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NATO’s Secretary General and the Use of Force: Willy Claes and the Air
Strikes in Bosnia
Ryan C. Hendrickson
Armed Forces & Society 2004; 31; 95
DOI: 10.1177/0095327X0403100105
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During the Cold War, most analysts concur that the office of
NATO’s secretary general was filled with talented diplomats, whose
powers and abilities to shape NATO’s agenda were often severely
constrained by its member states.1 Most historical studies of NATO
make hardly any mention of the secretary general, which in part reflects
the wide consensus of the relative weakness of this position during the
Cold War.2 Rather, many analysts point to the importance of NATO’s
military leader, the Supreme Allied Commander, in shaping NATO’s
critical policy choices during the Cold War.3 This inattention to the
secretaries general continued in the post-Cold War era. Despite the vast
amount of literature on NATO’s evolution in the 1990s—whether it
concerns NATO’s expansion, its program to assist newly democratized
states in their transitional processes, its institutional and organizational
strength, or its peace-enforcement and peacekeeping activities in the
Balkans—very little analysis or even mention of the role of the
secretaries general in contributing to these changes exists.4
The dearth of analysis on NATO’s secretaries general corresponds
closely with the broader literature on leaders of multinational, intergov-
ernmental organizations. Despite the ostensibly growing importance of
such organizations after the Cold War, relatively little research has been
devoted to these leaders.5 Among the research that exists, nearly all
scholarship has been historical and descriptive case studies, without the
development of a widely accepted analytical model for studying such
leaders.6 Similarly, the only major work on NATO’s secretaries general
was essentially a historical chronology of its first four civilian leaders,
all of whom led the alliance during the Cold War.7 Thus, no accepted
analytical framework beside the historical and descriptive case study
exists for assessing NATO’s secretary general.
Given that the leadership provided by the secretary general is often
exercised in closed-door sessions of North Atlantic Council (NAC)
meetings or in informal meetings in NATO’s hallways, the case-study
approach—with reliance upon interviews with senior political and
military leaders at NATO—remains the most useful method for exam-
ining a secretary general.8 In the case of Willy Claes, enough time has
passed that many key decision-makers are no longer in office or have
retired from political life, and are able to now speak more candidly
about Claes’ role.
At the same time, the development of a new analytical model for
assessing NATO’s secretaries general may help analysts conduct broader
tests of its political leadership, and potentially, to make wider generali-
zations about other NATO secretaries general. As noted by methodolo-
gist Robert Yin, an analytical model can provide direction to a case
study, and if employed well, perhaps can be useful in theory develop-
ment and replication in future studies. 9 Michael Schechter’s framework
for assessing Cold War-era intergovernmental, organizational (IGO)
leaders offers a useful starting point in the development of such a
model. 10
When studying the leaders of the World Bank, United Nations
Development Program, and the United Nations Educational, Scientific,
Table 1
Leadership assessment model for NATO’s secretary
general
openly calling for NATO strikes. Some at NATO considered this strategy
a wise diplomatic move, given the systemic constraints at the time.23
To some degree, Claes was helpful in moving NATO’s agenda
toward more aggressive military options in 1995. Claes was not a strong
supporter of the UN’s role under the dual-key framework, and would
refer derogatorily to “the UN” at times.24 As noted by a senior NATO
official, Claes was a “virulent critic of the United Nations, both publicly
and privately.” 25 This position squared with the US’s position as
dissatisfaction grew with the United Nations. One important change
implemented in early August 1995 was the removal of the UN’s key,
which was taken from Akashi and given to UN Field Commander Gen.
Bernard Janvier. Claes did not produce these results alone, but he was
certainly instrumental. The United States was helpful in removing
Akashi’s key because Akashi was viewed as tentative and too closely tied
to UN Secretary General Boutros-Boutros Ghali. In this respect, Claes
helped to empower NATO vis-a-vis the United Nations; critics of the
UN knew that Claes was an ally in the cause.
Claes’ association with the bribery charge certainly damaged his
international reputation and eventually forced his resignation, although
reaction to this scandal was mixed in Brussels. While Claes was still in
office, at nearly all US senior policy-making levels (including the Joint
Chiefs of Staff and the National Security Council) and among the allies
as well, key participants were very concerned that his problems would
damage his ability to lead the alliance.26 Yet even though senior policy-
makers were concerned about Claes’ ability to lead, the accusations did not
politically destroy Claes in the short term. Some evidence actually suggests that
Claes’ power increased in NATO, especially from the US perspective, since
many viewed the accusations as part and parcel of Belgian politics. Since
Claes was no longer involved directly in Belgian domestic politics, it was
felt by many at NATO that Claes was being made the political scapegoat for
his previous political party affiliation, the Belgian Socialist Party.27 For
example, in his memoirs about the Dayton Peace Accords, Richard Holbrooke
openly expressed considerable doubt over the validity of these charges.28
Former Norwegian Ambassador to NATO Leif Metik writes similarly:
Bosnian Serb attacks on Sarajevo in August 1995, when the keys were
turned by both the UN and NATO field commanders, it was the UN’s
Janvier and NATO’s Leighton Smith who debated the first set of targets
to hit.49 When the bombing campaign proceeded, Adm. Smith delegated
all tactical decisions to US Gen. Michael Ryan, Commander of Allied
Air Forces Southern Europe. The aircrafts used, as well as the targets,
sequence, and timing, were determined by Gen. Ryan, who closely
protected his own authority and prevented extensive political access to
him.50 Thus the evidence suggests that Claes was removed from much of
NATO’s military planning, as Gen. Ryan made many of the tactical
decisions for the alliance.
However, Gen. George Joulwan notes that Claes had detailed
knowledge of the bombing strategy and was privy to the operational
plans well before Operation Deliberate Force ensued. On two occasions
before the operation began, Claes and Joulwan met and discussed at
length the proposed military operation.51 In these planning phases, Claes
allowed Joulwan considerable leeway in determining the appropriate
military action within the constraints of the various options that the
Council had authorized. Joulwan views Claes’ decision to grant the
SACEUR some independence in exercising military judgments as very
helpful in achieving NATO’s eventual success.52 Even during Council
sessions prior to the strikes, additional evidence suggests that Claes
worked closely with the SACEUR, who pushed the alliance for “clar-
ity”—that is, detailed and specific instructions should the use of force
become a reality.53
Once the bombings began, Claes’ cooperation with the SACEUR at
Council meetings is another important yet overlooked aspect of civil-
military leadership relations during the campaign. Due to the SACEUR’s
sometimes forceful personality, the new type of mission that NATO was
about to engage in, and some natural distaste for strong US leadership
at NATO, Joulwan was viewed with some suspicion by the European
allies.54 To quell these concerns, Joulwan consulted extensively with the
Council on all aspects of the operation during the bombing campaign.55
When Joulwan attended Council sessions, Claes would occasionally ask
the SACEUR tough and detailed operational questions. Such questions
were not necessarily raised because of Claes’ personal concerns, but
rather they were voiced because Claes could serve as a proxy for allies
who may not have wanted to raise doubts in a Council session with the
SACEUR, but could do so indirectly through Claes.56 Claes thereby gave
“political cover” to any ambassador who wished to proceed in this
manner, without openly showing any opposition to the SACEUR or to
any other allies who favored vigorous military action. In this regard,
Claes worked to reduce political and military ambiguity between the
Council and SACEUR, and fostered consensus by serving as a proxy for
those allies who had real concerns.
Claes’ most significant operational-military role in Operation De-
liberate Force came through his decision not to consult with the Council
prior to NATO’s use of Tomahawk missiles in northern Bosnia, near
Banja Luka, on September 10. While these strikes officially fit within
the previously agreed-upon option 2 targeting plans, considerable
opposition was expressed later on the use of the Tomahawks, which
some ambassadors viewed as escalatory and a violation of the SACEUR’s
authority. France expressed the greatest concern, followed by Canada,
Greece, and Spain.57 Moreover, the strikes took place outside of the
“southeast zone of action,” which some NATO allies viewed as the
principal authorized area of military targeting.58
The request to use Tomahawks came from Gen. Ryan, and had not
been formally discussed by the Council. However, it was clearly
understood by NATO military officials that the use of Tomahawks was
a possible overextension of the mandate given to the SACEUR. 59
Recognizing the political problems that use of the Tomahawks could
cause, Gen. Joulwan did not immediately approve Gen. Ryan’s request.
Instead, Joulwan waited thirty-six hours in order to gain political
approval from the secretary general.60
Claes’ relevance and importance here is, first, that he did have
knowledge of the forthcoming Tomahawk strikes. The evidence sug-
gests that Claes was an integral part of the decision to use the Toma-
hawks, which has been viewed by military analysts as a strategically
critical military maneuver in demonstrating NATO’s advanced military
capabilities to the Bosnian Serbs.61 Richard Holbrooke writes that “the
psychological effect of such sophisticated weapons, previously used
only in the Gulf War, was enormous.”62 Second, Claes supported the
SACEUR’s and Gen. Ryan’s military judgment without verbal consul-
tations with the Council. The SACEUR’s discussions with Claes on the
Tomahawks occurred on a weekend, when many NATO ambassadors
were not readily available in Brussels.63 Yet in NATO’s first sustained
bombing campaign ever, Joulwan’s communication with Claes and the
thirty-six hour notice given to the secretary general would have
certainly allowed Claes ample opportunity to call an emergency meet-
ing, or at a minimum, to phone key allied ambassadors and notify them
of the forthcoming missile strikes. Moreover, if the use of Tomahawks
was viewed in US military circles as potentially controversial, it seems
Conclusion
Much has been written about the tragic events in Bosnia as well as
NATO’s transformation in the post-Cold War era. In NATO’s first
sustained bombing campaign, Operation Deliberate Force involved a
host of decision-makers, including military and political leaders from
the UN and NATO, as well as the sixteen allied governments. Since
NATO had never engaged in a military operation of this nature, it would
be difficult to predict what sort of role the secretary general would play
in this operation. Based on Cold War-era experience and research,
coupled with the many leadership impediments that Willy Claes faced
Notes
Author’s Note: The author thanks Jon Clausen, Col. Robert Owen, Patricia Shields, and
the anonymous reviewers of this manuscript for their assistance and helpful critiques.
2. See especially the three-volume set, Gustav Schmidt (ed.), A History of NATO: The
First Fifty Years (New York: Palgrave, 2001). See also Ian Q. R. Thomas, The
Promise of an Alliance (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1997).
3. Robert Hunter, who later became US Ambassador to NATO, writes that the SACEUR
exercised the greatest influence during the Cold War: “civilian institutions in NATO
have paled beside the continuing influence of the military structure of the Alliance.”
Robert Hunter, Security in Europe (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press,
1972), 61. See also Robert S. Jordan (ed.), Generals in International Politics (Lex-
ington: University Press of Kentucky, 1987).
4. Excellent research has been conducted on Operation Deliberate Force, but Claes’
role has gone untreated within this body of research. See Col. Robert Owen (ed.),
Deliberate Force: A Case Study in Effective Air Campaigning (Maxwell Air Force
Base, AL: Air University Press, 2000) and Tim Ripley, Operation Deliberate Force:
The UN and NATO Campaign in Bosnia, 1995 (Lancaster, UK: CDISS, 1999). Other
research that makes important contributions, but makes little mention of the secre-
tary general, includes Benjamin S. Lambeth, NATO’s Air War for Kosovo: A Strate-
gic and Operation Assessment (Santa Monica, CA: Rand, 2001); Anthony S.
Cordesman, Lessons and Non-lessons of the Air and Missile Campaign in Kosovo
(Westport, CT: Praeger, 2001); Thomas S. Szayna, NATO Enlargement, 2000–2015
(Santa Monica, CA: Rand, 2000); Celeste A. Wallander, “Institutional Assets and
Adaptability: NATO after the Cold War,” International Organization 54 (2000):
705–735; Pierre Martin and Mark R. Brawley (eds.), Alliance Politics, Kosovo, and
NATO’s War: Allied Force or Forced Allies (New York: Palgrave, 2000). Some
recent research, although limited in scope, discusses the secretary general. See Ronald
D. Asmus, Opening NATO’s Door (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002).
See also Michael Ruhle, “Preface: Manfred Worner’s Legacy and NATO,” in Anton
A. Bebler (ed.), Civil-Military Relations in Post-Communist States (Westport, CT:
Praeger, 1997); and Ryan C. Hendrickson, “NATO’s Secretary General Javier Solana
and the Kosovo Crisis,” Journal of International Relations and Development 5, 3
(2002): 240–257.
5. See Kent J. Kille and Roger M. Scully, “Executive Heads and the Role of Intergov-
ernmental Organizations: Expansionist Leadership in the United Nations and the
European Union,” Political Psychology 24, 1 (2003): 175–198.
6. For recent examples, see Helen Drake, Jacques Delors: Perspectives on a European
Leader (New York: Routledge, 2000); Michelle Cini, The European Commission:
Leadership, Organization and Culture in the EU Administration (Manchester, UK:
Manchester University Press, 1996); James Barros, Trygve Lie and the Cold War:
The UN Secretary General Pursues Peace, 1946–1953 (Dekalb: Northern Illinois
University Press, 1995).
8. For a short discussion of the evolution of the secretary general’s role, see Sean Kay,
NATO and the Future of European Security (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield,
1998), 36–39.
9. Robert Yin, Case Study Research: Design and Methods, 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage Publications, 1994).
10. Michael G. Schechter, “Leadership in International Organizations: Systemic, Organi-
zational and Personality factors,” Review of International Studies 13, 3 (1987): 197–
220.
11. Although little has been published on Secretary General Manfred Woerner’s leader-
ship at NATO, many of his colleagues maintain that Woerner’s personality impacted
NATO across a number of spectrums. See Ruhle, “Preface: Manfred Worner’s
Legacy.”
12. Ibid.
14. Among the many sources, see Sonia Lucarelli, Europe and the Breakup of Yugosla-
via: A Political Failure in Search of a Scholarly Explanation (The Hague: Kluwer
Law International, 2000); James Gow, Triumph of the Lack of Will: International
Diplomacy and the Yugoslav War (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997);
and David Rohde, Endgame (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1997).
15. On the Clinton administration, see David Halberstam, War in a Time of Peace: Bush,
Clinton and the Generals (New York: Scribner, 2001), 303–318. For more on the
United States’ policy evolution, see Douglas C. Foyle, “Public Opinion and Bosnia:
Anticipating Disaster,” in Ralph G. Carter (ed.), Contemporary Cases in U.S. Foreign
Policy (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Inc., 2002).
16. Lt. Col. Ronald Reed, “Chariots of Fire: Rules of Engagement in Operation Deliber-
ate Force,” in Owen (ed.), Deliberate Force (see note 4), 402–403.
17. Craig R. Whitney, “Facing Charges, NATO Head Steps Down,” New York Times,
October 21, 1995, sec. 1, p. 5; Paul Belien, “Meanwhile, In Europe’s Arkansas,”
National Review (March 20, 1995), 30.
18. Former NATO Ambassador from Norway, Leif Metik, notes in his book, Det nye
NATO (1999) that Claes seemed “nervous” in his initial meeting with the ambassa-
dors, and that his style remained “uncertain” when he first became secretary general.
English translation provided to author by Metik, January 2003. Also, author’s inter-
view with Christman (July 2002); background interview with senior US defense
official ‘A’ (July 2002).
19. Interview with former US Ambassador to NATO, Robert Hunter (July, 2002); back-
ground interview with senior NATO official ‘A’ (October 2002).
20. Interview with former SACEUR, Gen. George Joulwan (January 2003).
21. Interview with former US National Security Advisor, Anthony Lake (July 2002).
22. Background interview, senior US defense official ‘A’ (June 2002)
23. Interview with former Ambassador from the Netherlands to NATO, Lambert Willem
Veenendaal (July 2003).
24. Background interview with senior US defense official (June 2002).
25. Background interview with senior NATO official ‘A’ (October 2002).
26. Christman interview (July 2002); Lake interview (July 2002); Metik correspondence
with author (January 2003).
27. Interview with former US military representative to NATO, Lt. Gen. Thomas Mont-
gomery (July 2002); Metik correspondence with author (January 2003).
28. See also Richard Holbrooke, To End A War (New York: Random House, 1998),
120.
29. From Metik’s memoirs, Det nye NATO (1999), translation provided to author (Janu-
ary 2003).
30. Author interviews with former Canadian Ambassador to NATO John Anderson (July
2003) and Netherlands Ambassador Veenendaal (July 2003).
31. Background interview, senior NATO official ‘A’ (October 2002).
32. Ronald M. Reed, “Chariots of Fire,” in Owen (ed.), Deliberate Force (see note 4),
406-407. See also Ivo H. Daalder, Getting to Dayton (Washington, DC: Brookings
Institution Press, 2000), 77–79.
34. Author’s interview with Lt. Gen. Montgomery (July 2002); background interview,
senior US defense official ‘A’ (June 2002).
38. Montgomery interview (July 2002). Norwegian Ambassador to NATO Lief Metik
also notes that Claes was “short tempered.” Metik notes that he witnessed Claes on
one occasion when he “exploded in rage” at a NATO defense ministers’ meeting.
Metik correspondence with author (January 2003); background interview, senior US
defense official ‘A’ (June 2002).
39. For the full range of Security Council decisions, see Jane Boulden, Peace Enforce-
ment: The United Nations Experience in Congo, Somalia, and Bosnia (Westport, CT:
Praeger, 2001), 83–95.
40. Rick Atkinson, “Air Assault Set Stage for Broader Role,” Washington Post (Novem-
ber 15, 1995), A1; David L. Dittmer and Stephen P. Dawkins, Deliberate Force:
NATO’s First Extended Air Operation (Alexandria, VA: Center for Naval Analyses,
1998), 20–21. See also Ripley, Operation Deliberate Force, 242–244.
41. This understanding had been reached between Claes and SACEUR General George
Joulwan before these events occurred. Joulwan interview (January 2003).
42. Holbrooke, To End A War, 99.
44. Rick Atkinson, “In Almost Losing its Resolve, NATO Alliance Found Itself,” Wash-
ington Post (November 16, 1995), A1. Joulwan interview (January 2003).
46. Richard Holbrooke, To End A War, 120; Robert Owen, “Summary,” in Owen (ed.)
Deliberate Force (see note 4), 499.
47. Hunter interview (July 2002); senior US defense official ‘A’ (June 2002).
48. Christopher M. Campbell, “The Deliberate Force Air Campaign Plan,” in Owen
(ed.), Deliberate Force (see note 4), 99–110.
50. John C. Orndorff, “Aspects of Leading and Following: The Human Factors of
Deliberate Force,” in Owen (ed.), Deliberate Force (see note 4), 355–357. See also
Mark J. Conversino, “Executing Deliberate Force: 30 August–14 September 1995,”
ibid., 132–133.
51. One meeting between Claes and Joulwan took place at the NATO air base in Villa
Franca, Italy, and another in Claes’ office at NATO headquarters soon before the
bombings. Joulwan interview (October 2002).
54. Background interview, senior US defense official ‘A’ (June 2002). See also Gen. Sir
Michael Rose, Fighting For Peace: Bosnia 1994 (London: Harville Press, 1998),
122–123.
55. Hunter interview (July 2002); background interview, senior US defense official ‘A’
(June 2002); background interview, NATO military official ‘A’ (October 2002).
56. Hunter interview (July 2002); background interview with senior US defense official
‘A’ (June 2002).
57. Holbrooke, To End A War, 143.
58. Rick Atkinson and Daniel Williams, “NATO Rejects Demand to End Bombing;
Russia Warns Alliance on Bosnia Campaign,” Washington Post (September 12, 1995),
A1.
63. Joulwan interview (January 2003). See also Bucknam, “The Influence of UN and
NATO Theatre-Level Commanders,” 228.
64. Joulwan interview (January 2003).
65. Ripley, 286; background interview, senior NATO official ‘B’ (October 2002).