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BASIC NETWORK ANALYSIS 1.3

FIGURE 1.2 Labeling the circuit of Fig. 1.1.

FIGURE 1.3 Series elements replaced by their equivalent values.

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1.4 HANDBOOK OF ELECTRIC POWER CALCULATIONS

FIGURE 1.4 Parallel elements replaced by their equivalent values.

parallel, the total, or equivalent, resistance REQP can be determined from the following
equation: REQP  R/N, where R is the resistance of each of the parallel resistors and N is
the number of resistors connected in parallel. For section CG, RCG  600/2  300 ; for
section BC, RBC  100/3  331/3 ; for section EF, REF  104/2  52 ; for section GF,
RGF  600/2  300 .
In a circuit of three or more unequal resistors in parallel, the total, or equivalent resis-
tance REQP is equal to the inverse of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistance
values: REQP  1/(1/R1  1/R2  1/R3    1/RN). The equivalent parallel resistance
is always less than the smallest-value resistor in the parallel combination.
Calculate the equivalent resistance of the elements connected in parallel in sec-
tion DE: R15  R16  R17  1/(1/100  1/200  1/600)  60 . Calculate RDE : RDE 
240  60  (240)(60)/(240  60)  48 . Replace all parallel elements by their equiva-
lent values (Fig. 1.4).
4. Combine the Remaining Resistances to Obtain the Total Equivalent Resistance
Combine the equivalent series resistances of Fig. 1.4 to obtain the simple series-
parallel circuit of Fig. 1.5: RAB  RBC  RAC  REQS  20  331/3  531/3 , RCG 
RGF  RCF  REQS  300  300  600 , RCD  RDE  REF  RCF  REQS  20 
48  52  120 . Calculate the total equivalent resistance REQT : REQT  531/3  (600 
120)  1531/3 . The final reduced circuit is illustrated in Fig. 1.6.
5. Compute the Total Line Current in Fig. 1.6 Using Ohm’s Law
I1  E/REQT, where I1  total line current, E  line voltage (power-supply voltage),
and REQT  line resistance or total equivalent resistance seen by power supply. Substitut-
ing values yields: I1  E/REQT  460/1531/3  3 A.

FIGURE 1.5 Circuit of Fig. 1.4 reduced to a sim-

ple series-parallel configuration. FIGURE 1.6 Final reduced circuit of Fig. 1.1.

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BASIC NETWORK ANALYSIS 1.5

6. Compute the Current Through, and the Voltage Drop Across, Each Resistor in
the Circuit
Refer to Figs. 1.2 and 1.4. Analysis of R1 yields: I1  3 A (calculated in Step 5); V1 
VAB  I1R1  (3)(20)  60 V; and for R2, R3, and R4 we have: VBC  V2  V3  V4 
I1RBC  (3)(331/3 )  100 V. Current I2  I3  I4  100/100  1 A. Hence, VCF can be
calculated: VCF  E  (VAB  VBC)  460  (60  100)  300 V. The current from C to
G to F is 300/600  0.5 A.
Kirchoff’s current law (KCL) states: The algebraic sum of the currents entering any
node or junction of a circuit is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents leaving that node
or junction: I entering  I leaving. Applying KCL at node C, we find I12  3  0.5 
2.5 A. Therefore, V12  VCD  I12R12  (2.5)(20)  50 V.
The voltage-divider principle states that the voltage VN across any resistor RN in a
series circuit is equal to the product of the total applied voltage VT and RN divided by the
sum of the series resistors, REQS: VN  VT (RN/REQS). This equation shows that VN is di-
rectly proportional to RN and VCG  VGF  300  (300/600)  150 V. Hence, I7  I8 
150/600  0.25 A, V7  I7R7  (0.25)(200)  50 V, V8  I8R8  (0.25)(400)  100 V,
I10  I11  150/600  0.25 A, V10  I10R10  (0.25)(400)  100 V, V11  I11R11 
(0.25)(200)  50 V.
The current-divider principle states that in a circuit containing N parallel branches,
the current IN in a particular branch RN is equal to the product of the applied current IT
and the equivalent resistance REQP of the parallel circuit divided by RN : IN 
IT (REQP /RN). When there are two resistors RA and RB in parallel, the current IA in RA is
IA  IT [RB /(/RA  RB)]; the current IB in RB is IB  IT [RA/(RA  RB)]. When RA is equal
to RB, IA  IB  IT /2. Refer to Figs. 1.2 , 1.3, and 1.4 for the remaining calculations:
(R5  R6)  R7  R8  600 .
From the preceding equations, the value of the current entering the parallel
combination of R5 and R6 is I5  I6  0.5/2  0.25 A. I5  0.25  (1500/2500) 
0.15 A, and I6  0.25  (1000/2500)  0.10 A. Ohm’s law can be used to check
the value of V5 and V6, which should equal VCG and which was previously calculated
to equal 150 V: V5  I5R5  (0.15)(1000)  150 V and V6  I6R6  (0.10)(1500) 
150 V.
The current entering node G equals 0.5 A. Because R9  R10  R11, I9  I10  I11 
0.5/2  0.25 A. From Ohm’s law: V9  I9R9  (0.25)(600)  150 V, V10  I10R10 
(0.25)(400)  100 V, V11  I11R11  (0.25)(200)  50 V. These values check since
VGF  V9  150 V  V10  V11  100  50  150 V.
The remaining calculations show that: VDE  I12RDE  (2.5)(48)  120 V, I13  I14 
120/240  0.5 A, V13  I13R13  (0.5)(200)  100 V, and V14  I14R14  (0.5)(40)  20
V. Since V15  V16  V17  VDE  120 V, I15  120/100  1.2 A, I16  120/200  0.6
A, and I17  120/600  0.2 A.
These current values check, since I15  I16  I17  I13,14  1.2  0.6  0.2  0.5 
2.5 A, which enters node D and which leaves node E. Because R18  R19, I18  I19 
2.5/2  1.25 A and VEF  V18  V19  (2.5)(52)  130 V.
Kirchoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of the potential rises and
drops around a closed loop or path is zero. This law can also be expressed as: Vrises 
Vdrops. As a final check E  VAB  VBC  VCD  VDE  VEF or 460 V  60 V 
100 V  50 V  120 V  130 V  460 V.

Related Calculations. Any reducible dc circuit, that is, any circuit with a single power
source that can be reduced to one equivalent resistance, no matter how complex, can be
solved in a manner similar to the preceding procedure.

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1.6 HANDBOOK OF ELECTRIC POWER CALCULATIONS

BRANCH-CURRENT ANALYSIS
OF A DC NETWORK

Calculate the current through each of the resistors in the dc circuit of Fig. 1.7 using the
branch-current method of solution.

Calculation Procedure

1. Label the Circuit

Label all the nodes (Fig. 1.8). There are four nodes in this circuit, indicated by the let-
ters A, B, C, and D. A node is a junction where two or more current paths come together.
A branch is a portion of a circuit consisting of one or more elements in series. Figure 1.8
contains three branches, each of which is a current path in the network. Branch ABC con-
sists of the power supply E1 and R1 in series, branch ADC consists of the power supply E2
and R2 in series, and branch CA consists of R3 only. Assign a distinct current of arbitrary
direction to each branch of the network (I1, I2, I3). Indicate the polarities of each resistor
as determined by the assumed direction of current and the passive sign convention. The
polarity of the power-supply terminals is fixed and is therefore not dependent on the
assumed direction of current.
2. Apply KVL and KCL to the Network
Apply KVL around each closed loop. A closed loop is any continuous connection of
branches that allows us to trace a path which leaves a point in one direction and returns to
that same starting point from another direction without leaving the network.
Applying KVL to the minimum number of nodes that will include all the branch cur-
rents, one obtains: loop 1 (ABCA): 8  2I1  4I3  0; loop 2 (ADCA): 24  I2  4I3 
0. KCL at node C:I1  I2  I3.
3. Solve the Equations
The above three simultaneous equations can be solved by the elimination method or
by using third-order determinants. The solution yields these results: I1  4 A, I2  8 A,
and I3  4 A. The negative sign for I1 indicates that the actual current flows in the
direction opposite to that assumed.

Related Calculations. The above calculation procedure is an application of Kirchoff’s

laws to an irreducible circuit. Such a circuit cannot be solved by the method used in the
previous calculation procedure because it contains two power supplies. Once the branch
currents are determined, all other quantities such as voltage and power can be calculated.

FIGURE 1.7 Circuit to be analyzed by FIGURE 1.8 Labeling the circuit of Fig. 1.7.
branch currents.

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BASIC NETWORK ANALYSIS 1.7

MESH ANALYSIS OF A DC NETWORK

Calculate the current through each of the resistors in the dc circuit of Fig. 1.9 using mesh
analysis.

Calculation Procedure

1. Assign Mesh or Loop Currents

The term mesh is used because of the similarity in appearance between the closed
loops of the network and a wire mesh fence. One can view the circuit as a “window
frame” and the meshes as the “windows.” A mesh is a closed pathway with no other
closed pathway within it. A loop is also a closed pathway, but a loop may have other
closed pathways within it. Therefore, all meshes are loops, but all loops are not meshes.
For example, the loop made by the closed path BCDAB (Fig. 1.9) is not a mesh because it
contains two closed paths: BCAB and CDAC.
Loop currents I1 and I2 are drawn in the clockwise direction in each window (Fig.
1.10). The loop current or mesh current is a fictitious current that enables us to obtain the
actual branch currents more easily. The number of loop currents required is always equal
to the number of windows of the network. This assures that the resulting equations are all
independent. Loop currents may be drawn in any direction, but assigning a clockwise
direction to all of them simplifies the process of writing equations.
2. Indicate the Polarities within Each Loop
Identify polarities to agree with the assumed direction of the loop currents and the passive
sign convention. The polarities across R3 are the opposite for each loop current. The polari-
ties of E1 and E2 are unaffected by the direction of the loop currents passing through them.
3. Write KVL around Each Mesh
Write KVL around each mesh in any direction. It is convenient to follow the same di-
rection as the loop current: mesh I: 8  2I1  4(I1  I2)  0; mesh II: 24  4(I2 
I1)  I2  0.
4. Solve the Equations
Solving the two simultaneous equations gives the following results: I1  4 A and
I2  8 A. The minus signs indicate that the two loop currents flow in a direction oppo-
site to that assumed; that is, they both flow counterclockwise. Loop current I1 is therefore
4 A in the direction of CBAC. Loop current I2 is 8 A in the direction ADCA. The true

FIGURE 1.9 Circuit to be analyzed using FIGURE 1.10 Labeling the circuit of Fig. 1.9.
mesh analysis.

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1.8 HANDBOOK OF ELECTRIC POWER CALCULATIONS

direction of loop current I2 through resistor R3 is from C to A. The true direction of loop
current I1 through resistor R3 is from A to C. Therefore, the current through R3 equals
(I2  I1) or 8  4  4 A in the direction of CA.

Related Calculations. This procedure solved the same network as in Fig. 1.8. The
mesh-analysis solution eliminates the need to substitute KCL into the equations de-
rived by the application of KVL. The initial writing of the equations accomplishes the
same result. Mesh analysis is therefore more frequently applied than branch-current
analysis. However, it should be noted that mesh analysis can only be applied to planar
circuits.

NODAL ANALYSIS OF A DC NETWORK

Calculate the current through each of the resistors in the dc circuit of Fig. 1.11 using
nodal analysis.

Calculation Procedure
1. Label the Circuit
Label all nodes (Fig. 1.12). One of the nodes (node A) is chosen as the reference node.
It can be thought of as a circuit ground, which is at zero voltage or ground potential.
Nodes B and D are already known to be at the potential of the source voltages. The volt-
age at node C (VC ) is unknown.
Assume that VC VB and VC VD. Draw all three currents I1, I2, and I3 away from
node C, that is, toward the reference node.
2. Write KCL at Node C
I1  I2  I3  0.
3. Express Currents in Terms of Circuit Voltages Using Ohm’s Law
Refer to Fig. 1.12: I1  V1/R1  (VC  8)/2, I2  V2 /R2  (VC  24)/1, and I3 
V3 /R3  VC /4.
4. Substitute in KCL Equation of Step 2
Substituting the current equations obtained in Step 3 into KCL of Step 2, we find I1 
I2  I3  0 or (VC  8)/2  (VC  24)/1  VC /4  0. Because the only unknown is
VC , this simple equation can be solved to obtain VC  16 V.

FIGURE 1.11 Circuit to be analyzed by nodal FIGURE 1.12 Labeling the circuit of Fig.
analysis. 1.11.

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BASIC NETWORK ANALYSIS 1.9

5. Solve for All Currents

I1  (VC  8)/2  (16  8)/2  4 A (true direction) and I2  (VC  24)/1  (16 
24)/1  8 A. The negative sign indicates that I2 flows toward node C instead of in the
assumed direction (away from node C ). I3  VC /4  16/4  4 A (true direction).

Related Calculations. Nodal analysis is a very useful technique for solving networks.
This procedure solved the same circuits as in Figs. 1.7 and 1.9.

DIRECT-CURRENT NETWORK SOLUTION USING

SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

Calculate the value of the current through resistor R3 in the dc network of Fig. 1.13a using
the superposition theorem. The superposition theorem states: In any linear network contain-
ing more than one source of electromotive force (emf) or current, the current through any
branch is the algebraic sum of the currents produced by each source acting independently.

Calculation Procedure
1. Consider the Effect of EA Alone (Fig. 1.13b)
Because EB has no internal resistance, the EB source is replaced by a short circuit.
(A current source, if present, is replaced by an open circuit.) Therefore, RTA  100 
(100  100)  150  and ITA  EA/RTA  30/150  200 mA. From the current-divider
rule, I3A  200 mA/2  100 mA.
2. Consider the Effect of EB Alone (Fig. 1.13c)
Because EA has no internal resistance, the EA source is replaced by a short circuit.
Therefore, RTB  100  (100  100)  150  and ITB  EB/RTB  15/150  100 mA.
From the current-divider rule, I3B  100 mA/2  50 mA.

FIGURE 1.13 Application of the superposition theorem: (a) current in R3 to be determined; (b) effect
of EA alone; and (c) effect of EB alone.

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1.10 HANDBOOK OF ELECTRIC POWER CALCULATIONS

3. Calculate the Value of I3

The algebraic sum of the component currents I3A and I3B is used to obtain the true mag-
nitude and direction of I3: I3  I3A  I3B  100  50  50 mA (in the direction of I3A).

Related Calculations. The superposition theorem simplifies the analysis of a linear

network only having more than one source of emf. This theorem may also be applied
in a network containing both dc and ac sources of emf. This is considered later in the
section.

DIRECT-CURRENT NETWORK SOLUTION USING

THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Calculate the value of the current IL through the resistor RL in the dc network of Fig.
1.14a using Thevenin’s theorem.
Thevenin’s theorem states: Any two-terminal linear network containing resistances
and sources of emf and current may be replaced by a single source of emf in series with a
single resistance. The emf of the single source of emf, called ETh, is the open-circuit emf
at the network terminal. The single-series resistance, called RTh, is the resistance between
the network terminals when all of the independent sources are replaced by their internal
resistances.

Calculation Procedure

1. Calculate the Thevenin Voltage (Fig. 1.14b)

When the Thevenin equivalent circuit is determined for a network, the process is
known as “thevenizing” the circuit.

FIGURE 1.14 Application of Thevenin’s theorem: (a) current IL to be determined; (b) calculating
ETh; (c) calculating RTh; and (d) resultant Thevenin equivalent circuit.

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BASIC NETWORK ANALYSIS 1.11

The load resistor is removed as shown in Fig. 1.14b. The open-circuit terminal voltage
of the network is calculated; this value is ETh. Because no current can flow through R3, the
voltage ETh (VAB) is the same as the voltage across resistor R2. Use the voltage-divider
rule to find ETh: ETh  (100 V)  [100/(100  100)]  50 V.
2. Calculate the Thevenin Resistance (Fig. 1.14c)
The network is redrawn with the source of emf replaced by a short circuit. (If a current
source is present, it is replaced by an open circuit.) The resistance of the redrawn network
as seen by looking back into the network from the load terminals is calculated. This value
is RTh, where RTh  50   (100 )  (100 )  100 .
3. Draw the Thevenin Equivalent Circuit (Fig. 1.14d)
The Thevenin equivalent circuit consists of the series combination of ETh and RTh. The
load resistor RL is connected across the output terminals of this equivalent circuit. RT 
RTh  RL  100  50  150 , and IL  ETh/RT  50/150  1/3 A.

Related Calculations. With respect to the terminals only, the Thevenin circuit is equiva-
lent to the original linear network. Changes in RL do not require any calculations for a
new Thevenin circuit. The simple series Thevenin circuit of Fig. 1.14d can be used to
solve for load currents each time RL is changed. The Thevenin theorem is also applicable
to networks with dependent sources. Additionally, node-voltage analysis and mesh-
current analysis may be applied to determine VTh. In rare cases, with only dependent
sources present, one may have to assume a fictitious 1 A or 1V “injection” source at the
terminals.

DIRECT-CURRENT NETWORK SOLUTION USING

NORTON’S THEOREM

Calculate the value of the current IL through the resistor RL in the dc network of Fig.
1.15a using Norton’s theorem.

FIGURE 1.15 Application of Norton’s theorem: (a) current IL to be determined; (b) calculating RN;
(c) calculating IN; and (d) resultant Norton equivalent circuit.

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1.12 HANDBOOK OF ELECTRIC POWER CALCULATIONS

FIGURE 1.16 Source conversion equations.

Norton’s theorem states: Any two-terminal linear dc network can be replaced by an

equivalent circuit consisting of a constant-current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN.

Calculation Procedure

1. Calculate the Norton Parallel Resistance, RN (Fig. 1.15b)

The load resistor is removed (Fig. 1.15b). All sources are set to zero (current sources
are replaced by open circuits, and voltage sources are replaced by short circuits). RN is
calculated as the resistance of the redrawn network as seen by looking back into the net-
work from the load terminals A and B: RN  50   (100   100 )  100 . A com-
parison of Figs. 1.14c and 1.15b shows that RN  R Th.
2. Calculate the Norton Constant-Current Source, IN (Fig. 15c)
IN is the short-circuit current between terminals A and B. RT  100   (100   50
)  133 1/3  and IT  E/RT  (100/1331/3 )  3/4 A. From the current-divider rule:
IN  (3/4 A) (100)/(100  50)  0.5 A.
3. Draw the Norton Equivalent Circuit (Fig. 1.15d)
The Norton equivalent circuit consists of the parallel combination of IN and RN. The
load resistor RL is connected across the output terminals of this equivalent circuit. From
the current-divider rule: IL  (0.5 A)[100/(100  50)]  1/3 A.

Related Calculations. This problem solved the same circuit as in Fig. 1.14a. It is often
convenient or necessary to have a voltage source (Thevenin equivalent) rather than a current
source (Norton equivalent) or a current source rather than a voltage source. Figure 1.16
shows the source conversion equations which indicate that a Thevenin equivalent circuit can
be replaced by a Norton equivalent circuit, and vice versa, provided that the following equa-
tions are used: RN  RTh; ETh  IN RTh  IN RN, and IN  ETh /RN  ETh /RTh. The conversion
between Thevenin and Norton equivalents is generally known as a source transformation.

BALANCED DC BRIDGE NETWORK

Calculate the value of Rx in the balanced dc bridge network of Fig. 1.17.

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