OXFORD COMPANION NOTES

ABBOCATO – Italian for medium sweet (less sweet than ‘amabile’). Esp term is abocado – but EU
regulations state ‘semiseco’ is the official term in ESP.

ABSCISIC ACID (ABA) is a hormone controlling growth and physiology such as leaf fall, shoot and root
growth, bud dormancy, regulation of grape ripening etc.

ACETALDEHYDE – most common aldehyde, a chemical compound. A natural part of nearly all plant
matter. Its traces remain after fermentation in all wines. Above certain level this can make wine
smell flat, vapid, oxidised. At higher concentration it contributes to typical smell of fino sherry and
other flor wines. In white wines it is the first compound formed when oxygen reacts with the ethanol
– hence care must be taken to protect delicate aromas and flavours. This is caused by ethanol
converting to acetaldehyde and is a sign of oxidation. In red wines, the contact with oxygen does not
cause same damage, probably because acetaldehyde reacts with tannins and anthocyanins.

ACETIC ACID – acid responsible for vinegar taste, main component of Volatile Acidity. Produced by
microbiological activity in fermentation, MLF, and exposure to oxygen after fermentation (caused by
acetobacter). In some reds and botrytised wines higher levels can be viewed as adding more
complex and desirable flavour. The conditions for acetobacter are temp 30-40 degrees, relatively
high pH btw 3.5 and 4.0 (i.e. low acidity), low alcohol, absence of SO2, and a lot of oxygen. This is
why winemakers prefer acidic and alcoholic wine, with SO2, without access to oxygen, low storage
temperatures.

ACIDIFICATION (also called acidulation) – winemaking process of increasing acidity in grape must or
wine. Common in warm regions. It may be the only way to make a balanced wine from fully ripe
grapes, when the natural malic acid in grapes degrades. Good acid level in wine increases apparent
freshness and fruitiness, but also protects from bacteria and spoilage yeasts. It also improves SO2
effectiveness and can improve color.

Bordeaux and Burgundy allow it, but no wine may be both acidified and enriched.

Acidification before fermentation lowers pH and gives better microbiological control and favours
formation of desirable aromas. Adding acid before bottling in the final blending stage finetunes the
level but may be too obvious.

Most common additives are tartaric acid, malic acid and citric acid. Tartaric is used before
fermentation – it is the natural acid of ripe grapes, and is not degraded by lactic acid bacteria unlike
the other two. But it is the most expensive option and significant amounts may precipitate as tartaric
crystals and be lost from the wine.

Malic acid is rare due to its biological instability and cost.

Citric acid is the least expensive and is used most for inexpensive wines. But not allowed for wines
made or sold in EU.

ACIDITY – influences color, has effect on yeasts and bacteria, and affects flavour qualities. Also
affects ageing. At beginning of grape ripening it is highest (half of lemon’s acidity). It helps preserve
color due to pH affecting ionisation of anthocyanins which affect color. Lower pH (i.e. higher acidity)
means redder color and more stable color. With higher pH color is more blue progressively and less
stable. Wines from warmer regions have lower acidity (unless acidified) and thus are less red (often
brownish).
Too little acidity – wine is flat, uninteresting, ‘flabby’. Too much = wine is too sharp, tart, can be
unpleasant to drink.

Vines and the grapes are unusual in fruits for their accumulation of only small amounts of citric acid
and large concentration of tartaric acid. Most plants store high citric acid.

ACOLON – increasingly popular German cross of Lemberger and Dornfelder.

ADEGA = Bodega in Portugese.

AERATION – controlled and deliberate exposure to air, especially to its reactive component –
oxygen. It must be carefully controlled in winemaking as overexposure causes oxidation and
formation of excess acetic acid. At the beginning of fermentation some oxygen is needed (yeast
need oxygen). Aeration can also cure wine suffering from reduction.

AGEING – needs three factors – the wine must be capable of it, correct storage, and some form of
capital investment.

- Only a small subgroup of wine is suitable for ageing in bottle. Great bulk of wines made
today are meant to be drunk within 1-2 years from bottling max.
- Which ones generally are to be consumed as soon as possible?
o Packed other than in bottles
o Most basic wines without a GI
o Almost all branded wines (possible exception some red Bordeaux)
o Most pink colored wine
o Wines released within less than 6 months of the vintage, e.g. those labelled
‘nouveau’.
- Factors affecting the way a wine ages include individual vintage characteristics, and how
they are made. Barrel fermentation for whites and barrel maturation for any color wine play
only a part in the life cycle of wine. Generally, lower pH means longer evolving capability for
a wine. In reds, higher level of phenolics (especially tannins) and flavour compounds mean
longer ageing possibility. Cab sav and Nebbiolo will and should age longer than PN and
Merlot, and definitely longer than gamay or Grenache. In whites, Riesling and Loire Chenin
Blanc have higher acidity and flavour precursors allowing slower evolving than chardonnay
based wines.
- Whites (numbers are just rough guidance)
o 10-20 pound retail price = 1-2 years
o Chablis 3-15
o Cote d’Or white Burgundy – 3-10
o Other chardonnay – 2-6
o Rieslings – 3-20
o SB – 1-5
o Viognier 1-3
o Chenin Blanc – 3-15
o Botrytised sweet wines – 5-35
- Reds
o 10-20 pounds – 1-3 (some Cotes Du Rhone and old vine ESP wines can be
exceptions)
o Bordeaux, Madiran 5-25
o Burgundy 4-20
 o Northern Rhone 4-15 (hermitage longer)
o Southern Rhone 3-10
o Languedoc-Roussillon 3-8
o Barolo, Barbaresco – 6-25
o Brunello di Montalcino – 5-13
o Chianti 4-10
o Rioja 5-20
o Ribera Del Duero 3-15
o Duero table wine – 4-12
o Vintage port – 12-50
o CS based wines 7-17
o PN based – 4-10
o Syrah based 4-12
o Grenache based 3-8
- Icewine matures quite rapidly. Fortifieds such as VDN and Vins de Liqueur are bottled when
makers think they are ready to drink. Exceptions are extremely rare bottle-aged sherries,
vintage port (expressly designed for bottle ageing for decades), single quinta ports and
crusted prots.
- Sparkling wine makers claim readiness to drink upon release. But may not be true if demand
exceeds supply. Better quality young sparkling wines can improve considerably with an extra
year or so in bottle.
- Factors affecting ageing:
o Storage – low temperature slows maturation. The slower the wine matures, the
more complexity of flavour develops.
o Speeding up ageing – remove solids e.g. with heavy filtration or fining, and store in
warmer conditions.
o Smaller bottle = faster ageing deu to larger oxygen to wine proportion.
o Screw cap means different ageing, yet to be explored.
- Ageing Red Wines
o Becomes softer and gentler, less harsh and less inky.
o Color lighter brick red.
o Sediment may form.
o Phenolics are the main casue of the processes. They are extracted from skins in the
winemaking process. They react with each other to generate derivatives.
o When compounds reach a certain size they precipitate as sediment.
o Flavour compounds initially responsible for the primary and secondary aromas
interact with each other and other phenolics and develop. Full process is not yet
fully understood. Tertiary aromas develop.
o Full maturity is hard to predict even for the winemaker. Full maturity = no harsh
tannins and maximum complexity of flavour without the onset of decay.
- White Wine Ageing
o Even less is known.
o Much less phenolics to start with. But large impact on flavour.
o Slow oxidation adds brown tint.
o The less phenolics the slower the ageing process. Rieslings have less, chardonnays
more.
o But noble rot affected wines have better ability to age. Also the ones with barrel
fermentation.
 o Most of those whites that age for decades did not undergo MLF.
- STAGES OF AGEING
o Very young wines are usually delicious, full of fruit and vivacity, but slightly simple.
o Some time after bottling – could be months or years, many fine wines tend to close
up – become surly, lose aroma and do not gain bouquet.
o Some years later they begin to smell like wine again and have much more palate
length.
o After this they enter their most satisfying stage, bouquet fully develops and
astringency receeds, leaving attractive mouthfeel, so the wine has great flavour,
texture, length and balance.
o If ageing too long – and no one cen predict when this is – stage of decrepitude –
acidity starts to dominate.
- ARTIFICIAL AGEING – some experiment with speeding up the ageing process. Could be
higher temperature storage, could be shaking to amplify effects of dissolved oxygen, or
micro oxygenation.

AGIORGITIKO – most planted and versatile Greek red grape variety, native to Nemea. Blends well
with others, especially CS. Also makes good rose. Makes fruity wine but can lack acidity. Higher
altitude can yield long-lived reds.

AGLIANICO – dark skinned top quality south ITA grape. Today in the mountaneous centre of ITA’s
south. Early budding. The vine ripes very late – even in Sthn ITA can be picked in November.
Ferocious tannins (even early picking does not tame them). Wines have aromas of chocolate and
plums, deep color, fine-grained tannins, and marked acidity. Seems to prefer volcanic soil. Best in
DOC of Taurasi in Campania and Aglianico Del Vulture in Basilicata (here lower altitudes and softer,
earlier maturing wines). Its nobility is so obvious it is now grown in US and Australia.

AGLIANICO DEL VULTURE – potentially superior wine, from Basilicata. Slopes of extinct volcano, 200-
700m elevation. Soils of volcanic origin. Cool nights. Doc since 1971. Superiore and Riserva elevated
to DOCG in 2010. Sturdy red capable of extended cellaring. DOC may not be released prior to
September following the year of harvest, DOCG min 24 months ageing with min 12 in oak. Also lower
yields and higher density of vines for DOCG. Styles differ wildly. Best tend to be aged in large oak
casks.

AIDANI (first I double dotted) – floral-scented grape variety grown on Santorini and other islands,
mainly for blending with Assyrtiko. Aidani mavro is a dark skinned mutation.

AIR DRAINAGE – topographical and climatological consideration in site selection. Cold air needs to
‘drain’ downhill and thus a slope is less prone to frost and winter freeze than a hollow.

AIREN – home in central spain, planted at very low density, and thus covers quarter of all ESP
vinyards and more than any other white variety in the world. There are vigorous vine pull schemes in
ESP, replacing it with dark-skinned Cencibel (tempranillo, with which Airen has traditionally been
blended), to produce light reds. It is increasingly vinified as inexpensive white, to create crisp,
neutral dry white for early drinking. It is the Spanish equivalent of Ugni Blanc. Airen is bush trained
low and has remarkable resistance to droughts which are so common in central ESP.

ALBANIA – on Adriatic coast between Greece and Montenegro. Some of longest history of
vinegrowing in Europe. Ottoman invasion, uncertainty of two world wars and communist regine
slowed down the winemaking. Many indigenous varieties mean potential though. Half of all vines on
pergolas. There is now steady groth of wine industry.
ALBARIZA – white, chalky soil, typical in Jerez region in south ESP. some of finest Fino and Manzanilla
grow on this soil. High limestone content (about 40%), the rest is clay and sand. It appears white in
summer, and has the special feature of drying without caking, slowly releasing moisture to the vines
during growing season. This soil is also found in Penedes region NE ESP where some of best Cava is
produced.

ALBERELLO – Ita term for free-standing bush vines trained in gobelet system.

ALCOHOL – common name for ethanol. Measured as degrees or percentage. Tb to convert from % to
degrees, multiply by 7/4 and vice versa.

Majority wine is 12.5-14.5. The alcohol levels are higher today, due to climate change, fashion,
desire for riper phenolics and thus later picking and extended hang time. Many high quality wines
today are undergoing alcohol reduction to make it more palatable.

In Europe, fermented grape juice should usually reach 8.5% alc (9 in some warmer regions) to legally
be classified as wine. There are exceptions for wines like GER pradikatswein and ITA moscato. The
maximum limit is currently 15%, but there are derogations made, like in the case of ITA Amarone. In
US, ‘table wine’ must be 7-14%, and 14-24% classifies as ‘dessert wine’.

Alcohol comes from sugar fermentation, sugar comes from photosynthesis, driven by sunlight.
Factors reducing alcohol are in general high elevation, poor weather, high yield, and residual sugar.
There are others. Alcohol can be increased through severe pruning, and cellar techniques like
enrichment, concentration, and fortification. Evaporation increases some Oloroso Sherries to 24%.
Total alcoholic strength is the sum of the actual alcohol after fermentation and the potential alcohol
in any remaining residual fermentable sugars. Potential alcohol is what the alcohol level would be if
all sugars were fermented. Natural alcoholic strength is the alcohol strength in wine before any form
of enrichment.

ALCOHOLIC – usually pejorative tasting term for wine that tastes ‘hot’ and seems to contain excess
alcohol.

ALCOHOL REDUCTION – some countries permit it. Some techniques are low temperature distillation
such as spinning cone column, membrane separation techniques such as reverse osmosis,
electrodialysis, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration and evaporative perstraction. Also more traditional
method of humidification.

ALDEHYDES – class of chemical compounds midway between alcohols and organic acids in their state
of oxidation. Formed when alcoholic beverage is exposed to air. Some have potent odours, but
usually present in trace conentrations only. Aldehydes contribute harmoniously to overall character.
Vanillin is a complex aldehyde, present in vanilla beans but also in some grapes and in oak (thus new
oak possibly adding vanilla tones).

ALLERGY VS INTOLERANCE – allergy has immunological basis, intolerance other causes. Intolerance
to wine is far more common than allergy. Protein compounds are most common allergens, so in
wine, possible allergens are proteins not removed after fermentation with the dead yeast, and
traces of protein from fining agents. Some people have grape allergy. As for headache, it is linked to
histamine and tyramine produced by lactic acid bacteria during MLF and these are higher in red
wine.

So2 may be a cause of white wine intolerance (come call it allergy), due to typically having higher
levels than reds. Whites also have higher acidity that helps release so2 from solution.
Red face and high pulse even after small amount of ethanol – alcohol intolerance due to genetic
variation in two enzymes involved in metabiolism of alcohol, leading to higher levels of toxic
metabolytes after drinking.

ALLUVIUM – type of sediment described as ‘alluvial’, creating soils thath are fine grained, and fertile,
consisting of mud, silt, sand, and sometimes gravel or stones deposited by flowing water on flood
plains, in river beds, deltas and in estuaries. These soils vary in texture, drainage and age, often
changing over a few meters only. If these are stony and sany – they are highly valued for viticulture –
e.g. Medoc or Marlborough.

ALMACENISTA – from esp. ‘almacen’ = ‘store’ = term for sherry stockholder who sells wine to
shippers.

ALTERNATIVE VARIETIES – Australian name for varieties other than common international varieties.
They have their own wine show in AUS.

ALTERNATIVE VITICULTURE – aims at minimizing environmental degradation – e.g. organic and

biodynamic.

ALTITUDE = elevation of a vineyard.

AMABILE – ITA for sweet (sweeter than Abboccato)..literally ‘loveable’.

AMBIENT YEAST – present naturally at the winery, as opposed to inoculated cultured yeast.

AMELIORATION – a term that means ‘improvement’. Used as a euphemism for chemical intervention
in winemaking to make up for deficiencies. It covers terms like ‘enrichment’ and ‘chaptalisation’, and
sometimes also ‘acidification’ and ‘deacidification’.

AMERICAN HYBRIDS – group of vine hybrids developed in eastern US, early and mid 19th century, but
also earlier and recently, with cold-hardiness as the main goal. Includes hybrids between native
American vine species of the genus Vitis with a variety of European Vinifera species, resulting in
varieties like Norton, Concord, Niagara, Hebremont, Delaware, Othello. The most common parents
are American species Vitis Labrusca and Vitis Aestivalis, along with Vitis Vinifera. They are used for
wine, for non-alcoholic grape juices, and for jelly, as well as table grapes. The fruit is typically highly
flavoured, and the FOXY character of many American vines are considered by many strong and
objectionable.

AMERICAN VINES – loose term, can denote both American vine species as well as American hybrids.

AMERICAN VINE SPECIES – members of grapevine genus Vitis originating in N and S America,
including Mexico and Caribbean. Half the world’s vine species are native to America, but they are
poorly suited to winemaking, and V.Vinifera is used. An exception is V.Rotundifolia, used for sweet,
musky wine popular in southern US.

The major role of Am. Vines was to provide genetic basis for rootstocks onto which VV is grafted. By
the end of 19th century this became a necessity, to counter the louse phylloxera. The species V.
Berlandieri, V.Riparia, and V.Rupestris are the main ones used.

AMINO ACIDS – basic building block of protein.

AMPELOGRAPHY – science of description and identification of the vine genus Vitis and its varieties.
The early French ampelographers listed 24000 names of varieties in 1901-1910. Early analyses were
using grapes to categorize vines, later focus shifted in the angles between the leaf veins and other
distinguishing features of the leaves. Nowadays we have dna analysis and others. Modern studies
reveal past misnomers, showing vines of different names to be the same.

AMPHORA – latin word from the Greek for a vessel with two handles. Most amphorae would have
spiked bottom tapering to a point – which would be used for carrying when pouring. Only very few
had flat bottoms. To carry wine the inner surface was lined with pine resin. Cork or lid was used for
sealing. Nowadays, some experiment with fermentation and ageing in copies of amphorae, made of
clay and sometimes concrete.

VITIS AMURENSIS – Asian vine species named after valley in northern China. Exceptionally cold
clomate makes it useful for genes for cold-hardiness and hybrids are being developed.

ANALYSIS of grapes, must and wine – a crucial step in winemaking process.

GRAPES AND MUST – focus is on three components – sugar, acid and PH. Some acidity is lost
in winemaking as rising alcohol increases solubility of acids, and also MLF and cold stabilisation
further decrease acid, so one needs to start with higher acidity than the final target. PH must be
measured separately – two samples with the same acidity can have different PH – due to buffering
effect of ions like potassium, and due to differing organic acid profiles.

SUGARS measured by determining density of a sample of clarified grape juice. Also,

measurement of index of ferfraction gives a close estimate of its sugar content. Modern
chromatography gives extremely precise measurement. Sugar measurement is crucial especially in
cool regions. In hot regions, sugar synthesis and acid loss occurs so rapidly that picking decision is
very fast and frequent checking is necessary.

WINE – typically done in a laboratory. Assessing whether it conforms to desired outcome,

and assessing blending, shelf-life estimates and others. Measuring alcohol, total acidity, volatile
acidity, pH, density, residual sugar, microbiology, so2. Sometimes mineral analysis. Extrememly
powerful tools are available to a modern winemaker.

ANTHOCYANINS – a member of group of phenolic glycosides, responsible for color of black and red
grapes. They are also responsible for the color of red wines. Anthocyanins in plant world are
common and manifest as red to blue colors of leaves, fruits, and flowers. Another important feature
is that they can change form depending on PH of their medium – the form can be blue, red or
colorless. The more acid the brighter the red color. The less the more blue color. They can be
bleached by so2. In fermentation, one of goals is to transfer the anthocyanin pigments from skin to
the wine.

ANTHRACNOSE – fungal disease, also called ‘bird’s eye rot’ or ‘black spot’. Humid regions suffer
most. Before powdery and downy mildew it was the most serious fungal disease in EUR, but since
Bordeaux mixture it has been controllable. Fungicides applied early in season control it. Leaves can
look like peppered with gunshot, and small black spots cen develop. Affects yield and quality.

ANTINORI – one of ITA’s most important producers based in Tuscany. Modern firm founded by two
brothers in 1895, but the family history with wine goes back to 14th century. Developed reputation
for white wines and Chianti made in soft fruity style.

Together with Oenologist Giacomo Tachis, Piero Antinori created Tignanello, also Solaia which
together with Sassicaia showed potential of CS in Tuscany, and Cervaro – white based on
chardonnay and – then unusual for ITA – barrel fermented. Antinori secured holdings in every
important ITA wine region. Other joint vetures in Napa, hungary, Romania, chile etc.

Piero’s brother Lodovico created Ornellaia Supertuscan and also the all-merlot Masseto in Bolgheri.

AOC = Appelation D’Origine Controlee – France’s denomination for best wines. Sometimes
Appellation Controlee (AC). In 2010 superseded due to EU reforms in 2008 by Appellation d’Origine
Protegee (AOP) – Frnace’s PDO, but many continue to use the term AOC. About 46% of French wine
is AOP/AOC, IGP is 28%.

After phylloxera and downy and powdery mildew Languedoc and Algeria were producing cheap
wines, leading to much fraud. First laws were just limiting geography, but it was soon realized that
wrong grapes and wrong winemaking does not produce quality just because it comes from certain
region. Starting with Chateauneuf-du-Pape, winemaking, grapes, and alcoholic strength were also
limited. In 1935 INAO was created to manage AOCs based on Chateauneuf-du-Pape prototype. VDQS
category was created in 1949 for wines below AOC status, and was abolished after 2010 vintage.

The advantage is protection, disadvantage the limitation of experimentation.

AOUTEMENT – French term for cane ripening – the closest eng term is ‘periderm (shoot bark)
formation’. Usually in August in nth hem (aug in french = aout). Best wine comes from those vines
where this happens early – indicating water stress, and generous levels of carbohydrates, both
leading to rapid fruit ripening. Aoutement is thus incorporated into vineyard scoring systems to
predict wine quality.

APERA – registered in 2012 as the name to replace Sherry in AUS.

APERITIFS (Lat. Aperire = open) – drinks served before a meal to stimulate digestive system and
stimulate apetite. Wines served as aperitifs are white, dry, with lower alcohol – champagne, fino,
manzanilla sherry, mosel up to spatlese level of sweetness, less rich Alsace wines, muscadet, Chablis,
and any other light, dry still white without too much oak or alcohol. Others serve sweet wines,
spirits, VDNs, fortifieds, etc for aperitifs.

APHIDS – small insects, feeding by sucking juices form plants. Some attack grapes, but seldom cause
serious damage in vineyards.

AP NUMBER – Amtliche Prufungsnummer – on label of each German Qualitatswein. 10-12 digits

number proving the passing of official testing procedure – analysis and blind tasting. Pass rate is
above 90% though. First digit – which tasting station conducted the testing, then the code for
location of the vineyard. Penultimate pair of digits = most significant = bottler’s code to identify a
particular lot. Final two = year of testing.

ARBOUR – an overhead trellis structure used for vine training, esp. in southern Italy.

ARGILO-CALCAIRE – Fr term for soil that is a mix of limestone and clay.

ARGOLS = another word for tartrates.

ARM – woody part of vine from which canes and spurs arise. Their location depends on the training
system – may be along cordons at intervals so that the buds after pruning are spaced desirably for
the shoots, or may be on a short head at the top of the trunk. Arm and cordon are sometimes used
interchangeably but if both are present, the arm is the shorter and cordon is the longer.
ARMAZEM – portug. Word meaning ‘warehouse’. They can be low, long lodges storing port and
madeira for ageing.

ARMILLARIA ROOT ROT – worldwide fungal disease. Problematic where vines replaced trees – as it
lives in woody plant materials like roots. Slow decline, but also sudden death results. The land can be
fumigated. There are no tolerant rootstocks.

AROMA – imprecise tasting term for a relatively simple smell of grape, must or young wine.
Bouquet, in contrast, is used to describe more complex aromatic compounds resulting from
extended bottle ageing. Those who distinguish between the two terms differ on where the line is –
Uni of Bordeaux – bouquet includes fermentation smells and oak ageing and bottle ageing smells.
Burgundians, on the other hand, refer to primary aromas for grape aromas, secondary aromas for
fermentation and oak ageing, and bottle ageing aromas as tertiary or as bouquet.

AROMATICS = informal category of white wines made from particularly aromatic grape varieties.
Common term in AUS and NZ. Examples: Gewurz, pgris, Riesling. Also SB and Viognier.

AROMA WHEEL – graphic representation of tasting terms used for aroma, devised at uni of California
in early 80s. aim: provide a standardised lexicon (there was no general agreement on terminology)
as a basis for communication.

ARRACHAGE – fr for grubbing up vines. The payment, prime d’arrachage, for participating in the EUR
vine pull scheme, made its mark on FR landscape from the 80s.

ARROPE – syrup used for sweetening wine in ESP, especially sherry. Made by boiling down and thus
concentrating enfermented grape juice.

ARTIST LABELS – Mouton Rothchil did cubist label in 1924, and then made it yearly from 1945.
Collectors seek these. This makes wine sought after even in worse vintages. In AUS, Leeuwin Estate
of WA does this.

ASCORBIC ACID – vitamin C. winemaking additive used mainly as anti-oxidant. Green grape contains
significant amount, but loses much during ripening and winemaking. EU limit is 250mg/l in finished
wine. But AA won’t work as anti oxidant without SO2. In white wine making AA can be used from
crushing to bottling. In reds, some oxidation is desired so it is not used.

ASPECT – direction of slope. Especially crucial in cool climate.

ASPERSION – fr. Term for sprinkling as a measure to reduce frost.

ASSEMBLAGE – fr for final blending. Crucial in sparkling wine production – where some cuvees may
have several hundred components. Assemblage has almost ritual significance in Bordeaux where
many make their best wines by selecting and blending only their best lots. The others may make it
into Second Wine or sold off, carrying only local appellation e.g. Margaux or St.Julien.

Selection typically happens 3-6 months after harvest, involving Maitre De Chai (winemaker),
Oenologist and proprietor (exclusions from grand vin means significal financial sacrifice). Normal
procedure means tasting from each fermentation vessel.

In Burgundy holdings are too small to allow this selectivity. Chave of Hermitage in Rhone keeps lots
from different parcels separate until final assembly before bottling.

ASTRINGENCY – complex sensations resulting from the shrinking, drawing or puckering of the tissues
of the mouth. Before it was considered as one of primary taste sensations like sweetness and
bitterness (with which it had been often confused). Now recognized as a tactile response idependent
of the taste receptors. Astringent materials bind to proteins. The most important astringent
materials are tannins and these are most responsible for the puckery especially in a young red wine.
(it can also be felt in some whites, especially from the skin-fermented ones). An appropriate level of
astringency is an important contribution to the palatability of a wine, and is central to texture and
mouthfeel. Some descriptors of astringency are – hard, soft, green, resinous, leathery, gripping,
aggressive, supple – these all describe tannins. The astringent sensation may be modified by acidity,
sweetness, phenolics and particularly tannins and pigmented tannins, and even serving
temperature. These effects are studied.

ATYPICAL AGEING (ATA) or UNTYPICAL AGEING (UTA) or UNTYPISCHER ALTERUNGSNOTE – first

documented in GER, is a aroma/flavour defect resulting from heat and dry conditions immediately
before and after veraison resulting in extreme water stress. Muller-thurgau, Kerner, and Bacchus
seem particularly susceptible. Wines from hot dry regions are more prone. Affected wines lose
varietal character very early, develop untypical aromas and flavours such as naftalene, wet towel,
old furniture varnish, and may increase in bitterness. Not the saem as premature oxidation, where
some varietal qualities remain.

AUCTIONS – long historical tradition.

HOSPICES DE BEAUNE – every third Sunday in November – charity auction with feasting and
celebration over the long weekend. Candle auction.

AUSBRUCH = Ger. Equivalent of Aszu in HUN, designating sweet wines made from botrytised grapes.
Is remains a trans-regional category of Austrian wine. The term is mostly used in Rust near
Neusiedlersee in AUT. Ruster Asubruch may be made from chardonnay, SB, muskateller, pinot blanc,
and welschriesling and also furmint or even pinot noir.

AUSLESE – predikat defined by must weight at harvest. In GER these are defined fro each
combination of vine variety and region. Also, in Ger, grapes for auslese must be picked at least one
week after a preliminary picking of less ripe grapes. At their best, german auslese are long-lived,
sweet, often botrytised. Occasionally, high-alcohol dry wines have been designated Auslese Trocken,
but now decreasing – now they prefer spatlese even if the must weight is far over the minimum
required. The trend (and now official policy of VDP) is to dispense entirely with the predikat
designations for dry wines.

AUTHENTICATION – due to counterfeit wines at auctions. One popular safety measure is a prooftag
bubble tag – a translucent polymer with randomly generated constellation of bubbles. Lafite uses it,
for example. There are many other measures.

AUTOLYSIS – destruction of internal structures of cells by their own enzymes. In winemaking this is
mostly applied to dead yeast cells called lees, after the second fermentation in sparkling
winemaking. The effects are greatest if the wine is left in contact with the lees from the second
fermentation in bottle for at least 5 years, and minimal if less than 18 months. Mouthfeel improves
due to release of polysaccharides and poptides. Oxidation is inhibited with glutathione. There is
increase in amino acids which may be the precursors of flavour associated with champagne such as
acacia, biscuit, bread, and others. Autolysis also occurs with still white wines during ageing on lees.
The changes brought about in such process are desirable.

AUTOVINIFICATION – method of vinification designed to extract maximum color and tannins from
red grapes, used primarily in red port production. It involves automatic pumping over. Developed in
Algeria. Port producers were facing shortage of labour and thus had to abandon traditional foot
treading in lagares. Also lack of electricity or intermittent access. Autovinification uses pressure, and
does not need power. Buildup of pressure is used. With fermentation, co2 builds up pressure in the
vat. This drives the fermenting must up an escape valve which spills out into an open reservoir. Then
the fermenting must falls back into the vat as a spray, spraying the floating cap and extracting color
and tannin. The process repeats itself. Cycle continues until winemaker satisfied. Then the wine is
run off and fortified. At the beginning, the co2 is low so the process is slow, but with further
fermentation it speeds up and cycles every 10-15 minutes. Original autovinifiers were resin-lined
concrete vessels. Modern ones are stainless steel and are equipped with refrigeration units to
prevent must overheating.

AVA – American viticultural area, US appellation system of permitted geographical designations.

Started to develop early 80s through BATF – bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms. AVAs are
defined by geographic and climatic boundaries and historic authenticity rather than political
boundaries, but this is not invariably true. No limitations on varieties planted, yields, or other
processes. The only requirement is 85% of wine on label must be from stated region. If the wine is a
varietal, then 75% of named variety must come from the named AVA. Some new AVAs are created
just to capitalize commercially as these get higher prices than generic labels – San Francisco Bay is
one recent one.

AVERYS – historic wine merchant founded in England 1793 in Bristol (three years before arch rival
Harveys of Bristol). Still operates. In 1987 the company lost its independence and was acquired by
Laithwaite in 2006.

AXR1 – rootstock variety used in Northern California in late 80s. revealed that it was not resistant to
phylloxera.

AZIENDA – ita for business. Azienda Agricola is equivalent to FRA Domaine – and appears on label if
wine grown and produced on estate. Azienda Vinicola = may buy grapes elsewhere. Azienda
Vitivinicola cambines the two activities.

BACCHUS – common name in Ancient Roe for classical god of wine whom the Greeks called Bacchos
but more often Dionysus. Also a name for GER cross of SilvanerxRiesling with Muller-Thurgau. Lacks
acidity. Ripens and achieves must weights where Riesling and others do not. In UK it is 2nd most
planted white after Chardonnay.

BACTERIA – in winemaking 2 bacteria are important – acetobacter and lactic acid bacteria. Grape
juice and wine both have high acidity and so other bacteria are not capable of living. No bacteria
pathogenic to humans can survive in wine – safer to drink than water.

BACTERIAL DISEASES of vine – Pierce’s disease is most serious and quarantine authorities around the
world are anxious to stop its spread from America. It can disable commercial viticulture.

BACTERIAL SPOILAGE - range of wine faults including gas, haze, cloud, and off flavours generated by
bacteria in wine – either acetobacter or lactic acid bacteria. Acetobacter turns wine to vinegar if
there is access to oxygen. Lactic acid bacteria can have various effects inlcuding a range of
unpleasant smelling compounds. But these are rare today due to great care by makers (hygiene,
sterilisation).

BALANCE – essential for quality in both vine and wine.

 VINE – vine is in balance when leaf to fruit ratio is in the right range. Amount of early season
shoot growth needs to be proportional to the amount of carbohydrates stored. One of best
measures of vine balance is the so called Ravaz index, measuring ratio of fruit yield to pruning
weight (pruning weight = combined weight of cane prunings removed in winter). A balanced vine has
shoots of moderate vigor with no shoot tip growth during fruit ripening. Leaves are of moderate size
and in such number that excess shade is avoided.

Example of imbalance in vine – shade depresses budbreak, Fruitset and berry growth – as a result
fruit weight per shoot is reduced – as a result shoot growth is stimulated due to less fruit growing –
as a result canopy density increases – as a result there is yet more shade and cycle repeats.

Balance – light stimulates correct growth – fruit weight increases – shootgrowth is depressed to
support fruit – canopy density is less and thus allows more light.

WINE – is in balance when alcohol strength, acidity, residual sugar, tannins and fruit are in
balance and complement each other while no one component overpowers the others or becomes
obtrusive on the palate. Balance is unrelated to flavour.

BALANCED PRUNING – the number of buds left on the vine in winter pruning should be judged
relative to the vine’s capacity early in the growing season to support the growth of shoots. Stored
carbohydrates determine how many shoots can be sustained. One formula is to keep 30 buds for
each 2 kgs of pruning weight. Experienced growers just look at the vine and know how well it grew.

If too few buds are left – shoots will grow quickly in spring and have leaves that are too big and
stems too thick. This is high leaf to fruit ratio, and may result in poor Fruitset, and shaded
microclimate causing loss of yield and quality. This happens to vines planted close together on fertile
soil commonly.

If too many buds are left – shoots will develop slowly in spring, leaves small and stems spindly. Leaf
area may become too small to support grape growth – slow ripening and quality poor. This is often
called Overcropping.

BALLING – scale of measuring total dissolved compounds in grape juice, and therefore approximate
measure of grape sugar concentration. Similar to BRIX scale used in US.

BARREL – the bulge is for rolling and turning easily, and also for collecting sediment in one place so
that wine can be racked off easily. More than half of world production is French. The word barrel is
conventionally used for barrels small enough to be moved. The word VAT is reserved for larger,
permanent containers, sometimes with an open top. The term cooperage (ˈkuːp(ə)rɪdʒ) = collective
noun for all wooden containers (‘cooper’ is the artisan making these). The word Cask is the term for
wooden containers of all sizes. Barrel maturation = in barrel, cask ageing = in larger wooden
container.

A barrel is made of staves shaped into a bulging cylinder, with hoops around it, a flat circular head at
both ends, and at least one hole for a bung.

BARREL ALTERNATIVES – oak chips, barrel inserts (pieces of wood added to a barrel that is too old to
add flavour), inner staves and sometimes micro-oxygenation. They save money and space, and are
becoming sophisticated. Since 2006 some barrel alternatives are permitted in EU, but are forbidden
in some PDO wines.

BARREL FERMENTATION – fermenting grape juice or must in small barrels. Used mainly for white
wines – the skin mass would be hard to extract through the small bung hole. But in 90s fermentation
of red in barrels increased in popularity, claiming to improve oak integration and mouthfeel. In
Burgundy, Cali and especially AUS some red are put into barrels still fermenting, making softer, more
approachable wines. Others, encouraged by the success of this, ferment small batches entirely in
barrels, sometimes with open top, sometimes with bung-hole replaced with a special opening at the
top sometimes with a paddle to break up the cap. Proponents claim better color concentration,
softer tannins and increased stability.

Barrel fermentation suits chardonnay and some finest sweet wines well. It is a natural prelude to
barrel maturation and lees stirring.

White wine that is fermented and stored in oak with lees has a softened less obvious and more
integrated oak flavour than wine fermented in larger container and then moved to oak for ageing.
This might be because yeast acts on highly aromatic oak falvour molecules and transform them into
less aromatic substances. But secondary fermentation aromas are unaffected by barrel
fermentation. Barrel ferm also gives large increase in polysaccharides – complex sugars, which add
richness and apparent length of flavour on the palate.

White wines matured for a few months on their lees in barrel have typically a lighter color than
those put into barrel after ferm. Lees cause pigment to precipitate. So lees are a barrier protecting
against oak flavours and also against color. If lees stirring, the effect is even more powerful - wines
will be even paler and less tannic.

In barrel the ferm temp will be higher than steel (no temp control system) – this will cause loss of
floral falvours and reduction of most obvious white wine aromas reminiscent of tropical fruit. Less
perfume, and higer alcohol – perceived as fuller body.

Disadvantages of BF – small size of barrel, time to clean, fill, and empty it. New barrels are
expensive, so this technique is restricted to higher-priced wines. Non-sterility means bacterial
danger, or undesirable yeast. With reds, even more complicated due to cap management, and skin
and seed removal afterwards. Sometimes barrels are stored on rollers and turned to keep cap mixed
with must.

Barrel maintenance – may be filled with water to check for leaks and to let wood expand and seal
better. In 70s, soda ash was used in new world, but it is now known that it ages the barrel
prematurely and removes barrel’s toast, and makes the wine more tannic. Some use ammonia to
rinse barrels. It is harsh, but provides nutrients for fermentation.

Unused barrels have the risk of acetobacter. Every month, they should be rinsed and dried carefully,
then treated with so2 and bunged up. Then they need to be stored in same conditions as full barrels
– low temp and relatively high humidity. This is costly so makers order precise number of barrels
they need.

American oak is much less porous than European – it does not need to follow grain strictly and are
sawed, and European oak is hand-split or machine-split with axe – a costly process with a lot of
wastage. Sawing exposes more grain and thus add more raw tannins to wine.

Air drying – harsh tannins seem to be leached out of the wood and the wines taste less aggressively
tannic than kiln-dried wood. But AUS research showed that tannin levels do not change during
drying, but sensory effect does – FRE oak tannins become less noticeable, and American oak more
with seasoning. Also, temp and humidity affect how oak dries, so different regions of drying will
produce different falvour profiles.
Wood can be bent when heated. Heating modifies chemical and physical composition of wood,
largely influencing the wine stored. Toasting produces aromatic compounds. The question is how
much and how fast to toast? Also, barrel can be heated with steam, hot water, gas fire, wood fire.
Some combine these. There are three stages – warming, shaping and toasting – the last stage
determines the level of toast. If this is done with boiling water and steam = no blisters inside = easier
to clean, but the wine won’t get the ‘toasty’ flavour.

Making of barrels – cutting trees (over 100 years old ideal) in autumn or winter when sap is down –
splitting or sawing into staves – drying (naturally outside 18-36 months away from pollution, or using
kilns – up to 12 months) – assembling – shaping and toasting – heads fitted – bung hole drilling.

BARREL MATURATION – imparting oak flavour, and preparing for bottle ageing. Most obvious
advantage is that it encourages clarification and stabilization of the wine in most natural way (but
not fastest). It also deepens and stabilizes the color and softens tannins, as well as increases flavour
complexity of the compounds.

Obvious secondary flavour characteristic comes from oxygen exposure – slow oxygenation. Fresh
grapey aromas are reduced and small tannin molecules conglomerate – this changes color to gold in
whites and softens the astringency in both reds and whites. In reds, oxygenation aids formation of
pigmented tannins with colors that are more permanent than anthocyanins.

Bordeaux is the paradigm of barrel maturation – top quality wines are put into barrels of light to
medium toast immediately after MLF, and left for two years. Racking is doen every 3-4 months,
helping clarification, softening oak flavour, and adding oxygen exposure. Oxygenation is encouraged
the first 6 months, leaving the barrels with the bung up – then they are rotated to reduce the oxygen
access. Fining is done at the start of the 2nd year, further encouraging stabilisation.

PN lacks the tannic structure and if it is matured in the same way it will become bitter and
excessively tannic. But by racking PN into barrel right after fermentation and allowing MLF to
happen in the barrel leads to better integration of wood and wine, with greater flavour complexity.
Some started to apply this PN trick to CS, zinfandel and others, allowing MLF to happen in the barrel.
Even some Bordeaux properties are doing this – leading to wines more approachable in youth.

Many top quality whites are barrel fermented and then barrel matured – leading to much better
wood and wine integration as compared to putting wine into barrel only after ferm.

BARRIQUE BORDELAISE is the berdeaux barrel – 225L.probably the most famous barrel of all.
About 95cm high, staves 20mm thick.

Tonneau = 900l. Also Bordeaux. No longer exists.

Burgundy – standard barrel is 228l here, 88cm high. Staves thicker, 27mm.

Chablis – Geuillette – 132l – increasingly rare.

Champagne – 205l is standard barrel.

Germany – Fuder = 1000l in Mosel, and Stuck (umlaut) on Rhine = 1200l.

Spain – Butt for Sherry.

Portugal – Pipe.

ITA – Botti = old wooden casks, from Slavonian oak. Various capacities.
 HUN – Gonci = 136l in tokaj.

AUS – Hogsheads 300l, puncheons 450l. suitable for 21st century trend towards more
restrained oak use.

BASAL BUDS – also ‘base buds’, group of barely visible buds at the bottom of a shoot or cane. They
do not normally burst unless vines are severely pruned, and they are of low fruitfulness.

BASALT – dark, fine-grained rock. They weather to provide a range of nutrinets. Reradiating heat
(study shows that this effect operates chiefly during the day, not at night as thought previously).
Basalt almost always co-occurs with volcanic materials like tuff. It occurs in VIC (King Valley and
Macedon Ranges) and Hunter Valley. Also in Hungary and Israel.

BATONNAGE – lees stirring

BAUMÉ – scale of measuring total dissolved compounds in grape juice, and therefore approximate
concentration of grape sugars. Used in much of EUR, and AUS (other scales are BRIX and OESCHLE).
Measured with either refractometer or hydrometer. This scale is particularly useful for winemaking
since the number of degrees baume indicates the potential alcohol in percentage by volume (e.g. 12
degrees beaume would produce 12% alcohol if fermented to dryness).

BEAD – the progress sof bubbles in sparkling wine. A fine bead = steady stream of fine bubbles.

BEARER – viticultural term for pruning to the fruting unit of the vine – could be canes or shorter
spurs bearing the buds, hence the ‘bearer’.