methods tend to ignore the impact of the propeller with ship trim. This may have a
significant impact on light drafts.

Figure 12: Typical prediction of flow field and impact of trim by CFD
Source: Lloyd’s Register factsheet May 2011, www.lr.org [needs clearance]

To determine the optimum trim, the vessel’s loading conditions need to be investigated in order to
find the extreme drafts and speeds. The drafts are then divided evenly in the test matrix. Typically,
the ship is tested at both forward and aft trims depending on the feasibility of the vessel to undergo
those trims. Normally, forward trim is often not possible for the lighter drafts due to restrictions in
the propeller's submergence. Also, a simple resistance test under light drafts with aft trim, will not
give the correct trim indication as the effects of the propeller inflow and submergence that makes a
positive contribution to performance are not present.
4.5 How to determine optimum trim

Figure 13 shows the impact of trim on powering for a number of drafts for a fixed speed [10]. As can
be seen, there are large differences in the impact of trim at different drafts. In this case, at the
deeper drafts forward trim is better, and the opposite is the case for the light drafts. Optimum trim
is often seen relative to the even keel condition. Here it is important to mention that masters often
trim their ships aft for increased manoeuvrability.

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Figure 13: Trim guidance at different drafts
Source: Force Technology, “Understanding of the physics of trim”, Ship and Offshore Green Tech, 2011.
4.6 Impact of sea conditions

A frequently asked question is how optimum trim changes with rough sea conditions as compared to
calm water? In Figure 14, a vessel has been evaluated in both calm water and waves [10]. Wave A
and B are irregular sea states and the ship’s heading is into a head sea. It can be seen that sea
condition has no significant impact and the results for two waves is the same – i.e. optimum trim is
at forward trim of -‐1.2m. Ship real case experiences also show similar observations.

Figure 14: Impact of waves relative to calm waters
Source: Force Technology, “Understanding of the physics of trim”, Ship and Offshore Green Tech, 2011.

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4.7 Impact of ship speed

Figure 15 shows the variation of propulsive power as a function of trim and vessel speed
represented by Froude number [11]. This has been developed for a large cargo vessel that
represents most large car-‐carriers, Ro-‐Ro vessels and container ships. These ships normally have a
pronounced bulbous bow, slender hull, centre skeg and one propeller.

Figure 15: Propulsion power as a function of trim
Source: Nikolaj Lemb Larsen, “Understanding the physics of trim”, Green Ship Technology Conference, March 2012
In this case, at lower speeds, trim by forward gives the best results. As the speed increases, the
optimal trim gradually moves closer to even keel (no trim).
4.8 Operation guidance

The current industry practice points to the fact that in the great majority of cases, even keel
operation (zero trim) is the normal practice. This generally may represent the optimal trim for ships
with high block coefficients and non-‐pronounced bulbous bow (e.g. bulkers and tankers). These
ships are not normally operating at very high speeds; thus having a relatively lower wave making
resistance.
In ships with a slimmer body and higher speed, the impact of trim on performance could be
significant. In particular, the trim may impact on the performance of the bulbous bow, and thereby
wave making resistance. This will signify that this type of ship is more sensitive to trim and therefore
greater care should be exercised with trim optimization.
With the recent development in energy efficiency regulations, more companies have opted out to
establish their own optimum trim; with the use of CFD accelerating in recent years. The issue,
however, is that all the saving levels given are based on analytical forecasts and there is no hard
evidence showing that real savings are made.
Based on the above facts and for best practice, it is not sufficient to develop a trim matrix and then
assume that the specified trim guidance is going to lead to energy efficiency. Practical tests and trials
will be required to refine the trim tables.
In using trim optimization, the following ship types would be given greater consideration:
• Container ships
• RoRo cargo and passenger ships
• RoRo car carriers

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In addition to identifying and documenting the optimum trim as a function of ship speed and draft, it
is proposed that:
ü The experience gained by ship staff on the impact of trim on a vessel’s fuel consumption
should be gathered in order to improve the ship’s “trim matrix”.
The effective use of the loading computer's capabilities is important to ensure safe trimming of the
vessel with an optimal level of ballast water.
4.9 Tools for support

There are a number of tools available that could be used for this purpose:
CFD methods for trim matrix
The effect of trim on fuel consumption can be measured at the model scale in a towing tank, or
simulated at full scale using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). Many different speed and draft
combinations can be simulated in a time efficient manner using fully viscous flow description
(Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes Equations –RANS) analytical techniques.
As a result, a trim matrix or map similar to that shown previously in Figure 2.2 can be specified,
where the optimum trim as a function of ship speed and draft are specified. The ship master or deck
officer would normally follow this as a guide for setting the trim.
Dynamic trimming systems
These systems rely on a number of signals that are recorded whilst the ship is underway. The signals
provide an indication of the ship's actual trim and some performance aspects of the vessel. Then the
system uses analytical or artificial intelligence methods to forecast an optimum trim. Similar to “trim
matrix” as explained above, this makes a good deal of theoretical sense but the actual effectiveness
has yet to be established.
Loading computers
The change in ship trim is achieved via cargo load planning and a ballasting plan; when combined
they are used to ensure a good trim. Occasionally there are limitations for achieving optimum trim
due to the level of cargo and loading limitations that may not allow additional ballast for a proper
trim. In recent years, the loading computers provide additional functionality for the representation
of trim, optimal trim and also loading options to achieve the optimal trim. Trim linked to a loading
computer helps the deck officers to achieve a better loading plan and optimal trim.
4.10 Barriers to trim optimisation

The good application of trim optimisation can be affected by the following constraints:
• The weight distribution on board must be determined in order to allow trim optimization.
Therefore, adequate communication between ship and shore is paramount.
• Operational risk challenges: This includes the oversight of bending moments and shear
forces when practicing trim optimization.
• On-‐board stability assessors: Not all vessels have real time stability assessors or calculators
on-‐board.
• Real-‐time bunker and water transfers on-‐board: The officers on watch might have
incomplete knowledge of the bunker and water (grey/fresh water) transfers onboard, and
therefore are not aware of the effects of this activity on the trim.
• Real-‐time knowledge on weather conditions: The most accurate real-‐time weather and sea
conditions need to be known and fed to a dynamic trim optimization platform.
• Watch changeover: Sometimes the information regarding ballast operations is not passed on
during the watch changeover between the crew.

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4.11 Frequently asked questions

How much trim impacts fuel consumption?
There is no clear cut answer to this important question. Whilst the impact of trim is known to be
significant under some conditions or for some ship types, there are no hard facts from ships' actual
operations on the exact level of savings that may be made due to trim. This is due to the fact that
the measurement of savings under real operational conditions is quite difficult to assess. There is
ample evidence from model tank tests and CFD analytical methods that show trim has a significant
impact on ship fuel efficiency performance.
How does the optimal trim change with ship speed?
The change in optimal trim with ship speed and draft is through its impact on various types of ship
resistances. It is quite reasonable to find that the optimal trim varies with ship speed but this
relationship will vary from ship type to ship type.
Is in-‐passage ship trim different from the trim set when in port?
It is well known that when the ship trim is set to zero during loading (even keel), the ship will give
trim by bow due to the impact of ship speed. This means that the trim of the vessel while underway
is different from its trim while at berth or waiting.
How in practice is trimming done while a ship is underway?
This is done via a shift of ballast water, and in some cases bunker fuel, between alternative tanks.
What is the optimum trim for loaded versus ballast conditions?
A ship's hydrodynamic performance under loaded and ballast conditions could be significantly
different due to changes in draft and wetted surface area and performance of the bulbous bow. The
same is true for trim under loaded and ballast conditions. Therefore, there is a need to have the
optimal trim established for various draft levels. Also for ships operating in a variety of loading, and
therefore variety of draft conditions, the optimal trim needs to be established for all the working
drafts.
How is the trim set / changed?
The change in ship trim is achieved via the proper cargo load planning and ship ballasting plan. The
combination is used to achieve the desirable trim. After the loading is complete, ballast water
shifting and to some extent bunker fuel shifting between tanks can be used to aid trimming. In any
case, it is better that load planning is done by considering the optimal trim as otherwise it may not
be possible to trim the ship properly with the use of ballast water only.
For changing trim, the movement of ballast water or bunkers between aft and forward tanks can be
used.
4.12 Summary
Based on what has been mentioned in this module, the following may be stated:
• Trim could influence ship fuel consumption significantly, with the evidence showing up to 4%
of savings.
• Trim impact is the result of changes to ship hydrodynamics and thereby ship resistances.
• For every ship, there is an optimal trim that will give minimal ship resistances and maximise
fuel efficiency.
• The optimum trim is a function of ship speed and draft.
• For certain ship types, in particular those with higher design speed, slimmer body,
pronounced bulbous bow and flat stern design, trim will provide more impact.
• Optimal trims are established either through extensive model testing or CFD analytical
methods.
• To achieve optimal trim, due consideration should be given to ship loading and its load
planning.
• Ballast water, and to some extent bunker fuel, may be used to trim the vessel.

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Most loading computers on-‐board provide functionalities and trim tables to achieve the desirable
ship trim.
4.13 Exercises
Exercise 1
A ship has a mean draft of 8m and a trim of -‐1.2m. Calculate the aft and forward draft for this ship.
Exercise 2
Answer the following questions:
• How are ships normally trimmed in practice?

• Is there any port-‐side aspect that could influence ship trim?

• When a ship leaves a port, what is the expected trim of the vessel; based on current
practices?

Why do ship masters normally prefer even keel or aft trim? In their view, what is the likely impact of
forward trim?

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5 References and additional sources of information

1. Intertanko and OCIMF “Virtual Arrival Optimising Voyage Management and Reducing Vessel
Emissions -‐ an Emissions Management Framework”, First Edition November 2010.
2. Taking the guesswork out of trim, BIMCO Bulletin, Volume 107, August 2012, pp.42-‐44
3. Thomas Hellstrom, Three levels of fuel optimisation at sea, the proceedings of 2nd
International EuroConference on Computer and IT Applications in the Maritime Industries
(COMPIT), 2003
4. Minding the fuel efficiency gap, Marine power and propulsion supplement 2012, RINA
publication, page 8.
5. Knud Benedict et al: Support for Design and Operation of Ships by Combining Fast Time and
Full Mission Manoeuvring Simulation Technology. in Proceedings of 11th International
Marine Design Conference (IMDC). Volume 3. pp 115-‐132, The Department of Naval
Architecture and Marine Engineering University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland, 2012
6. IMO 2009. Strategy for the Development and Implementation of e-‐Navigation.
MSC85/26Add. 1, Annex 20
7. Motz, F.: Core elements of e-‐Navigation: IMO concept for integrated e-‐Navigation systems.
E-‐Navigation underway, International conference on e-‐Navigation, Copenhagen/Oslo,
January 2012
8. IMO Resolution MEPC.124 (53), “Guidelines for ballast water exchange (G6)”, Adopted on 22
July 2005.
9. IMO Resolution MEPC.127(53), “Guidelines for ballast water management and development
of ballast water management plans (G4)”, Adopted on 22 July 2005
10. Technology, “Understanding of the physics of trim”, Ship and Offshore Green Tech, 2011.
11. Nikolaj Lemb Larsen, “Understanding the physics of trim”, presentation to Green Ship
Technology Conference, March 2012.

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MODULE 5

Energy Efficiency
Management Systems

189

Table of Contents

Introduction .................................................................................................................. 192
Learning outcomes .................................................................................................................. 192
Part 1: Principle and management of the Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan[1] .... 193
1. The basic concept of SEEMP .................................................................................... 193
1.1 Planning (Plan) ............................................................................................................... 194
1.1.1 Ship-‐specific measures .................................................................................................. 194
1.1.2 Company-‐specific measures .......................................................................................... 194
1.1.3 Human resource development ..................................................................................... 195
1.1.4 Goal setting ................................................................................................................... 195
1.2 Implementation (Do) ..................................................................................................... 195
1.2.1 Establishment of implementation system .................................................................... 195
1.2.2 Implementation and record-‐keeping ............................................................................ 195
1.3 Monitoring (Check) ........................................................................................................ 195
1.3.1 Monitoring tools ........................................................................................................... 195
1.3.2 Establishment of monitoring system ............................................................................ 196
1.3.3 Search and Rescue ........................................................................................................ 196
1.4 Self-‐evaluation and improvement (Act) ......................................................................... 196
2. Guidelines of the practical use of EEOI[2] ................................................................. 197

2.1 Background and objectives of the Guidelines ................................................................. 197
2.2 Definitions ..................................................................................................................... 198
2.2.1 Fuel consumption .......................................................................................................... 198
2.2.2 Distance sailed .............................................................................................................. 198
2.2.3 Ship and cargo types ..................................................................................................... 198
2.2.4 Cargo Mass Carried or Work Done ................................................................................ 198
2.2.5 Voyage ........................................................................................................................... 199
2.3 Establishing an Energy Efficiency Operational Indicator (EEOI) ....................................... 199
2.4 General data recording and documentation procedures ................................................ 199
2.5 Monitoring and Verification ........................................................................................... 200
2.5.1 General .......................................................................................................................... 200
2.5.2 Rolling average indicator ............................................................................................... 200
2.6 Use of guidelines ........................................................................................................... 201
2.7 Calculation of EEOI based on operational data ............................................................... 201
2.7.1 Data sources .................................................................................................................. 201
2.7.2 Fuel mass to CO2 mass conversion factors (CF) ............................................................. 201
2.7.3 Calculation of EEOI ........................................................................................................ 201
2.7.4 Rolling average .............................................................................................................. 202
2.7.5 Data ............................................................................................................................... 202
2.7.6 Conversion from g/tonne-‐mile to g/tonne-‐km ............................................................. 203
2.7.7 An example calculation sheet using MS Excel ............................................................... 203
Part 2: Practice and review of a management system .................................................... 204
1. Best practice of Energy Efficient Operation[1] .......................................................... 204
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1.1 Fuel-‐Efficient Operations ............................................................................................... 204

1.1.1 Improved voyage planning ............................................................................................ 204
1.1.2 Weather routeing .......................................................................................................... 204
1.1.3 Just in time .................................................................................................................... 204
1.1.4 Speed optimization ....................................................................................................... 204
1.1.5 Optimized shaft power .................................................................................................. 205
1.2 Optimized ship handling ................................................................................................ 205
1.2.1 Optimum trim ............................................................................................................... 205
1.2.2 Optimum ballast ............................................................................................................ 205
1.2.3 Optimum propeller and propeller inflow considerations ............................................. 205
1.2.4 Optimum use of rudder and heading control systems (autopilots) .............................. 206
1.3 Hull maintenance ........................................................................................................... 206
1.4 Propulsion system ......................................................................................................... 206
1.4.1 Propulsion system maintenance ................................................................................... 206
1.5 Waste heat recovery ...................................................................................................... 207
1.6 Improved fleet management ......................................................................................... 207
1.7 Improved cargo handling ............................................................................................... 207
1.8 Energy management ...................................................................................................... 207
1.9 Fuel Type ....................................................................................................................... 207
1.10 Other measures ........................................................................................................... 207
1.11 Compatibility of measures ........................................................................................... 208
1.12 Age and operational service life of a ship ..................................................................... 208
1.13 Trade and sailing area .................................................................................................. 208
2. Energy management policy on a specific ship .......................................................... 209

2.1 Review of management policy through the improvement of a SEEMP ........................... 209
2.1.1 Sample for Best Practices regarding Weather Routeing ............................................... 209
2.1.2 Sample for Best Practices regarding Virtual Arrival, Speed Control and Voyage Planning
209
2.1.3 Sample for Best Practices regarding Propeller and Hull Cleaning ................................. 209
2.1.4 Sample for Best Practices of Engine Performance Management .................................. 209
2.1.5 Sample for Best Practices of Boiler Performance Management ................................... 209
2.1.6 Sample for Best Practices of Onboard Bunker Management ........................................ 210
2.1.7 Sample for Best Practices of Power Generation ........................................................... 210
2.1.8 Sample for Best Practices regarding Cargo and Bunker Heating .................................. 210
2.1.9 Sample for summarizing overall Best Practices ............................................................ 211
2.2 Energy management system in general (ISO 50001: 2011) ............................................. 212
References .............................................................................................................................. 214

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Introduction
The purpose of this module is to provide practical knowledge and skills to establish a management
plan for improving efficient operation of ships and to implement it effectively. The module consists
of two parts of which the first part covers the basic concept of the Ship Energy Efficiency
Management Plan (SEEMP) including the practical use of the Energy Efficiency Operational Indicator
(EEOI) as a monitoring tool for the management plan, while the second part covers how to practice
and review a management system including practical knowledge of the energy efficient operation of
ships as well as a mechanism to be established for a company and/or a ship to improve the energy
efficiency of a ship’s operation with reference to ISO 50001:2011.
Learning outcomes
After attending this module, the participants will be able to:
• identify the basic concept of SEEMP

• define and establish an EEOI for a ship operated under your control
• calculate the EEOI based on operational data
• establish and apply a SEEMP for fuel efficient operation of ships
• identify a mechanism to be established for a company and/or a ship to improve the energy
efficiency of a ship’s operation
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Part 1: Principle and management of the Ship Energy

Efficiency Management Plan[1]
1. The basic concept of SEEMP

The purpose of a Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (hereafter referred to as the “SEEMP”) is
to establish a mechanism for a company1 and/or a ship to improve the energy efficiency of a ship’s
operation. Preferably, the ship-‐specific SEEMP is linked to a broader corporate energy management
policy for the company that owns, operates or controls the ship, recognizing that no two shipping
companies or shipowners are the same, and that ships operate under a wide range of different
conditions.
Many companies will already have an environmental management system (EMS) in place under ISO
14001 which contains procedures for selecting the best measures for particular vessels and then
setting objectives for the measurement of relevant parameters, along with relevant control and
feedback features. Monitoring of operational environmental efficiency should therefore be treated
as an integral element of broader company management systems.
In addition, many companies already develop, implement and maintain a Safety Management
System. In such case, the SEEMP may form part of the ship's Safety Management System2.
The SEEMP is intended to be a management tool to assist a company in managing the ongoing
environmental performance of its vessels and as such, it is recommended that a company develops
procedures for implementing the plan in a manner which limits any onboard administrative burden
to the minimum necessary.
The SEEMP should be developed as a ship-‐specific plan by the shipowner, operator or any other
party concerned, e.g., charterer. The SEEMP seeks to improve a ship’s energy efficiency through four
steps: planning, implementation, monitoring, and self-‐evaluation and improvement. These
components play a critical role in the continuous cycle to improve ship energy management. In this
process, the Energy Efficiency Operation Indicator (hereafter referred to as the EEOI) that is
introduced in the section 2 in this module is the primary monitoring tool to run the cycle. The
concept of the cycle is shown in Figure 1. With each iteration of the cycle, some elements of the
SEEMP will necessarily change while others may remain as before.
At all times safety considerations should be paramount. The trade a ship is engaged in may
determine the feasibility of the efficiency measures under consideration. For example, ships that
perform services at sea (pipe laying, seismic survey, OSVs, dredgers, etc.) may choose different

1
"Company" means the owner of the ship or any other organization or person such as the manager, or the
bareboat charterer, who has assumed the responsibility for operation of the ship from the shipowner.
2
“Safety Management System” means a structured and documented system enabling company personnel to
implement effectively the company safety and environmental protection policy, as defined in paragraph 1.1 of
International Safety Management Code.
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methods of improving energy efficiency when compared to conventional cargo carriers. The length
of voyage may also be an important parameter as may trade specific safety considerations.

EEOI

Fig. 1 Basic concept of a SEEMP and EEOI as the primary monitoring tool
1.1 Planning (Plan)

Planning is the most crucial stage of the SEEMP, in that it primarily determines both the current
status of ship energy usage and the expected improvement of ship energy efficiency. Therefore, it is
encouraged to devote sufficient time for planning so that the most appropriate, effective and
implementable plan can be developed.
1.1.1 Ship-‐specific measures

Recognizing that there are a variety of options to improve efficiency – speed optimization, weather
routeing and hull maintenance, for example – and that the best package of measures for a ship to
improve efficiency differs to a great extent depending upon ship type, cargoes, routes and other
factors, the specific measures for the ship to improve energy efficiency should be identified in the
first place. These measures should be listed as a package of measures to be implemented, thus
providing the overview of the actions to be taken for that ship.
During this process, therefore, it is important to determine and understand the ship’s current status
of energy usage. The SEEMP then identifies energy-‐saving measures that have been undertaken, and
determines how effective these measures are in terms of improving energy efficiency. The SEEMP
also identifies what measures can be adopted to further improve the energy efficiency of the ship. It
should be noted, however, that not all measures can be applied to all ships, or even to the same ship
under different operating conditions and that some of them are mutually exclusive. Ideally, initial
measures could yield energy (and cost) saving results that then can be reinvested into more difficult
or expensive efficiency upgrades identified by the SEEMP.
Guidance on Best Practices for Fuel-‐Efficient Operation of Ships set out in the part 2 of this module
can be used to facilitate this part of the planning phase. Also, in the planning process, particular
consideration should be given to minimize any onboard administrative burden.
1.1.2 Company-‐specific measures

The improvement of energy efficiency of ship operation does not necessarily depend on single ship
management only. Rather, it may depend on many stakeholders including ship repair yards,
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shipowners, operators, charterers, cargo owners, ports and traffic management services. For
example, “Just in time” – as explained in 1.1.3 of the part 2 – requires good early communication
among operators, ports and traffic management service. The better coordination among such
stakeholders is, the more improvement can be expected. In most cases, such coordination or total
management is better made by a company rather than by a ship. In this sense, it is recommended
that a company also establish an energy management plan to manage its fleet (should it not have
one in place already) and make necessary coordination among stakeholders.
1.1.3 Human resource development

For effective and steady implementation of the adopted measures, raising awareness of and
providing necessary training for personnel both on shore and on board are an important element.
Such human resource development is encouraged and should be considered as an important
component of planning as well as a critical element of implementation.
1.1.4 Goal setting

The last part of planning is goal setting. It should be emphasized that the goal setting is voluntary,
that there is no need to announce the goal or the result to the public, and that neither a company
nor a ship are subject to external inspection. The purpose of goal setting is to serve as a signal which
involved people should be conscious of, to create a good incentive for proper implementation, and
then to increase commitment to the improvement of energy efficiency. The goal can take any form,
such as the annual fuel consumption or a specific target of EEOI. Whatever the goal is, the goal
should be measurable and easy to understand.
1.2 Implementation (Do)

1.2.1 Establishment of implementation system
After a ship and a company identify the measures to be implemented, it is essential to establish a
system for implementation of the identified and selected measures by developing the procedures
for energy management, by defining tasks and by assigning them to qualified personnel. Thus, the
SEEMP should describe how each measure should be implemented and who the responsible
person(s) is. The development of such a system can be considered as a part of planning, and
therefore may be completed at the planning stage.
1.2.2 Implementation and record-‐keeping

The planned measures should be carried out in accordance with the pre-‐determined implementation
system. Record-‐keeping for the implementation of each measure is beneficial for self-‐evaluation at a
later stage and should be encouraged. If any identified measure cannot be implemented for any
reason(s), the reason(s) should be recorded for internal use.
1.3 Monitoring (Check)

1.3.1 Monitoring tools
The energy efficiency of a ship should be monitored quantitatively. This should be done by an
established method, preferably by an international standard. The EEOI developed by the
Organization is one of the internationally established tools to obtain a quantitative indicator of
energy efficiency of a ship and/or fleet in operation, and can be used for this purpose. Therefore,
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EEOI could be considered as the primary monitoring tool, although other quantitative measures also
may be appropriate.
If used, it is recommended that the EEOI should be calculated in accordance with the Guidelines
developed by the Organization[2], adjusted, as necessary, to a specific ship and trade.
In addition to the EEOI, if convenient and/or beneficial for a ship or a company, other measurement
tools can be utilized. In the case where other monitoring tools are used, the concept of the tool and
the method of monitoring may be determined at the planning stage.
1.3.2 Establishment of monitoring system

It should be noted that whatever measurement tools are used, continuous and consistent data
collection is the foundation of monitoring. To allow for meaningful and consistent monitoring, the
monitoring system, including the procedures for collecting data and the assignment of responsible
personnel, should be developed. The development of such a system can be considered as a part of
planning, and therefore should be completed at the planning stage.
It should be noted that, in order to avoid unnecessary administrative burdens on ships’ staff,
monitoring should be carried out as far as possible by shore staff, utilizing data obtained from
existing required records such as the official and engineering log-‐books and oil record books, etc.
Additional data could be obtained as appropriate.
1.3.3 Search and Rescue

When a ship diverts from its scheduled passage to engage in search and rescue or any other
operations related to maritime safety, as e.g. to support or standing by other vessels in distress, it is
recommended that data obtained during such operations is not used in ship energy efficiency
monitoring, and that such data may be recorded separately.
1.4 Self-‐evaluation and improvement (Act)

Self-‐evaluation and improvement is the final phase of the management cycle. This phase should
produce meaningful feedback for the coming first stage, i.e. planning stage of the next improvement
cycle.
The purpose of self-‐evaluation is to evaluate the effectiveness of the planned measures and of their
implementation, to deepen the understanding on the overall characteristics of the ship’s operation
such as what types of measures can/cannot function effectively, and how and/or why, to
comprehend the trend of the efficiency improvement of that ship and to develop the improved
SEEMP for the next cycle.
For this process, procedures for self-‐evaluation of ship energy management should be developed.
Furthermore, self-‐evaluation should be implemented periodically by using data collected through
monitoring. In addition, it is recommended to invest time in identifying the cause-‐and-‐effect of the
performance during the evaluated period for improving the next stage of the management plan.
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2. Guidelines of the practical use of EEOI[2]
2.1 Background and objectives of the Guidelines

The Conference of Parties to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships,
1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto, held from 15 to 26 September 1997 in
conjunction with the Marine Environment Protection Committee’s fortieth session, adopted
Conference resolution 8, on CO2 emissions from ships.
IMO Assembly resolution A.963(23) on IMO policies and practices related to the reduction of
greenhouse gas emissions from ships urged the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC)
to identify and develop the mechanism or mechanisms needed to achieve the limitation or reduction
of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions from international shipping and, in doing so, to give priority to
the establishment of a GHG baseline; and the development of a methodology to describe the GHG
efficiency of a ship in terms of GHG emission indicator for that ship.
As urged by the Assembly, MEPC 53 approved Interim Guidelines for Voluntary Ship CO2 Emission
Index for Use in Trials. These Guidelines were approved as circular MEPC/Circ.471) in July 2005. After
reviewing of experiences, MEPC at its 59th Session in July 2009 further improved MEPC/Circ.471 and
agreed to circulate 'Guidelines for Voluntary Use of the ship Energy Efficiency Operational Indicator
(EEOI)' which were approved as MEPC.1/Circ.684.
These Guidelines can be used to establish a consistent approach for voluntary use of an EEOI, which
will assist shipowners, ship operators and parties concerned in the evaluation of the performance of
their fleet with regard to CO2 emissions. As the amount of CO2 emitted from a ship is directly related
to the consumption of bunker fuel oil, the EEOI can also provide useful information on a ship’s
performance with regard to fuel efficiency.
These Guidelines may be updated periodically, to take account of:
• Operational experiences from use of the indicator for different ship types, as reported to
MEPC by industry organizations and Administrations; and
• Any other relevant developments.
Industry organizations and interested Administrations are invited to promote the use of the attached
Guidelines or equivalent approaches and their incorporation in company and ship environmental
management plans. In addition, they are invited to report their experience in applying the EEOI
concept back to MEPC.
In addition to these Guidelines, due account should be taken of the pertinent clauses within the ISM
Code in voluntary basis along with reference to relevant industry guidance on the management and
reduction of CO2 emissions.
The objective of the Guidelines is to provide the users with assistance in the process of establishing a
mechanism to achieve the limitation or reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from ships in
operation.
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These Guidelines present the concept of an indicator for the energy efficiency of a ship in operation,
as an expression of efficiency in terms of CO2 emitted per unit of transport work. The Guidelines are
intended to provide an example of a calculation method which could be used as an objective,
performance-‐based approach to monitor the efficiency of a ship’s operation.
These Guidelines are recommendatory in nature and present a possible use of an operational
indicator. However, shipowners, ship operators and parties concerned are invited to implement
either these Guidelines or an equivalent method in their environmental management systems and
consider adoption of the principles herein when developing plans for performance monitoring.
2.2 Definitions
The basic concept of the Energy Efficiency Operational Indicator is expressed as the ratio of mass of
CO2 emitted per unit of transport work:
Definitions of technical terms frequently used in the calculation processes of the EEOI are listed
below and the details of EEOI’s calculation will be given in the section 2.7 in this module.
2.2.1 Fuel consumption

Fuel consumption is defined as all fuel consumed at sea and in port or for a voyage or period in
question, e.g., a day, by main and auxiliary engines including boilers and incinerators.
2.2.2 Distance sailed

Distance sailed means the actual distance sailed in nautical miles (deck log-‐book data) for the voyage
or period in question.
2.2.3 Ship and cargo types

The Guidelines are applicable for all ships performing transport work.
.1 Ships:
• dry cargo carriers
• tankers
• gas tankers
• containerships
• ro-‐ro cargo ships
• general cargo ships
• passenger ships including ro-‐ro passenger ships
.2 Cargo:
Cargo includes but not limited to: all gas, liquid and solid bulk cargo, general cargo,
containerized cargo (including the return of empty units), break bulk, heavy lifts, frozen and
chilled goods, timber and forest products, cargo carried on freight vehicles, cars and freight
vehicles on ro-‐ro ferries and passengers (for passenger and ro-‐ro passenger ships)
2.2.4 Cargo Mass Carried or Work Done

In general, cargo mass carried or work done is expressed as follows:
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.1 for dry cargo carriers, liquid tankers, gas tankers, ro-‐ro cargo ships and general cargo ships,
metric tonnes (t) of the cargo carried should be used;
.2 for containerships carrying solely containers, number of containers (TEU) or metric tons (t)
of the total mass of cargo and containers should be used;
.3 for ships carrying a combination of containers and other cargoes, a TEU mass of 10 t could
be applied for loaded TEUs and 2 t for empty TEUs; and
.4 for passenger ships, including ro-‐ro passenger ships, number of passengers or gross tonnes
of the ship should be used;
In some particular cases, work done can be expressed as follows:
.5 for car ferries and car carriers, number of car units or occupied lane metres;
.6 for containerships, number of TEUs (empty or full); and
.7 for railway and ro-‐ro vessels, number of railway cars and freight vehicles, or occupied lane
metres.
For vessels such as, for example, certain ro-‐ro vessels, which carry a mixture of passengers in cars,
foot passengers and freight, operators may wish to consider some form of weighted average based
on the relative significance of these trades for their particular service or the use of other parameters
or indicators as appropriate.
2.2.5 Voyage
Voyage generally means the period between a departure from a port to the departure from the next
port. Alternative definitions of a voyage could also be acceptable.
2.3 Establishing an Energy Efficiency Operational Indicator (EEOI)

The EEOI should be a representative value of the energy efficiency of the ship operation over a
consistent period which represents the overall trading pattern of the vessel. Guidance on a basic
calculation procedure for a generic EEOI is provided in the Appendix.
In order to establish the EEOI, the following main steps will generally be needed:
.1 define the period for which the EEOI is calculated*;

.2 define data sources for data collection;
.3 collect data;
.4 convert data to appropriate format; and
.5 calculate EEOI.
* Ballast voyages, as well as voyages which are not used for transport of cargo, such as voyage for
docking service, should also be included. Voyages for the purpose of securing the safety of a ship or
saving life at sea should be excluded.
2.4 General data recording and documentation procedures

Ideally, the data recording method used should be uniform so that information can be easily collated
and analysed to facilitate the extraction of the required information. The collection of data from
ships should include the distance travelled, the quantity and type of fuel used, and all fuel
information that may affect the amount of carbon dioxide emitted. For example, fuel information is
provided on the bunker delivery notes that are required under regulation 18 of MARPOL Annex VI.
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If the example formula given in the Appendix is used, then the unit used for distance travelled and
quantity of fuel should be expressed in nautical miles and metric tonnes. The work done can be
expressed using units appropriate for the ship type in paragraph 3.5.
It is important that sufficient information is collected on the ship with regard to fuel type and
quantity, distance travelled and cargo type so that a realistic assessment can be generated.
The distance travelled should be calculated by actual distance travelled, as contained in the ship’s
log-‐book.
Amount and type of fuel used (bunker delivery notes) and distance travelled (according to the ship’s
log-‐book) could be documented by the ship based either on the example described in the Appendix
or on an equivalent company procedure.
2.5 Monitoring and Verification

2.5.1 General
Documented procedures to monitor and measure, on a regular basis, should be developed and
maintained. Elements to be considered when establishing procedures for monitoring could include:
• identification of operations/activities with impact on the performance;

• identification of data sources and measurements that are necessary, and specification of the
format;
• identification of frequency and personnel performing measurements; and
• maintenance of quality control procedures for verification procedures.
The results of this type of self-‐assessment could be reviewed and used as indicators of the System’s
success and reliability, as well as identifying those areas in need of corrective action or improvement.
It is important that the source of figures established are properly recorded, the basis on which
figures have been calculated and any decisions on difficult or grey areas of data. This will provide
assistance on areas for improvement and be helpful for any later analysis.
In order to avoid unnecessary administrative burdens on ships’ staff, it is recommended that
monitoring of an EEOI should be carried out by shore staff, utilizing data obtained from existing
required records such as the official and engineering log-‐books and oil record books, etc. The
necessary data could be obtained during internal audits under the ISM Code, routine visits by
superintendents, etc.
2.5.2 Rolling average indicator

As a ship energy efficiency management tool, the rolling average indicator, when used, should be
calculated by use of a methodology whereby the minimum period of time or a number of voyages
that is statistically relevant is used as appropriate. “Statistically relevant” means that the period set
as standard for each individual ship should remain constant and be wide enough so the accumulated
data mass reflects a reasonable mean value for operation of the ship in question over the selected
period.
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2.6 Use of guidelines

Methodology and use of EEOI, as described in these Guidelines, provide an example of a transparent
and recognized approach for assessment of the GHG efficiency of a ship with respect to CO2
emissions. The Guidelines are considered to be suitable for implementation within a company
environmental management system.
Implementation of the EEOI in an established environmental management system should be
performed in line with the implementation of any other chosen indicator and follow the main
elements of the recognized standards (planning, implementation and operation, checking and
corrective action, management review).
When using the EEOI as a performance indicator, the indicator could provide a basis for
consideration of both current performance and trends over time.
One approach could be to set internal performance criteria and targets based on the EEOI data.
2.7 Calculation of EEOI based on operational data

2.7.1 Data sources
Primary data sources selected could be the ship’s log-‐book (bridge log-‐book, engine log-‐book, deck
log-‐book and other official records).
2.7.2 Fuel mass to CO2 mass conversion factors (CF)

CF is a non-‐dimensional conversion factor between fuel consumption measured in g and CO2
emission also measured in gram based on carbon content. The value of CF is as follows:
Type of fuel Reference Carbon CF

content (t-‐CO2/t-‐Fuel)
Diesel/Gas Oil ISO 8217 Grades DMX through DMC 0.875 3.206000
Light Fuel Oil (LFO) ISO 8217 Grades RMA through RMD 0.86 3.151040
Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO) ISO 8217 Grades RME through RMK 0.85 3.114400
Propane 0.819 3.000000
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
Butane 0.827 3.030000
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) 0.75 2.750000

2.7.3 Calculation of EEOI

The basic expression for EEOI for a voyage is defined as:
∑ FC j × CFj
j
EEOI = (1)
mc argo × D
Where average of the indicator for a period or for a number of voyages is obtained, the Indicator is
calculated as:
∑∑(FC ij × CFj )
AverageEEOI = i j
(2)
∑(m c arg o,i × D)
i
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Where:
• j is the fuel type;

• i is the voyage number;
• FCi j is the mass of consumed fuel j at voyage i;
• CFj is the fuel mass to CO2 mass conversion factor for fuel j;
• mcargo is cargo carried (tonnes) or work done (number of TEU or passengers) or gross tonnes
for passenger ships; and
• D is the distance in nautical miles corresponding to the cargo carried or work done.
The unit of EEOI depends on the measurement of cargo carried or work done, e.g., tonnes
CO2/(tonnes·∙nautical miles), tonnes CO2/(TEU·∙nautical miles), tonnes CO2/(person·∙nautical miles),
etc.
It should be noted that Eq.(2) does not give a simple average of EEOI among number of voyage i.
2.7.4 Rolling average

Rolling average, when used, can be calculated in a suitable time period, for example one year closest
to the end of a voyage for that period, or number of voyages, for example six or ten voyages, which
are agreed as statistically relevant to the initial averaging period. The Rolling Average EEOI is then
calculated for this period or number of voyages by Eq.(2) above.
2.7.5 Data
For a voyage or period, e.g., a day, data on fuel consumption/cargo carried and distance sailed in a
continuous sailing pattern could be collected as shown in the reporting sheet below.

CO2 Indicator reporting sheet
Name and type of ship
Voyage or Voyage or time
Fuel consumption at sea and in port in tonnes
day (i) period data
Cargo (m)
Fuel type Fuel type Fuel type Distance (D)
… (tonnes or
( ) ( ) ( ) (NM)
units)
1
2
3

Note: For voyages with mcagro=0, it is still necessary to include the fuel used during this voyage in the
summation above the line.
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2.7.6 Conversion from g/tonne-‐mile to g/tonne-‐km

The CO2 indicator may be converted from g/tonne-‐mile to g/tonne-‐km by multiplication by 0.54
(=1/1.852).
2.7.7 An example calculation sheet using MS Excel

As a simple exercise, development of a worksheet for an EEOI reporting sheet by MS Excel will help
participants understand the calculation processes of the EEOI for a voyage or a series of voyages,
which are shown below.
An example of the EEOI reporting sheet developed by MS Excel
Practical exercises linked with web-‐based calculation system are to be provided during the course.
The exercise materials are to be given in the classroom.
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Part 2: Practice and review of a management system
1. Best practice of Energy Efficient Operation[1]
1.1 Fuel-‐Efficient Operations

1.1.1 Improved voyage planning
The optimum route and improved efficiency can be achieved through the careful planning and
execution of voyages. Thorough voyage planning needs time, but a number of different software
tools are available for planning purposes.
IMO resolution A.893(21) (25 November 1999) on Guidelines for voyage planning provides essential
guidance for the ship’s crew and voyage planners.
Beside voyage planning on a macro planning level also pre-‐planning of manoeuvring regimes in
coastal areas and harbour basins on a micro planning level will affect energy efficiency of a ship's
voyage and the emission of Greenhouse gas as well. This is valid for all ships and voyages in general.
However the shorter the distance on open sea areas in relation to the distance and operation in
coastal areas and harbour basins are the more significant is the influence of pre planning of
manoeuvring regimes that provides optimized steering sequences. Optimized manoeuvring regimes
may also have impact on fuel consumption, allow for time savings that are essential especially in
short sea shipping, and consequently reduces the emission of GHG.
1.1.2 Weather routeing

Weather routeing has a high potential for fuel and energy savings on specific routes. There are
commercially weather routeing services available for all types of ship and for many trade areas.
Significant savings can be achieved, but conversely weather routeing may also increase fuel
consumption for a given voyage.
1.1.3 Just in time

Good early communication with the next port should be an aim in order to give maximum notice of
berth availability and facilitate the use of optimum speed where port operational procedures
support this approach.
Optimized port operation could involve a change in procedures involving different handling
arrangements in ports. Port authorities should be encouraged to maximize efficiency and minimize
delay.
1.1.4 Speed optimization

Speed optimization can produce significant savings. However, optimum speed means the speed at
which the fuel used per tonne mile is at a minimum level for that voyage. It does not mean minimum
speed; in fact sailing at less than optimum speed will consume more fuel rather than less. Reference
should be made to the engine manufacturer’s power/consumption curve and the ship’s propeller
curve. Possible adverse consequences of slow speed operation may include increased vibration and
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problems with soot deposits in combustion chambers and exhaust systems. These possible
consequences should be taken into account.
As part of the speed optimization process, due account may need to be taken of the need to
coordinate arrival times with the availability of loading/discharge berths, etc. The number of ships
engaged in a particular trade route may need to be taken into account when considering speed
optimization.
A gradual increase in speed when leaving a port or estuary whilst keeping the engine load within
certain limits may help to reduce fuel consumption.
It is recognized that under many charter parties the speed of the vessel is determined by the
charterer and not the operator. Efforts should be made when agreeing charter party terms to
encourage the ship to operate at optimum speed in order to maximize energy efficiency.
1.1.5 Optimized shaft power

Operation at constant shaft RPM can be more efficient than continuously adjusting speed through
engine power (see 1.1.4). The use of automated engine management systems to control speed
rather than relying on human intervention may be beneficial.
1.2 Optimized ship handling

1.2.1 Optimum trim
Most ships are designed to carry a designated amount of cargo at a certain speed for a certain fuel
consumption. This implies the specification of set trim conditions. Loaded or unloaded, trim has a
significant influence on the resistance of the ship through the water and optimizing trim can deliver
significant fuel savings. For any given draft there is a trim condition that gives minimum resistance.
In some ships, it is possible to assess optimum trim conditions for fuel efficiency continuously
throughout the voyage. Design or safety factors may preclude full use of trim optimization.
1.2.2 Optimum ballast

Ballast should be adjusted taking into consideration the requirements to meet optimum trim and
steering conditions and optimum ballast conditions achieved through good cargo planning.
When determining the optimum ballast conditions, the limits, conditions and ballast management
arrangements set out in the ship’s Ballast Water Management Plan are to be observed for that ship.
Ballast conditions have a significant impact on steering conditions and autopilot settings and it needs
to be noted that less ballast water does not necessarily mean the highest efficiency.
1.2.3 Optimum propeller and propeller inflow considerations

Selection of the propeller is normally determined at the design and construction stage of a ship’s life
but new developments in propeller design have made it possible for retrofitting of later designs to
deliver greater fuel economy. Whilst it is certainly for consideration, the propeller is but one part of
the propulsion train and a change of propeller in isolation may have no effect on efficiency and may
even increase fuel consumption.
Improvements to the water inflow to the propeller using arrangements such as fins and/or nozzles
could increase propulsive efficiency power and hence reduce fuel consumption.
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1.2.4 Optimum use of rudder and heading control systems (autopilots)
There have been large improvements in automated heading and steering control systems
technology. Whilst originally developed to make the bridge team more effective, modern autopilots
can achieve much more. An integrated Navigation and Command System can achieve significant fuel
savings by simply reducing the distance sailed “off track”. The principle is simple; better course
control through less frequent and smaller corrections will minimize losses due to rudder resistance.
Retrofitting of a more efficient autopilot to existing ships could be considered.
During approaches to ports and pilot stations the autopilot cannot always be used efficiently as the
rudder has to respond quickly to commands. Furthermore at certain stage of the voyage it may have
to be deactivated or very carefully adjusted, i.e. heavy weather and approaches to ports.
Consideration may be given to the retrofitting of improved rudder blade design (e.g., ‘twist-‐flow’
rudder).
When a ship is operating in coastal areas and harbour basins with increased manoeuvre activities
pre-‐planning of manoeuvres and monitoring of keeping the steering sequence of the energy-‐
efficient manoeuvring strategy may be considered accordingly.
1.3 Hull maintenance

Docking intervals should be integrated with ship operator’s ongoing assessment of ship performance.
Hull resistance can be optimized by new technology-‐coating systems, possibly in combination with
cleaning intervals. Regular in-‐water inspection of the condition of the hull is recommended.
Propeller cleaning and polishing or even appropriate coating may significantly increase fuel
efficiency. The need for ships to maintain efficiency through in-‐water hull cleaning should be
recognized and facilitated by port States.
Consideration may be given to the possibility of timely full removal and replacement of underwater
paint systems to avoid the increased hull roughness caused by repeated spot blasting and repairs
over multiple dockings.
Generally, the smoother the hull, the better the fuel efficiency.
1.4 Propulsion system

Marine diesel engines have a very high thermal efficiency (~50%). This excellent performance is only
exceeded by fuel cell technology with an average thermal efficiency of 60%. This is due to the
systematic minimization of heat and mechanical loss. In particular, the new breed of electronic
controlled engines can provide efficiency gains. However, specific training for relevant staff may
need to be considered to maximize the benefits.
1.4.1 Propulsion system maintenance

Maintenance in accordance with manufacturers’ instructions in the company’s planned maintenance
schedule will also maintain efficiency. The use of engine condition monitoring can be a useful tool to
maintain high efficiency.
Additional means to improve engine efficiency might include:
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• Use of fuel additives;

• Adjustment of cylinder lubrication oil consumption; Valve improvements;
• Torque analysis; and
• Automated engine monitoring systems.
1.5 Waste heat recovery

Waste heat recovery is now a commercially available technology for some ships. Waste heat
recovery systems use thermal heat losses from the exhaust gas for either electricity generation or
additional propulsion with a shaft motor.
It may not be possible to retrofit such systems into existing ships. However, they may be a beneficial
option for new ships. Shipbuilders should be encouraged to incorporate new technology into their
designs.
1.6 Improved fleet management

Better utilization of fleet capacity can often be achieved by improvements in fleet planning. For
example, it may be possible to avoid or reduce long ballast voyages through improved fleet planning.
There is opportunity here for charterers to promote efficiency. This can be closely related to the
concept of “just in time” arrivals.
Efficiency, reliability and maintenance-‐oriented data sharing within a company can be used to
promote best practice among ships within a company and should be actively encouraged.
1.7 Improved cargo handling

Cargo handling is in most cases under the control of the port and optimum solutions matched to ship
and port requirements should be explored.
1.8 Energy management

A review of electrical services on board can reveal the potential for unexpected efficiency gains.
However care should be taken to avoid the creation of new safety hazards when turning off
electrical services (e.g., lighting). Thermal insulation is an obvious means of saving energy. Also see
comment below on shore power.
Optimization of reefer container stowage locations may be beneficial in reducing the effect of heat
transfer from compressor units. This might be combined as appropriate with cargo tank heating,
ventilation, etc. The use of water-‐cooled reefer plant with lower energy consumption might also be
considered.
1.9 Fuel Type

Use of emerging alternative fuels may be considered as a CO2 reduction method but availability will
often determine the applicability.
1.10 Other measures

Development of computer software for the calculation of fuel consumption, for the establishment of
an emissions “footprint”, to optimize operations, and the establishment of goals for improvement
and tracking of progress may be considered.
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Renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar (or Photovoltaic) cell technology, have improved
enormously in the recent years and should be considered for onboard application.
In some ports shore power may be available for some ships but this is generally aimed at improving
air quality in the port area. If the shore-‐based power source is carbon efficient, there may be a net
efficiency benefit. Ships may consider using onshore power if available.
Even wind assisted propulsion may be worthy of consideration.
Efforts could be made to source fuel of improved quality in order to minimize the amount of fuel
required to provide a given power output.
1.11 Compatibility of measures

This document indicates a wide variety of possibilities for energy efficiency improvements for the
existing fleet. While there are many options available, they are not cumulative, are often area and
trade dependent and likely to require the agreement and support of a number of different
stakeholders if they are to be utilized most effectively.
1.12 Age and operational service life of a ship

All measures identified in this document are potentially cost effective as a result of high oil prices.
Measures previously considered unaffordable or commercially unattractive may now be feasible and
worthy of fresh consideration. Clearly, this equation is heavily influenced by the remaining service
life of a ship and the cost of fuel.
1.13 Trade and sailing area

The feasibility of many of the measures described in this guidance will be dependent on the trade
and sailing area of the vessel. Sometimes ships will change their trade areas as a result of a change in
chartering requirements but this cannot be taken as a general assumption. For example wind-‐
enhanced power sources might not be feasible for short sea shipping as these ships generally sail in
areas with high traffic densities or in restricted waterways. Another aspect is that the world’s oceans
and seas each have characteristic conditions and so ships designed for specific routes and trades
may not obtain the same benefit by adopting the same measures or combination of measures as
other ships. It is also likely that some measures will have a greater or lesser effect in different sailing
areas.
The trade a ship is engaged in will also determine the feasibility of some of the measures. Ships that
perform services at sea (pipe laying, seismic survey, OSVs, dredgers, etc.) are likely to choose
different methods of carbon reductions when compared to conventional cargo carriers. The length
of voyage will also be an important parameter as will safety considerations imposed upon some
vessels. As a result, it is likely that the pathway to the most efficient combination of measures will be
unique to each vessel within each shipping company.
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2. Energy management policy on a specific ship
2.1 Review of management policy through the improvement of a SEEMP
The review of a company's management policy regarding the energy efficient operation of the
company's ships is aiming at the successive improvement of the initial SEEMPs. For the purpose of
improving the energy efficiency company integrates best practice chapters into SEEMPs. The
following practical samples are taken from MEPC 62/INF.10 and kindly provided by Oil Companies
International Marine Forum (OCIMF) for the GHG-‐train-‐the-‐trainer package and are quoted in the
following sub paragraphs of this section.
2.1.1 Sample for Best Practices regarding Weather Routeing

• during the voyage, the Master should contact WNI if the experienced weather differs from
the forecasted weather using the Master's hotline.
• Prior to any tank cleaning and preparing for shipyard, the Master should contact WNI to
seek advice on the best time to perform the procedures to maintain optimum sea-‐keeping.
2.1.2 Sample for Best Practices regarding Virtual Arrival, Speed Control and Voyage
Planning
• Ships are to communicate economy impacts and choices of voyage orders to Voyage
Managers and commercial planners.
• Voyage Managers are to provide the desired ETA at ports to allow the ship's crew to better
manage the speed and fuel consumption of the vessel.
• Operation Planners are to advise each voyage if it is possible to transfer engine slops to slop
tanks to avoid diesel consumption in incinerator.
Upon completion of the voyage, Operation Planner and VMT, in conjunction with the
commercial group, will review the voyage plan. This review will compare planned versus actual
fuel consumption.
2.1.3 Sample for Best Practices regarding Propeller and Hull Cleaning
• Monitor the propeller ship and overall efficiency of the vessel to look for possible hull fouling
signs and schedule cleaning ahead of regularly scheduled cleaning. This performance loss
can also be highlighted during the performance trials.
2.1.4 Sample for Best Practices of Engine Performance Management

• Stop M/E LO + Camshaft LO Pump in port if M/E notice allows. Many terminals require the
M/E on short notice so it is not possible all the time, but when possible this should be done.
Chief can use his discretion on this best practice.
2.1.5 Sample for Best Practices of Boiler Performance Management

• Use composite boiler – during anchorages and other relevant opportunities;
• Do not start auxiliary boilers too far in advance of intended use;
• Minimize steam dumping when possible;
• Maintain pipe/vale laggings in good order to minimize heat loss;
• Maintain steam traps in good order;
• Use steam tracing judiciously;
• Optimize bunker tank heating;
• During loading operation, if no ballast pump is running, stop auxiliary boiler and operate
only on composite boiler. Also start auxiliary boiler prior to starting the ballast pump. This
comes down to good communications between the departments;
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• Auxiliary boilers should only be shut down if they are not needed for a reasonable amount of
time; and
• Check the O2 analyzer and the piping system prior to every operation. Most ships do not
clean the sensing/sample line and condensation/dirt in the line prevents good flow of
sample to the analyzer and hence the O2 comes down very slowly. This causes a lot of fuel
wastage as engineers increase load on the boiler to produce better O2.
2.1.6 Sample for Best Practices of Onboard Bunker Management

• Vessels should carry the most economical amount of bunker in inventory.
• All fuels are purchased on an internationally recognized standard known as ISO 8217.
• Every precaution should be made to try to avoid comingling of parcels of fuel. Incompatible
fuel is the most common problem with the incompatible fuel leading to clogged filters and in
the worst case scenario, engine shut down.
• Fuel should be consumed in a first in, first out fashion. Avoid carrying fuel that is over a few
months old. The longer fuel is kept onboard, the longer the solids in the fuel are likely to
drop out, and the more potential for reliability problems the ship is likely to face in terms of
filter clogging and other problems. Fuel that cannot be used for any reason should be de-‐
bunkered off the ship as soon as possible.
2.1.7 Sample for Best Practices of Power Generation

• Minimize use of unnecessary machinery – e.g. deck hydraulic, fire pumps,
• engine room fan etc.;
• Deck department to communicate better with engine room on ballast and cargo pump usage
avoid rolling pumps unnecessarily for long periods;
• Ships to have a meeting to discuss the impacts of running various pieces of machinery and
efficient use;
• Maximize D/G load when possible to run on one generator when safe to do so;
• Switch off lights in unused spaces in accommodation;
• Try to minimize use of washing machine and drier with only one or two items; and
• Ships to have discussion on judicious use of pump room fans, bosun store fans etc.
2.1.8 Sample for Best Practices regarding Cargo and Bunker Heating
• Vessel should have a greater understanding of the Voyage Manager/Charterer's heating
instructions;
• Seek the Receiver/Charterer's permission for allowable range of cargo temperature;
• Avoid heating during adverse weather period;
• Closely monitor and analyze cargo heating reports;
• Create and follow the proper cargo heating plan to verify the effectiveness of actual heating
progress;
• Monitor heating daily to address deviations from the heating plan;
• Do not heat for short frequent periods and running boiler at low loads;
• Follow the recommended condensate temperature and optimum boiler settings for efficient
cargo heating. Heating instructions, accompanying the heating plan, should further highlight
these points;
• Maintain efficient and good communication between the vessel and the Voyage Manager
about the plan and execution; and
• Develop a Heating Abstract after completion of discharge for gap identification and
continuous improvement.

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Cargo should be heated as economically as possible and planned soon after departure. Heating at
the end of the cargo passage may cause off gassing which in turn could delay cargo discharge from
high H2S usually above 10 ppm. See the Cargo Heating Patterns graph below.

2.1.9 Sample for summarizing overall Best Practices

• The Operational Index should be calculated for each voyage. Large variations of planned
versus actual fuel consumption will be addressed and diagnosed.
• Use of composite boiler during anchorages and other relevant opportunities.
• Do not start auxiliary boilers too far in advance of intended use.
• Follow reliability program to optimize performance of main engine and auxiliaries using the
*** and ***.
• Minimize steam dumping when possible.
• Maintain pipe/valve laggings in good order to minimize heat loss.
• Maintain steam traps in good order.
• Use steam tracing judiciously.
• Carefully monitor the propeller slip and hull condition.
• Optimize vessel trim.
• Use auto pilot settings effectively.
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• Seek advice of the WNI for weather routing.

• Minimize the use of unnecessary machinery – e.g., deck hydraulic, fire pumps, engine room
fan etc.
• Deck department is to communicate better with the engine room on ballast and cargo pump
usage to avoid rolling pumps unnecessarily for long periods – a more robust plan.
• Ship's crew should meet and discuss the impacts of running various pieces of machinery and
how to use them most efficiently.
• Maximize D/G load when possible to run on one generator when it is safe to do so.
• Ships are to communicate economical impacts and choices of voyage orders to Voyage
Managers and Operations Planners.
• Voyage Managers are to provide desired ETA at ports to allow more judicious use of the
ship's power.
• Operations Planners to advise each voyage if it is possible to transfer engine slops to slop
tanks to avoid diesel consumption in incinerator.
• Minimize water in sludge by settling not intense heating when transferring to slop tanks
(when possible).
• Optimize bunker tank heating.
• Switch off lights in unused spaces in accommodation.
• Avoid using the washing machine and dryer with only one or two items.
• Ships are to discuss on the judicious use of pump room fans, bosun store fans etc.
• Careful use of gravity for de-‐ballasting can save fuel.
• Ballast water exchange should be reviewed for energy efficiency – but not at the cost of
exchange objectives
• Stop M/E LO + Camshaft LO Pump in port if M/E notice allows. Many terminals require the
M/E on short notice so it is not possible all the time, but when possible this should be done.
The Chief can use his discretion on this practice.
• During loading operation, if no ballast pump is running, stop auxiliary boiler and operate
only on composite boiler. Also start auxiliary boiler prior to starting the ballast pump: This
comes down to good communications between departments. Auxiliary boilers should only
be shut down if they are not needed for a reasonable amount of time
• Check the O2 analyzer and the piping system prior to every operation. Most ships do not
clean the sensing/sample line and condensation/dirt in the line prevents good flow of
sample to the analyzer and hence the O2 comes down very slowly. This causes a lot of fuel
waste as engineers increase load on the boiler to produce better O2.

2.2 Energy management system in general (ISO 50001: 2011)

ISO 50001:2011, Energy management systems – Requirements with guidance for use, is a voluntary
International Standard developed by International Organization for Standardization, which gives
organizations the requirements for energy management systems.
ISO 50001 will establish a framework for industrial plants; commercial, institutional, and
governmental facilities; and entire organizations to manage energy. Targeting broad applicability
across national economic sectors, it is estimated that the standard could influence up to 60 % of the
world’s energy use.
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ISO 50001 will provide public and private sector organizations with management strategies to
increase energy efficiency, reduce costs and improve energy performance.
The standard is intended to provide organizations with a recognized framework for integrating
energy performance into their management practices. Multinational organizations will have access
to a single, harmonized standard for implementation across the organization with a logical and
consistent methodology for identifying and implementing improvements.
The standard is intended to accomplish the following:
• Assist organizations in making better use of their existing energy consuming assets
• Create transparency and facilitate communication on the management of energy resources
• Promote energy management best practices and reinforce good energy management
behaviours
• Assist facilities in evaluating and prioritizing the implementation of new energy-‐efficient
technologies
• Provide a framework for promoting energy efficiency throughout the supply chain
• Facilitate energy management improvements for greenhouse gas emission reduction
projects
• Allow integration with other organizational management systems such as environmental,
and health and safety.
ISO 50001 is based on the ISO management system model familiar to more than a million
organizations worldwide who implement standards such as ISO 9001 (quality management), ISO
14001 (environmental management), ISO 22000 (food safety), ISO/IEC 27001 (information security).
In particular, ISO 50001 follows the Plan-‐Do-‐Check-‐Act process for continual improvement of the
energy management system, which is similar to Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan.
These characteristics enable organizations to integrate energy management now with their overall
efforts to improve quality, environmental management and other challenges addressed by their
management systems.
ISO 50001 provides a framework of requirements enabling organizations to:
• Develop a policy for more efficient use of energy

• Fix targets and objectives to meet the policy
• Use data to better understand and make decisions concerning energy use and consumption
• Measure the results
• Review the effectiveness of the policy
• Continually improve energy management.
• ISO 50001 can be implemented individually or integrated with other management system
standards.
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References
[1] 2012 Guidelines for the Development of a Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP),
Annex 9 Resolution MEPC.213(63), March 2012
[2] Guidelines for Voluntary Use of the Ship Energy Efficiency Operational Indicator (EEOI),
MEPC.1/Circ.684, August 2009
[3] Reduction of GHG Emissions from ships. Example of a Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan;
MEPC62/INF.10, April 2011
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APPENDIX:
MARPOL Annex VI Chapter 4
215
MEPC 62/24/Add.1
Annex 19, page 9
11 An International Energy Efficiency Certificate issued under this Annex shall

cease to be valid in any of the following cases:
.1 if the ship is withdrawn from service or if a new certificate is issued

following major conversion of the ship; or
.2 upon transfer of the ship to the flag of another State. A new

certificate shall only be issued when the Government issuing the
new certificate is fully satisfied that the ship is in compliance with
the requirements of chapter 4. In the case of a transfer between
Parties, if requested within three months after the transfer has
taken place, the Government of the Party whose flag the ship was
formerly entitled to fly shall, as soon as possible, transmit to the
Administration copies of the certificate carried by the ship before
the transfer and, if available, copies of the relevant survey reports."
Regulation 10
Port State Control on Operational Requirements
21 A new paragraph 5 is added at the end of the regulation as follows:
"5 In relation to chapter 4, any port State inspection shall be limited to

verifying, when appropriate, that there is a valid International Energy Efficiency
Certificate on board, in accordance with article 5 of the Convention."
22 A new chapter 4 is added at the end of the Annex as follows:
"CHAPTER 4
REGULATIONS ON ENERGY EFFICIENCY FOR SHIPS
Regulation 19
Application
1 This chapter shall apply to all ships of 400 gross tonnage and above.
2 The provisions of this chapter shall not apply to:
.1 ships solely engaged in voyages within waters subject to the

sovereignty or jurisdiction of the State the flag of which the ship is
entitled to fly. However, each Party should ensure, by the
adoption of appropriate measures, that such ships are constructed
and act in a manner consistent with chapter 4, so far as is
reasonable and practicable.
3 Regulation 20 and regulation 21 shall not apply to ships which have

diesel-electric propulsion, turbine propulsion or hybrid propulsion systems.
4 Notwithstanding the provisions of paragraph 1 of this regulation, the

Administration may waive the requirement for a ship of 400 gross tonnage and
above from complying with regulation 20 and regulation 21.
MEPC 62/24/Add.1
Annex 19, page 10
5 The provision of paragraph 4 of this regulation shall not apply to ships

of 400 gross tonnage and above:
.1 for which the building contract is placed on or after 1 January 2017;

or
.2 in the absence of a building contract, the keel of which is laid or

which is at a similar stage of construction on or after 1 July 2017;
or
.3 the delivery of which is on or after 1 July 2019; or
.4 in cases of a major conversion of a new or existing ship, as

defined in regulation 2.24, on or after 1 January 2017, and in
which regulation 5.4.2 and regulation 5.4.3 of chapter 2 apply.
6 The Administration of a Party to the present Convention which allows

application of paragraph 4, or suspends, withdraws or declines the application of
that paragraph, to a ship entitled to fly its flag shall forthwith communicate to the
Organization for circulation to the Parties to the present Protocol particulars thereof,
for their information.
Regulation 20
Attained Energy Efficiency Design Index (Attained EEDI)
1 The attained EEDI shall be calculated for:
.1 each new ship;
.2 each new ship which has undergone a major conversion; and
.3 each new or existing ship which has undergone a major

conversion, that is so extensive that the ship is regarded by the
Administration as a newly constructed ship
which falls into one or more of the categories in regulations 2.25 to 2.35. The
attained EEDI shall be specific to each ship and shall indicate the estimated
performance of the ship in terms of energy efficiency, and be accompanied by the
EEDI technical file that contains the information necessary for the calculation of the
attained EEDI and that shows the process of calculation. The attained EEDI shall
be verified, based on the EEDI technical file, either by the Administration or by any
organization3 duly authorized by it.
2 The attained EEDI shall be calculated taking into account guidelines4

developed by the Organization.
3
Refer to the Guidelines for the authorization of organizations acting on behalf of the Administration,
adopted by the Organization by resolution A.739(18), as may be amended by the Organization, and the
Specifications on the survey and certification functions of recognized organizations acting on behalf of the
Administration, adopted by the Organization by resolution A.789(19), as may be amended by the
Organization.
4
Guidelines on the method of calculation of the Energy Efficiency Design Index for new ships.
MEPC 62/24/Add.1
Annex 19, page 11
Regulation 21
Required EEDI
1 For each:
.1 new ship;
.2 new ship which has undergone a major conversion; and
.3 new or existing ship which has undergone a major conversion that

is so extensive that the ship is regarded by the Administration as a
newly constructed ship
which falls into one of the categories defined in regulation 2.25 to 2.31 and to which
this chapter is applicable, the attained EEDI shall be as follows:
Attained EEDI ≦ Required EEDI = (1-X/100) × Reference line value
where X is the reduction factor specified in Table 1 for the required EEDI compared
to the EEDI Reference line.
2 For each new and existing ship that has undergone a major conversion
which is so extensive that the ship is regarded by the Administration as a newly
constructed ship, the attained EEDI shall be calculated and meet the requirement of
paragraph 21.1 with the reduction factor applicable corresponding to the ship type
and size of the converted ship at the date of the contract of the conversion, or in the
absence of a contract, the commencement date of the conversion.
Table 1. Reduction factors (in percentage) for the EEDI relative to the EEDI
Reference line
Phase 0 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

Ship Type Size 1 Jan 2013 – 1 Jan 2015 – 1 Jan 2020 – 1 Jan 2025
31 Dec 2014 31 Dec 2019 31 Dec 2024 and onwards
20,000 DWT
0 10 20 30
and above
Bulk carrier
10,000 –
n/a 0-10* 0-20* 0-30*
20,000 DWT
10,000 DWT
0 10 20 30
and above
Gas carrier
2,000 –
n/a 0-10* 0-20* 0-30*
10,000 DWT
20,000 DWT
0 10 20 30
and above
Tanker
4,000 –
n/a 0-10* 0-20* 0-30*
20,000 DWT
15,000 DWT
0 10 20 30
Container and above
ship 10,000 –
n/a 0-10* 0-20* 0-30*
15,000 DWT
MEPC 62/24/Add.1
Annex 19, page 12
Phase 0 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

Ship Type Size 1 Jan 2013 – 1 Jan 2015 – 1 Jan 2020 – 1 Jan 2025
31 Dec 2014 31 Dec 2019 31 Dec 2024 and onwards
15,000 DWT
0 10 15 30
General and above
Cargo ships 3,000 –
n/a 0-10* 0-15* 0-30*
15,000 DWT
5,000 DWT
0 10 15 30
Refrigerated and above
cargo carrier 3,000 –
n/a 0-10* 0-15* 0-30*
5,000 DWT
20,000 DWT
0 10 20 30
Combination and above
carrier 4,000 –
n/a 0-10* 0-20* 0-30*
20,000 DWT
* Reduction factor to be linearly interpolated between the two values dependent

upon vessel size. The lower value of the reduction factor is to be applied to
the smaller ship size.
n/a means that no required EEDI applies.
3 The Reference line values shall be calculated as follows:
Reference line value = a ×b -c
where a, b and c are the parameters given in Table 2.
Table 2. Parameters for determination of reference values for the different

ship types
Ship type defined in regulation 2 a b c

2.25 Bulk carrier 961.79 DWT of the ship 0.477
2.26 Gas carrier 1120.00 DWT of the ship 0.456
2.27 Tanker 1218.80 DWT of the ship 0.488
2.28 Container ship 174.22 DWT of the ship 0.201
2.29 General cargo ship 107.48 DWT of the ship 0.216
2.30 Refrigerated cargo carrier 227.01 DWT of the ship 0.244
2.31 Combination carrier 1219.00 DWT of the ship 0.488
4 If the design of a ship allows it to fall into more than one of the above ship
type definitions, the required EEDI for the ship shall be the most stringent (the
lowest) required EEDI.
5 For each ship to which this regulation applies, the installed propulsion
power shall not be less than the propulsion power needed to maintain the
manoeuvrability of the ship under adverse conditions as defined in the guidelines to
be developed by the Organization.
6 At the beginning of Phase 1 and at the midpoint of Phase 2, the

Organization shall review the status of technological developments and, if proven
necessary, amend the time periods, the EEDI reference line parameters for relevant
ship types and reduction rates set out in this regulation.
MEPC 62/24/Add.1
Annex 19, page 13
Regulation 22
Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP)
1 Each ship shall keep on board a ship specific Ship Energy Efficiency
Management Plan (SEEMP). This may form part of the ship's Safety Management
System (SMS).
2 The SEEMP shall be developed taking into account guidelines adopted by

the Organization.
Regulation 23
Promotion of technical co-operation and transfer of technology relating to the

improvement of energy efficiency of ships
1 Administrations shall, in co-operation with the Organization and other

international bodies, promote and provide, as appropriate, support directly or
through the Organization to States, especially developing States, that request
technical assistance.
2 The Administration of a Party shall co-operate actively with other Parties,

subject to its national laws, regulations and policies, to promote the development
and transfer of technology and exchange of information to States which request
technical assistance, particularly developing States, in respect of the implementation
of measures to fulfil the requirements of chapter 4 of this annex, in particular
regulations 19.4 to 19.6."
23 A new appendix VIII is added at the end of the Annex as follows:
"APPENDIX VIII
Form of International Energy Efficiency (IEE) Certificate
INTERNATIONAL ENERGY EFFICIENCY CERTIFICATE
Issued under the provisions of the Protocol of 1997, as amended by resolution

MEPC.203(62), to amend the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution by
Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 related thereto (hereinafter referred to as
"the Convention") under the authority of the Government of:
.................................................................................................................................................
(Full designation of the Party)
by ............................................................................................................................................
(Full designation of the competent person or organization
authorized under the provisions of the Convention)
MEPC 62/24/Add.1
Annex 19, page 14
Particulars of ship5
Name of ship ...........................................................................................................................
Distinctive number or letters ....................................................................................................
Port of registry .........................................................................................................................
Gross tonnage .........................................................................................................................
IMO Number6 ..........................................................................................................................
THIS IS TO CERTIFY:
1 That the ship has been surveyed in accordance with regulation 5.4 of Annex VI of
the Convention; and
2 That the survey shows that the ship complies with the applicable requirements in
regulation 20, regulation 21 and regulation 22.
Completion date of survey on which this Certificate is based: ........................... (dd/mm/yyyy)
Issued at ..................................................................................................................................
(Place of issue of certificate)
(dd/mm/yyyy): ............................................ ...............................................................

(Date of issue) (Signature of duly authorized official
issuing the certificate)
(Seal or stamp of the authority, as appropriate)
5
Alternatively, the particulars of the ship may be placed horizontally in boxes.
6
In accordance with IMO ship identification number scheme, adopted by the Organization by
resolution A.600(15).
MEPC 62/24/Add.1
Annex 19, page 15
Supplement to the International Energy Efficiency Certificate

(IEE Certificate)
RECORD OF CONSTRUCTION RELATING TO ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Notes:
1 This Record shall be permanently attached to the IEE Certificate. The IEE
Certificate shall be available on board the ship at all times.
2 The Record shall be at least in English, French or Spanish. If an official language of

the issuing Party is also used, this shall prevail in case of a dispute or discrepancy.
3 Entries in boxes shall be made by inserting either: a cross (x) for the answers "yes"
and "applicable"; or a dash (-) for the answers "no" and "not applicable", as
appropriate.
4 Unless otherwise stated, regulations mentioned in this Record refer to regulations in

Annex VI of the Convention, and resolutions or circulars refer to those adopted by
the International Maritime Organization.
1 Particulars of ship
1.1 Name of ship .............................................................................................................
1.2 IMO number ...............................................................................................................
1.3 Date of building contract ............................................................................................
1.4 Gross tonnage ...........................................................................................................
1.5 Deadweight ................................................................................................................
1.6 Type of ship* ..............................................................................................................
2 Propulsion system
2.1 Diesel propulsion ............................................................................................ 
2.2 Diesel-electric propulsion ................................................................................ 
2.3 Turbine propulsion .......................................................................................... 
2.4 Hybrid propulsion ............................................................................................ 
2.5 Propulsion system other than any of the above .............................................. 
*
Insert ship type in accordance with definitions specified in regulation 2. Ships falling into more than one of
the ship types defined in regulation 2 should be considered as being the ship type with the most stringent
(the lowest) required EEDI. If ship does not fall into the ship types defined in regulation 2, insert
"Ship other than any of the ship type defined in regulation 2".
MEPC 62/24/Add.1
Annex 19, page 16
3 Attained Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI)
3.1 The Attained EEDI in accordance with regulation 20.1 is calculated based on the
information contained in the EEDI technical file which also shows the process of
calculating the Attained EEDI. …. ........................................................................... 
The Attained EEDI is: ................. grams-CO2/tonne-mile
3.2 The Attained EEDI is not calculated as:
3.2.1 the ship is exempt under regulation 20.1 as it is not a new ship as defined in
regulation 2.23 ....................................................................................................... 
3.2.2 the type of propulsion system is exempt in accordance with regulation 19.3 …. ..... 
3.2.3 the requirement of regulation 20 is waived by the ship's Administration in

accordance with regulation 19.4 ............................................................................ 
3.2.4 the type of ship is exempt in accordance with regulation 20.1 ................................ 
4 Required EEDI
4.1 Required EEDI is: ................. grams-CO2/tonne-mile
4.2 The required EEDI is not applicable as:
4.2.1 the ship is exempt under regulation 21.1 as it is not a new ship as defined in
regulation 2.23 ....................................................................................................... 
4.2.2 the type of propulsion system is exempt in accordance with regulation 19.3 …. ..... 
4.2.3 the requirement of regulation 21 is waived by the ship's Administration in

accordance with regulation 19.4 ............................................................................ 
4.2.4 the type of ship is exempt in accordance with regulation 21.1 …. ........................... 
4.2.5 the ship's capacity is below the minimum capacity threshold in Table 1 of
regulation 21.2 …. .................................................................................................. 
5 Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan
5.1 The ship is provided with a Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP) in
compliance with regulation 22 ................................................................................ 
6 EEDI technical file
6.1 The IEE Certificate is accompanied by the EEDI technical file in compliance with
regulation 20.1 ....................................................................................................... 
6.2 The EEDI technical file identification/verification number ............................................
6.3 The EEDI technical file verification date .....................................................................

MEPC 62/24/Add.1
Annex 19, page 17
THIS IS TO CERTIFY that this Record is correct in all respects.
Issued at ..................................................................................................................................
(Place of issue of the Record)
(dd/mm/yyyy): ...................................... ........................................................................

(Date of issue) (Signature of duly authorized official
issuing the Record)
(Seal or stamp of the authority, as appropriate)"
***

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TRAINING COURSE

THE ENERGY EFFICIENT

This document is subject to change by WMU and IMO

General Instructions to the Instructors

• Consult/Print the PowerPoint presentation on the Annotation mode to access

• Use the Participants Manual as the main source of reference.

Training Course on Energy Efficient Operations of

Module 1 – The climate change and the international response

Module 2 – From Management to Operation

Module 3 – Port Stay and its impacts

Module 5 – Energy Efficiency Management Systems

Manual Trainees Instructor Examples

Origins of air releases .......................................................................................................................... 6

Industrialization: energy-­‐based society and its impacts ...................................................................... 7

Rationale for action ........................................................................................................................... 10

The combustion principle in engines ................................................................................................. 12

Variety of pollutants .......................................................................................................................... 19

Climate change impacts on oceans ................................................................................................... 25

The Kyoto protocol ............................................................................................................................ 31

Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 32

2.1 International regulatory regime and body ................................................................................... 32

Second IMO study on GHG 2009 ....................................................................................................... 38

Air emission provisions – MARPOL Annex VI Chapter 3 .................................................................... 45

4 References and additional sources of information ............................................................................. 49

LIST OF FIGURES

Module Aims and Objectives

• Describe the issue of Greenhouse Gas (GHG);

The Module is divided into two parts, namely:

• Greenhouse Gas and shipping

1. Greenhouse Gas: a global concern

1.1 Air contamination, from local to global issue

Origins of air releases

Air pollutants and humans

Air pollution: concentration factors

Industrialization: energy-­‐based society and its impacts

The need for transport

2 REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2012

The emergence of air pollution

The global economy lost steam in 2011, with gross

Despite such visible drawbacks, industrialism and disrupted

300 World merchandise

World seaborne trade

Rationale for action

1.2 Energy source: the choice of combustion

The origins and composition of fossil fuels

The combustion principle in engines

Coal or Oil

From steam to diesel engines

Exhaust GAS of

Paddle or propeller

By-­‐products of combustion

𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 + 𝐴𝑖𝑟 → 𝐸𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

Fossil Fuel + Air

Carbon Dioxide + Water + Nitrogen

+ Various gaseous compounds + Particulate Matter

1.3 From Local air pollutants to Global climate change

Air pollution : main definitions

LRTAP Convention, 1979 :

Article 1: Definitions

Variety of pollutants

• Particulate matter or organic aerosols – i.e. microscopic liquid or solid substances

Greenhouse Gas (GHG) and climate change

Climate change impacts on oceans

1.4 Combating air pollution: the role of international bodies

Industrialization: energy-‐based society and its impacts ...................................................................... 7

Industrialization: energy-‐based society and its impacts

By-‐products of combustion

Policy options and discussions on Market-‐Based Measures (MBM)

Intensify discussion on market-‐

Figure 3: Time charter -‐ The Berge Tasta

Demise Charter & bare-‐boat charter

Self-‐evaluation and improvement of the policy

-‐ Economical speed (Maximum fuel efficiency)