Gastrointestinal tract

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"Guts" redirects here. For other uses, see Guts (disambiguation).
Human gastrointestinal tract
Stomach colon rectum diagram-en.svg
Diagram of stomach, intestines and rectum
Details
System Digestive system
Identifiers
Latin Tractus digestorius (mouth to anus),
canalis alimentarius (esophagus to large intestine),
canalis gastrointestinales (stomach to large intestine)
MeSH D041981
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The gastrointestinal tract (digestive tract, digestional tract, GI tract, GIT, gut,
or alimentary canal) is an organ system within humans and other animals which takes
in food, digests it to extract and absorb energy and nutrients, and expels the
remaining waste as feces. The mouth, esophagus, stomach, and intestines are part of
the gastrointestinal tract. Gastrointestinal is an adjective meaning of or
pertaining to the stomach and intestines. A tract is a collection of related
anatomic structures or a series of connected body organs.

All bilaterians have a gastrointestinal tract, also called a gut or an alimentary

canal. This is a tube that transfers food to the organs of digestion.[1] In large
bilaterians, the gastrointestinal tract generally also has an exit, the anus, by
which the animal disposes of feces (solid wastes). Some small bilaterians have no
anus and dispose of solid wastes by other means (for example, through the mouth).
[2]

The gastrointestinal tract contains thousands of different bacteria in its gut

flora, that play an important role in the immune system.[3][4]

The human gastrointestinal tract consists of the esophagus, stomach, and

intestines, and is divided into the upper and lower gastrointestinal tracts.[5] The
GI tract includes all structures between the mouth and the anus,[6] forming a
continuous passageway that includes the main organs of digestion, namely, the
stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. However, the complete human
digestive system comprises the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of
digestion (the tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder).[7] The
tract may also be divided into foregut, midgut, and hindgut, reflecting the
embryological origin of each segment.

The whole human GI tract is about nine metres (30 feet) long at autopsy. It is
considerably shorter in the living body because the intestines, which are tubes of
smooth muscle tissue, maintain constant muscle tone, somewhat like a Slinky that
maintains itself in a halfway-tense state but can relax in spots to allow for local
distention, peristalsis, and so on.[citation needed]

The GI tract releases hormones from enzymes to help regulate the digestive process.
These hormones, including gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin, and ghrelin, are
mediated through either intracrine or autocrine mechanisms, indicating that the
cells releasing these hormones are conserved structures throughout evolution.[8]

Contents
1 Human gastrointestinal tract
1.1 Structure
1.1.1 Upper gastrointestinal tract
1.1.2 Lower gastrointestinal tract
1.1.2.1 Small intestine
1.1.2.2 Large intestine
1.1.3 Development
1.1.4 Histology
1.1.4.1 Mucosa
1.1.4.2 Submucosa
1.1.4.3 Muscular layer
1.1.4.4 Adventitia and serosa
1.1.5 Gene and protein expression
1.2 Function
1.2.1 Immune function
1.2.1.1 Immune barrier
1.2.1.2 Immune system homeostasis
1.2.2 Intestinal microbiota
1.2.3 Detoxification and drug metabolism
2 Clinical significance
2.1 Diseases
2.2 Symptoms
2.3 Treatment
2.4 Imaging
2.5 Other related diseases
3 Uses of animal guts
4 Other animals
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Human gastrointestinal tract
Structure

Upper and lower human gastrointestinal tract

Illustration of human gastrointestinal tract

The structure and function can be described both as gross anatomy and as
microscopic anatomy or histology. The tract itself is divided into upper and lower
tracts, and the intestines small and large parts.[9]

Upper gastrointestinal tract

Main articles: Esophagus, Stomach, and duodenum
The upper gastrointestinal tract consists of the buccal cavity, pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, and duodenum.[10] The exact demarcation between the upper and lower tracts
is the suspensory muscle of the duodenum. This delineates the embryonic borders
between the foregut and midgut, and is also the division commonly used by
clinicians to describe gastrointestinal bleeding as being of either "upper" or
"lower" origin. Upon dissection, the duodenum may appear to be a unified organ, but
it is divided into four segments based upon function, location, and internal
anatomy. The four segments of the duodenum are as follows (starting at the stomach,
and moving toward the jejunum): bulb, descending, horizontal, and ascending. The
suspensory muscle attaches the superior border of the ascending duodenum to the
diaphragm.

The suspensory muscle is an important anatomical landmark which shows the formal
division between the duodenum and the jejunum, the first and second parts of the
small intestine, respectively.[11] This is a thin muscle which is derived from the
embryonic mesoderm.

Lower gastrointestinal tract

The lower gastrointestinal tract includes most of the small intestine and all of
the large intestine.[12] In human anatomy, the intestine (bowel, or gut) is the
segment of the gastrointestinal tract extending from the pyloric sphincter of the
stomach to the anus and, as in other mammals, consists of two segments, the small
intestine and the large intestine. In humans, the small intestine is further
subdivided into the duodenum, jejunum and ileum while the large intestine is
subdivided into the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal.[13][14]

Small intestine
Main article: Small intestine
The small intestine begins at the duodenum and is a tubular structure, usually
between 6 and 7 m long.[15] Its mucosal area in an adult human is about 30 m2.[16]
Its main function is to absorb the products of digestion (including carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids, and vitamins) into the bloodstream. There are three major
divisions:

Duodenum: A short structure (about 20�25 cm long[15]) which receives chyme from the
stomach, together with pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes and bile from
the gall bladder. The digestive enzymes break down proteins, and bile emulsifies
fats into micelles. The duodenum contains Brunner's glands, which produce a mucus-
rich alkaline secretion containing bicarbonate. These secretions, in combination
with bicarbonate from the pancreas, neutralizes the stomach acids contained in the
chyme.
Jejunum: This is the midsection of the small intestine, connecting the duodenum to
the ileum. It is about 2.5 m long, and contains the circular folds, and villi that
increase its surface area. Products of digestion (sugars, amino acids, and fatty
acids) are absorbed into the bloodstream here.
Ileum: The final section of the small intestine. It is about 3 m long, and contains
villi similar to the jejunum. It absorbs mainly vitamin B12 and bile acids, as well
as any other remaining nutrients.
Large intestine
Main article: Large intestine
The large intestine also called the colon, consists of the cecum, rectum, and anal
canal. It also includes the appendix, which is attached to the cecum. The colon is
further divided into:

Cecum (first portion of the colon) and appendix

Ascending colon (ascending in the back wall of the abdomen)
Right colic flexure (flexed portion of the ascending and transverse colon apparent
to the liver)
Transverse colon (passing below the diaphragm)
Left colic flexure (flexed portion of the transverse and descending colon apparent
to the spleen)
Descending colon (descending down the left side of the abdomen)
Sigmoid colon (a loop of the colon closest to the rectum)
Rectum
Anus
The main function of the large intestine is to absorb water. The area of the large
intestinal mucosa of an adult human is about 2 m2.[16]

Development
Main article: Development of the digestive system
The gut is an endoderm-derived structure. At approximately the sixteenth day of
human development, the embryo begins to fold ventrally (with the embryo's ventral
surface becoming concave) in two directions: the sides of the embryo fold in on
each other and the head and tail fold toward one another. The result is that a
piece of the yolk sac, an endoderm-lined structure in contact with the ventral
aspect of the embryo, begins to be pinched off to become the primitive gut. The
yolk sac remains connected to the gut tube via the vitelline duct. Usually this
structure regresses during development; in cases where it does not, it is known as
Meckel's diverticulum.
During fetal life, the primitive gut is gradually patterned into three segments:
foregut, midgut, and hindgut. Although these terms are often used in reference to
segments of the primitive gut, they are also used regularly to describe regions of
the definitive gut as well.

Each segment of the gut is further specified and gives rise to specific gut and
gut-related structures in later development. Components derived from the gut
proper, including the stomach and colon, develop as swellings or dilatations in the
cells of the primitive gut. In contrast, gut-related derivatives � that is, those
structures that derive from the primitive gut but are not part of the gut proper,
in general develop as out-pouchings of the primitive gut. The blood vessels
supplying these structures remain constant throughout development.[17]

Part Part in adult Gives rise to Arterial supply

Foregut Esophagus to first 2 sections of the duodenum Esophagus, Stomach,
Duodenum (1st and 2nd parts), Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas, Superior portion of
pancreas
(Note that though the Spleen is supplied by the celiac trunk, it is derived from
dorsal mesentery and therefore not a foregut derivative) celiac trunk
Midgut lower duodenum, to the first two-thirds of the transverse colon lower
duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, appendix, ascending colon, and first two-third of
the transverse colon branches of the superior mesenteric artery
Hindgut last third of the transverse colon, to the upper part of the anal canal
last third of the transverse colon, descending colon, rectum, and upper part
of the anal canal branches of the inferior mesenteric artery
Histology
Main article: Gastrointestinal wall

General structure of the gut wall

1: Mucosa: Epithelium
2: Mucosa: Lamina propria
3: Mucosa: Muscularis mucosae
4: Lumen
5: Lymphatic tissue
6: Duct of gland outside tract
7: Gland in mucosa
8: Submucosa
9: Glands in submucosa
10: Meissner's submucosal plexus
11: Vein
12: Muscularis: Circular muscle
13: Muscularis: Longitudinal muscle
14: Serosa: Areolar connective tissue
15: Serosa: Epithelium
16: Auerbach's myenteric plexus
17: Nerve
18: Artery
19: Mesentery
The gastrointestinal tract has a form of general histology with some differences
that reflect the specialization in functional anatomy.[18] The GI tract can be
divided into four concentric layers in the following order:

Mucosa
Submucosa
Muscular layer
Adventitia or serosa
Mucosa
See also: Oral mucosa and Gastric mucosa
The mucosa is the innermost layer of the gastrointestinal tract. that is
surrounding the lumen, or open space within the tube. This layer comes in direct
contact with digested food (chyme). The mucosa is made up of:

Epithelium � innermost layer. Responsible for most digestive, absorptive and

secretory processes.
Lamina propria � a layer of connective tissue. Unusually cellular compared to most
connective tissue
Muscularis mucosae � a thin layer of smooth muscle that aids the passing of
material and enhances the interaction between the epithelial layer and the contents
of the lumen by agitation and peristalsis.
The mucosae are highly specialized in each organ of the gastrointestinal tract to
deal with the different conditions. The most variation is seen in the epithelium.

Submucosa
Main article: Submucosa
The submucosa consists of a dense irregular layer of connective tissue with large
blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves branching into the mucosa and muscularis
externa. It contains the submucosal plexus, an enteric nervous plexus, situated on
the inner surface of the muscularis externa.

Muscular layer
The muscular layer consists of an inner circular layer and a longitudinal outer
layer. The circular layer prevents food from traveling backward and the
longitudinal layer shortens the tract. The layers are not truly longitudinal or
circular, rather the layers of muscle are helical with different pitches. The inner
circular is helical with a steep pitch and the outer longitudinal is helical with a
much shallower pitch.[19]

Between the two muscle layers is the myenteric plexus. This controls peristalsis.
Activity is initiated by the pacemaker cells, (myenteric interstitial cells of
Cajal). The gut has intrinsic peristaltic activity (basal electrical rhythm) due to
its self-contained enteric nervous system. The rate can be modulated by the rest of
the autonomic nervous system.[19]

The coordinated contractions of these layers is called peristalsis and propels the
food through the tract. Food in the GI tract is called a bolus (ball of food) from
the mouth down to the stomach. After the stomach, the food is partially digested
and semi-liquid, and is referred to as chyme. In the large intestine the remaining
semi-solid substance is referred to as faeces.[19]

Adventitia and serosa

Main articles: Serous membrane and Adventitia
The outermost layer of the gastrointestinal tract consists of several layers of
connective tissue.

Intraperitoneal parts of the GI tract are covered with serosa. These include most
of the stomach, first part of the duodenum, all of the small intestine, caecum and
appendix, transverse colon, sigmoid colon and rectum. In these sections of the gut
there is clear boundary between the gut and the surrounding tissue. These parts of
the tract have a mesentery.

Retroperitoneal parts are covered with adventitia. They blend into the surrounding
tissue and are fixed in position. For example, the retroperitoneal section of the
duodenum usually passes through the transpyloric plane. These include the
esophagus, pylorus of the stomach, distal duodenum, ascending colon, descending
colon and anal canal. In addition, the oral cavity has adventitia.

Gene and protein expression

Approximately 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and 75% of
these genes are expressed in at least one of the different parts of the digestive
organ system.[20][21] Over 600 of these genes are more specifically expressed in
one or more parts of the GI tract and the corresponding proteins have functions
related to digestion of food and uptake of nutrients. Examples of specific proteins
with such functions are pepsinogen PGC and the lipase LIPF, expressed in chief
cells, and gastric ATPase ATP4A and gastric intrinsic factor GIF, expressed in
parietal cells of the stomach mucosa. Specific proteins expressed in the stomach
and duodenum involved in defence include mucin proteins, such as mucin 6 and
intelectin-1.[22]

Function
The time taken for food or other ingested objects to transit through the
gastrointestinal tract varies depending on many factors, but roughly, it takes less
than an hour after a meal for 50% of stomach contents to empty into the intestines
while total emptying takes around 2 hours. Subsequently, 50% emptying of the small
intestine takes between 1 and 2 hours. Finally, transit through the colon takes 12
to 50 hours with wide variation between individuals.[23][24]

Immune function
Immune barrier
The gastrointestinal tract forms an important part of the immune system.[25] The
surface area of the digestive tract is estimated to be about 32 square meters, or
about half a badminton court.[26] With such a large exposure (more than three times
larger than the exposed surface of the skin), these immune components function to
prevent pathogens from entering the blood and lymph circulatory systems.[27]
Fundamental components of this protection are provided by the intestinal mucosal
barrier which is composed of physical, biochemical, and immune elements elaborated
by the intestinal mucosa.[28] Microorganisms also are kept at bay by an extensive
immune system comprising the gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT)

There are additional factors contributing to protection from pathogen invasion. For
example, low pH (ranging from 1 to 4) of the stomach is fatal for many
microorganisms that enter it.[29] Similarly, mucus (containing IgA antibodies)
neutralizes many pathogenic microorganisms.[30] Other factors in the GI tract
contribution to immune function include enzymes secreted in the saliva and bile.

Immune system homeostasis

Beneficial bacteria also can contribute to the homeostasis of the gastrointestinal
immune system. For example Clostridia, one of the most predominant bacterial groups
in the GI tract, play an important role in influencing the dynamics of the gut's
immune system.[31] It has been demonstrated that the intake of a high fiber diet
could be the responsible for the induction of T-regulatory cells (Tregs). This is
due to the production of short-chain fatty acids during the fermentation of plant-
derived nutrients such as butyrate and propionate. Basically, the butyrate induces
the differentiation of Treg cells by enhancing histone H3 acetylation in the
promoter and conserved non-coding sequence regions of the FOXP3 locus, thus
regulating the T cells, resulting in the reduction of the inflammatory response and
allergies.

Intestinal microbiota
The large intestine hosts several kinds of bacteria that can deal with molecules
that the human body cannot otherwise break down.[32] This is an example of
symbiosis. These bacteria also account for the production of gases at host-pathogen
interface, inside our intestine(this gas is released as flatulence when eliminated
through the anus). However the large intestine is mainly concerned with the
absorption of water from digested material (which is regulated by the hypothalamus)
and the re absorption of sodium, as well as any nutrients that may have escaped
primary digestion in the ileum.[citation needed]
Health-enhancing intestinal bacteria of the gut flora serve to prevent the
overgrowth of potentially harmful bacteria in the gut. These two types of bacteria
compete for space and "food," as there are limited resources within the intestinal
tract. A ratio of 80-85% beneficial to 15�20% potentially harmful bacteria
generally is considered normal within the intestines.[citation needed]

Detoxification and drug metabolism

Enzymes such as CYP3A4, along with the antiporter activities, are also instrumental
in the intestine's role of drug metabolism in the detoxification of antigens and
xenobiotics.[33]

Clinical significance
This section discusses related diseases, medical associations with the
gastrointestinal tract, and use in surgery.
Main articles: Gastrointestinal disease and Gastroenterology
Further information: Clinical significance
Diseases
There are many diseases and conditions that can affect the gastrointestinal system,
including infections, inflammation and cancer.

Various pathogens can cause gastroenteritis an inflammation of the stomach and

small intestine. These can include those organisms that cause foodborne illnesses.
Gastroenteritis is the most common disease of the GI tract.

Gastrointestinal cancer may occur at any point in the gastrointestinal tract, and
includes mouth cancer, tongue cancer, oesophageal cancer, stomach cancer, and
colorectal cancer.
Inflammatory conditions. Ileitis is an inflammation of the ileum, colitis is an
inflammation of the large intestine.
Appendicitis is inflammation of the appendix located at the caecum. This is a
potentially fatal condition if left untreated; most cases of appendicitis require
surgical intervention.
Diverticular disease is a condition that is very common in older people in
industrialized countries. It usually affects the large intestine but has been known
to affect the small intestine as well. Diverticulosis occurs when pouches form on
the intestinal wall. Once the pouches become inflamed it is known as
diverticulitis.

Inflammatory bowel disease is an inflammatory condition affecting the bowel walls,

and includes the subtypes Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. While Crohn's can
affect the entire gastrointestinal tract, ulcerative colitis is limited to the
large intestine. Crohn's disease is widely regarded as an autoimmune disease.
Although ulcerative colitis is often treated as though it were an autoimmune
disease, there is no consensus that it actually is such.

Functional gastrointestinal disorders the most common of which is irritable bowel

syndrome. Functional constipation and chronic functional abdominal pain are other
functional disorders of the intestine that have physiological causes, but do not
have identifiable structural, chemical, or infectious pathologies.

Symptoms
Several symptoms are used to indicate problems with the gastrointestinal tract:

Vomiting, which may include regurgitation of food or the vomiting of blood

Diarrhoea, or the passage of liquid or more frequent stools
Constipation, which refers to the passage of fewer and hardened stools
Blood in stool, which includes fresh red blood, maroon-coloured blood, and tarry-
coloured blood
Treatment
Gastrointestinal surgery can often be performed in the outpatient setting. In the
United States in 2012, operations on the digestive system accounted for 3 of the 25
most common ambulatory surgery procedures and constituted 9.1 percent of all
outpatient ambulatory surgeries.[34]

Imaging
Various methods of imaging the gastrointestinal tract include the upper and lower
gastrointestinal series:

Radioopaque dyes may be swallowed to produce a barium swallow

Parts of the tract may be visualised by camera. This is known as endoscopy if
examining the upper gastrointestinal tract, and colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy if
examining the lower gastrointestinal tract. Capsule endoscopy is where a capsule
containing a camera is swallowed in order to examine the tract. Biopsies may also
be taken when examined.
An abdominal x-ray may be used to examine the lower gastrointestinal tract.
Other related diseases
Cholera
Enteric duplication cyst
Giardiasis
Pancreatitis
Peptic ulcer disease
Yellow fever
Helicobacter pylori is a gram-negative spiral bacterium. Over half the world's
population is infected with it, mainly during childhood, it is not certain as to
how the disease is transmitted. It colonizes the gastrointestinal system,
predominantly the stomach. The bacterium has specific survival conditions that our
gastric microenvironment: it is both capnophilic and microaerophilic. Helicobacter
also exhibits a tropism for gastric epithelial lining and the gastric mucosal layer
about it. Gastric colonization of this bacterium triggers a robust immune response
leading to moderate to severe inflammation. This inflammatory response triggers a
cascade of mucosal changes that can persist from chronic gastritis, duodenal
cancer, metaplasia, dysplasia, carcinoma, to mucosal associated lymphoid tissue
lymphoma (MALT lymphoma). Many individuals go through life without realizing they
are infected because they were exposed young and their body sees it as normal
flora. However, signs and symptoms are gastritis, burning abdominal pain, weight
loss, loss of appetite, bloating, burping, nausea, bloody vomit, and black tarry
stools. Infection is easy enough to detect: GI X-rays, endoscopy, blood tests for
anti-Helicobacter antibodies, a stool test, and a urease breath test (which is a
by-product of the bacteria). If caught soon enough, it can be treated with three
doses of different proton pump inhibitors as well as two antibiotics, taking about
a week to cure. If not caught soon enough, surgery may be required.[35][36][37][38]
Intestinal pseudo-obstruction is a syndrome caused by a malformation of the
digestive system, characterized by a severe impairment in the ability of the
intestines to push and assimilate. Symptoms include daily abdominal and stomach
pain, nausea, severe distension, vomiting, heartburn, dysphagia, diarrhea,
constipation, dehydration and malnutrition. There is no cure for intestinal pseudo-
obstruction. Different types of surgery and treatment managing life-threatening
complications such as ileus and volvulus, intestinal stasis which lead to bacterial
overgrowth, and resection of affected or dead parts of the gut may be needed. Many
patients require parenteral nutrition.
Ileus is a blockage of the intestines.
Coeliac disease is a common form of malabsorption, affecting up to 1% of people of
northern European descent. An autoimmune response is triggered in intestinal cells
by digestion of gluten proteins. Ingestion of proteins found in wheat, barley and
rye, causes villous atrophy in the small intestine. Lifelong dietary avoidance of
these foodstuffs in a gluten-free diet is the only treatment.
Enteroviruses are named by their transmission-route through the intestine (enteric
meaning intestinal), but their symptoms aren't mainly associated with the
intestine.
Endometriosis can affect the intestines, with similar symptoms to IBS.
Bowel twist (or similarly, bowel strangulation) is a comparatively rare event
(usually developing sometime after major bowel surgery). It is, however, hard to
diagnose correctly, and if left uncorrected can lead to bowel infarction and death.
(The singer Maurice Gibb is understood to have died from this.)
Angiodysplasia of the colon
Constipation
Diarrhea
Hirschsprung's disease (aganglionosis)
Intussusception
Polyp (medicine) (see also colorectal polyp)
Pseudomembranous colitis
Toxic megacolon usually a complication of ulcerative colitis
Uses of animal guts
Animal intestines have multiple uses. From each species of livestock that is a
source of milk, a corresponding rennet is obtained from the intestines of milk-fed
calves. Pig and calf intestines are eaten, and pig intestines are used as sausage
casings. Calf intestines supply calf-intestinal alkaline phosphatase (CIP), and are
used to make goldbeater's skin. Other uses are:

The use of animal gut strings by musicians can be traced back to the third dynasty
of Egypt. In the recent past, strings were made out of lamb gut. With the advent of
the modern era, musicians have tended to use strings made of silk, or synthetic
materials such as nylon or steel. Some instrumentalists, however, still use gut
strings in order to evoke the older tone quality. Although such strings were
commonly referred to as "catgut" strings, cats were never used as a source for gut
strings.[citation needed]
Sheep gut was the original source for natural gut string used in racquets, such as
for tennis. Today, synthetic strings are much more common, but the best gut strings
are now made out of cow gut.
Gut cord has also been used to produce strings for the snares that provide a snare
drum's characteristic buzzing timbre. While the modern snare drum almost always
uses metal wire rather than gut cord, the North African bendir frame drum still
uses gut for this purpose.
"Natural" sausage hulls, or casings, are made of animal gut, especially hog, beef,
and lamb.
The wrapping of kokoretsi, gardoubakia, and torcinello is made of lamb (or goat)
gut.
Haggis is traditionally boiled in, and served in, a sheep stomach.
Chitterlings, a kind of food, consist of thoroughly washed pig's gut.
Animal gut was used to make the cord lines in longcase clocks and for fusee
movements in bracket clocks, but may be replaced by metal wire.
The oldest known condoms, from 1640 AD, were made from animal intestine.[39]
Other animals
Further information: Ruminant and Methanogens in digestive tract of ruminants
Many birds and other animals have a specialised stomach in the digestive tract
called a gizzard used for grinding up food.

Another feature not found in the human but found in a range of other animals is the
crop. In birds this is found as a pouch alongside the esophagus.

Other animals including amphibians, birds, reptiles, and egg-laying mammals have a
major difference in their GI tract in that it ends in a cloaca and not an anus.

See also
This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, see Anatomical
terminology.
Digestion
Gastrointestinal hormone
Gastrointestinal physiology
Major systems of the human body
Host-pathogen interface
Anatomy and physiology
All pages beginning with "Gastrointestinal"
All pages with a title containing Gastrointestinal
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External links
Look up gastrointestinal tract, gastrointestinal, or tract in Wiktionary, the
free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gastrointestinal tract and Digestive
system.
The Wikibook Human Physiology has a page on the topic of: The
gastrointestinal system
The gastro intestinal tract in the Human Protein Atlas
Your Digestive System and How It Works at National Institutes of Health
[show] v t e
Human systems and organs
[show] v t e
Anatomy of the mouth
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Anatomy of the gastrointestinal tract, excluding the mouth
Upper
Pharynx
Muscles Spaces peripharyngeal retropharyngeal parapharyngeal retrovisceral danger
prevertebral Pterygomandibular raphe Pharyngeal raphe Buccopharyngeal fascia
Pharyngobasilar fascia Piriform sinus
Esophagus
Sphincters upper lower glands
Stomach
Curvatures greater lesser Angular incisure Cardia Body Fundus Pylorus antrum canal
sphincter Gastric mucosa Gastric folds Microanatomy Gastric pits Gastric glands
Cardiac glands Fundic glands Pyloric glands Foveolar cell Parietal cell Gastric
chief cell Enterochromaffin-like cell
Lower
Small intestine
Microanatomy
Intestinal villus Intestinal gland Enterocyte Enteroendocrine cell Goblet cell
Paneth cell
Duodenum
Suspensory muscle Major duodenal papilla Minor duodenal papilla Duodenojejunal
flexure Brunner's glands
Jejunum
No substructures
Ileum
Ileocecal valve Peyer's patches Microfold cell
Large intestine
Cecum
Appendix
Colon
Ascending colon Hepatic flexure Transverse colon Splenic flexure Descending colon
Sigmoid colon Continuous taenia coli haustra epiploic appendix
Rectum
Transverse folds Ampulla
Anal canal
Anus Anal columns Anal valves Anal sinuses Pectinate line Internal anal sphincter
Intersphincteric groove External anal sphincter
Wall
Serosa / Adventitia Subserosa Muscular layer Submucosa Circular folds Mucosa
Muscularis mucosa
Categories: AbdomenDigestive systemEndocrine systemRoutes of administration
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