A Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved.

May not be reproduced in any form without

permission from SPWLA

abandon To cease producing oil or gas from a well when it becomes

unprofitable. A wildcat may be abandoned after it has been
proved nonproductive. Sometimes, before a well is abandoned,
some of the casing is removed and salvaged. Usually, one or
more cement plugs are placed in the borehole to prevent
migration of fluids between the various formations. In many
states, abandonment must be approved by an official regulatory
agency before being undertaken.

abnormal Any pore pressure which differs from normal pore pressure. It
pressure may be either higher than normal pore pressure (super-normal)
or lower than normal pore pressure (subnormal). See
overpressure and underpressure.
absolute The permeability of a rock measured when only one fluid phase
permeability is present in the rock. Usually measured in millidarcies or
darcies. See permeability. Compare effective permeability and
relative permeability.

absolute pressure Pressure relative to an ideal vacuum. Gage pressure plus

atmospheric pressure.

absolute A measure of temperature in which zero degrees is absolute zero.

temperature scale Temperature measured in degrees Kelvin (°K) from absolute
zero (–273.16° C) or degrees Rankine (°R) from absolute zero (–
459.69° F).

°K = °C + 273.16
°R = °F + 459.69

absolute zero A hypothetical temperature at which all thermal motion of atoms

ceases. A total absence of heat.

absorption (1) The process of soaking up or taking in by capillary, osmotic,

chemical, or solvent action.

(2) The process by which radiation loses some or all of its energy
to any material through which it passes. See also photoelectric
absorption.

accelerator A device used for accelerating the velocity of electrons, or

nuclear particles to high energies. For example, an accelerator is
used in pulsed neutron logging where deuterium is accelerated to
strike a tritium target to produce neutrons.

acid Any chemical compound, one element of which is hydrogen, that

dissociates in solution to produce free hydrogen ions. See ion.
For example, hydrochloric acid, HCl, dissociates in water to
produce hydrogen ions, H+, and chloride ions, Cl–. This reaction
is expressed chemically as HCl H+ + Cl–. See dissociation.

acid stimulation Acidizing of a well. Process of introducing acid into a well to

dissolve acid soluble materials, in the wellbore or in reservoir
rock near the wellbore, which might be restricting fluid flow.
Acid-soluble materials in the reservoir rock might occur
naturally or might have been introduced during the drilling or
completion process of the well. Commonly used acids are
hydrochloric and mixtures of hydrochloric and hydrofluoric;
although other mineral acids and organic acids have been used,
notably citric acid and acetic acid.
acid treatment See acid stimulation.

acidize See acid stimulation.

acre-foot A unit of volume often used in oil-reservoir analysis. Equivalent

to the volume (as of oil or water) necessary to cover 1 acre to a
depth of 1 foot.

acre-ft. acre-foot.

acoustic Of or pertaining to sound.

acoustic log A record of a well-logging measurement of one or more specific

characteristics of acoustic waves propagated in and around the
liquid-filled wellbore.

(1) The interval transit time, usually of the compressional wave,

is recorded on such logs as the sonic log, continuous velocity
logs, and borehole compensated sonic and Acoustilogs.

(2) The amplitude of part of the propagated acoustic wave, such

as the compressional wave or shear wave is the measurement
recorded on other well logs. These are the amplitude log, cement
bond log, and fracture logs.

(3) The acoustic wave train of the propagated acoustic wave is

displayed in the amplitude-time mode on full wave train logs
such as signature logs or character logs; whereas the wave train
is shown in the intensity modulated-time mode on variable
density logs, variable intensity logs, 3-D Velocity Logs, or
Micro-Seismogram Logs.

(4) Includes logs resulting from the measurements of travel time

and amplitude of reflected acoustic energy. Tools making such
 measurements are the borehole televiewer and sonar caliper.

(5) Also includes logs produced by devices which detect and

measure the amplitude of sound waves in the audible frequency
range. Audible sound might emanate from liquid or gas
movements in the wellbore environment. Tools developed to
make such measurements are used in audio or noise logging
techniques.

acoustic travel (1) The total time required for a specific acoustic wave to travel
time from one point to another.

(2) interval transit time. The time required for a compressional

wave (usually) to travel from one point to another separated by a
distance of unit length (usually one foot).

acoustic velocity AVL. See acoustic log part (1).

log

acoustic wave An elastic wave, seismic wave. A sound wave in which the
disturbance propagated through a medium is an elastic
deformation of the medium. The wave train which results from
the emission of an acoustic pulse by a well logging device is
detected by one or more detectors mounted on the sonde and
various aspects of it are measured (see acoustic log). The wave
train is a composite of various modes of energy transfer. The
first arrival usually results from compressional waves traveling
in the formation; the inverse of its velocity is measured by sonic
tools. A second arrival is sometimes identified as shear waves
traveling in the formation. The velocity of the compressional
waves traveling through the mud is frequency dependent and has
relatively high frequency content. On the other hand, surface
waves of relatively low frequency travel along the borehole wall
at lower velocities and are usually called tube waves or pseudo-
Stoneley waves. See also wave train.

Acoustilog A sonic log. See acoustic log. Acoustilog is a Dresser Atlas

trademark.
activation See neutron activation.

activation logging A well-logging technique in which the formation in the near

environment of the irradiating tools is irradiated with neutrons
which transform some nuclei into radioisotopes. The specific
radioactive isotopes which are produced by activation of the
nuclei can be detected by their characteristic induced
radioactivity energy levels and decay-time schemes. This
provides a means for identifying the elements originally present.
See also induced spectral gamma-ray log and neutron activation.

activity The activity of an ion species is its thermodynamic equivalent

concentration; i.e., the ion concentration corrected for the
deviation from ideal behavior caused by the interionic attraction
of ions. It is this interaction between ions which tends to cause
the electrical conductivity of a solution to be less than that
predicted from the number of ions present. Only at infinite
dilution are the ions completely free of the influence of other
ions in solution.

Ionic activity is used in expressing the variation of electrode

potentials and other electrochemical phenomena (e.g., SP). At
low concentrations, the chemical activity of a solution of a given
salt is roughly proportional to its salt content; i.e., roughly
proportional to its conductivity or inversely to its resistivity. In
concentrated solutions, the relation between conductivity and
concentration is complex and depends on individual solute
properties.

adapter A short, threaded piece or coupling used to adapt parts of the

logging tool that cannot otherwise be coupled together because
of difference in thread size or design.

adiabatic An adiabatic process is one in which there is no exchange of heat

with the surroundings. The relationship of pressure and volume
when a gas or other fluid is compressed or expanded with no loss
or gain of heat. In an adiabatic process, compression causes an
 increase in temperature and expansion a decrease in temperature.

adsorption A type of adhesion which takes place at the surface of a solid or

a liquid in contact with liquid or gases. Adsorption results in the
accumulation of molecules of gases, or ions or molecules of
liquids, at the surfaces of contacting solids or liquids.

A electrode The current-emitting electrode in the configuration of current

and potential-measuring electrodes of a resistivity-measuring
device. Compare B electrode. See normal and lateral devices.

aerated zone See zone of aeration.

AIME The American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical. and Petroleum

Engineers. The New York City-based parent group of the
Society of Petroleum Engineers. The SPE, headquartered in
Dallas, Tex., publishes the "Journal of Petroleum Technology."

air drilling A method of rotary drilling that uses compressed air as its
circulation medium. This method of removing cuttings from the
wellbore is as efficient or more efficient than the traditional
methods using water or drilling mud. In addition. the rate of
penetration is increased considerably when air drilling is used. A
principal problem in air drilling is the penetration of formations
containing water, since the entry of water into the system
reduces its efficiency.

alkaline (1) Having the properties of a base.

(2) Containing sodium and/or potassium in excess of the amount

needed to form feldspar with the available silica; e.g., an alkaline
rock-in this sense sometimes written alkalic.

(3) Containing ions of one or more alkali metals.

 (4) Waters containing more than average amounts of carbonates
of sodium, potassium, magnesium, or calcium.

alpha The ratio of the pseudo-static SP (PSP) to the static SP (SSP).

Alpha bears an inverse relationship with clayiness.

alpha particle A particle identical to the helium nucleus which has been ejected
from the nucleus of an atom as a form of radiation. When the
alpha particle slows down it picks up two electrons, becoming an
atom of helium. The penetrating power of an alpha particle is
low; a thin sheet of paper will stop most alpha particles. The
readjustment which takes place within the parent nucleus results
in gamma radiation.

alpha ring A common Welex name for guarded electrode.

allogenic Descriptive of detrital rock constituents and minerals derived

elsewhere from older formations and redeposited. Compare
authigenic.

American API. Founded in 1920, this national oil trade organization is the
Petroleum leading standardizing organization on oil-field drilling and
Institute producing equipment. It maintains departments of transportation,
refining, and marketing in Washington, D.C., and a department
of production in Dallas.

amorphous Without form. A term applied to rocks and minerals having no

definite crystalline structure.

AM spacing The notation used to refer to the distance between the current
electrode (A) and the potential-measuring electrode (M) of the
normal device.
amplified curve A curve recorded on a more sensitive scale; e.g., the amplified
short normal curve.

amplitude log A record of the amplitude of the compression wave or shear

wave portion of the acoustic wave propagated through the
borehole environment in acoustic logging. See also cement bond
log and fracture log.

amplitude-time An acoustic wave train display mode. A trace of the acoustic

wave train in the X-Y plane in which the amplitude of each point
on the wave train is represented as a function of time. See
acoustic log. Compare intensity modulated-time or variable
density. See illustration at wave train display.

anhydrite The common name for the naturally occurring calcium sulfate.
Anhydrite is calcium sulfate (CaSO4 ) existing in the
orthorhombic crystalline form. The anhydrite crystal cannot
become a gypsum crystal (monoclinic form) in a single
hydration step. Anhydrite must first become dissociated in
solution before it can crystallize as gypsum (or recrystallize as
anhydrite). Compare gypsum.

anion A negatively charged ion.

anisotropic Of or pertaining to anisotropy. See anisotropy.

anisotropy The property of a rock which allows it to show different

responses or measurements when measured along different axes.
Microscopic anisotropy relates to the variation of a property
measured perpendicular to the bedding from that measured
parallel to the bedding because plate-like mineral grains and
interstices tend to orient themselves parallel to the bedding.
Macroscopic anisotropy relates to the variation resulting from
 thin beds and fracture planes whose properties differ appreciably
from those of the remaining volume over which a measurement
is made.

annular space See annulus parts (1) and (2).

annulus (1) That space between a drill pipe and the formations through
which the drilling fluid (mud) returns to the surface.

(2) The space between tubing and casing or between casing and
formation.

(3) A ring of interstitial water produced by invasion processes in

hydrocarbon-bearing beds when both hydrocarbon and
interstitial water phases have mobility and their mobilities are
different.

When Rxo > Ro the annulus will be more conductive than the
flushed zone (Rxo) or the uninvaded oil-bearing zone (Rt). When
Rxo < Ro, the resistivity of the annulus will be intermediate
between that of the flushed zone (Rxo) and the uninvaded oil-
bearing zone (Rt).
anticline A subsurface fold structure in which beds dip in opposite
directions from a common ridge or axis. A fold that is concave
downwards. See illustration in fold.

AO spacing This notation refers to the distance between the current electrode
(A) and a point (O) midway between the potential-measuring
electrodes (M and N) of the lateral device. On the reciprocal
sonde, it is the distance between the M electrode and a point (O)
midway between the current electrodes (A and B).

API See American Petroleum Institute.

API gravity The measure of gravity of liquid petroleum products on the
North American continent, derived from specific gravity in
accordance with the following equation:

API gravity is expressed in degrees, a specific gravity of 1.0

being equal to 10 °API.

API log grid The API log grid is the standard format used by all logging
companies for recording well-logging measurements in the
petroleum industry. This log grid has one track on the left side of
the depth column and two on the right. The tracks are 2.5 inches
wide and the depth column is 0.75 inches wide. The tracks may
be divided into linear scale or logarithmic scale. See scale for
illustration.

API test pits Calibration pits, located at the API nuclear log calibration
facility at the University of Houston, used for the calibration or
standardization of gamma-ray logging responses and neutron
logging responses into API units.
API unit A unit of counting rate used for scaling gamma-ray logs and
neutron logs.

(1) For gamma-ray curves. The difference in curve deflection

between zones of low and high radiation in the API gamma-ray
calibration pit is 200 API gamma-ray units. One two-hundredth
of this deflection is one API gamma-ray unit.

(2) For neutron curves. The difference between electrical zero

and the curve deflection opposite a zone of Indiana limestone
(19% porosity) in the API neutron calibration pit is 1,000 API
units. One one-thousandth of this deflection is one API neutron
unit.

apparent Resistivity recorded on a resistivity well log which may differ

resistivity from true resistivity because of the influence on the measured
response caused by the presence of the mud column, invaded
zone, adjacent beds, borehole cavities, etc. These values may
need correction prior to use in any computation.

apparent value The uncorrected value of a curve recorded directly on a log.

aquicide A relatively impermeable stratum that does not transmit water

fast enough to supply a well or spring.

aquifer (1) A water-bearing stratum of permeable rock, sand, or gravel

capable of producing water.

(2) In a petroleum reservoir with a natural water drive, the

aquifer is that part of the reservoir containing water.

arch Sand arch. The arch of sand created outside of an orifice or

perforation on the formation side of casing or liner. For example,
in unconsolidated sandstone the rock must have the property of
dilatancy, or the property to expand, before the arch will form.
The resulting arch, caused by the interlocking and wedging
together of sand grains, prevents the flow of sand through a
perforation. Cohesion is imparted to the loose grains forming the
arch when the wetting phase is at irreducible saturation.

Archie's formulas Empirical relationships between the formation resistivity factor

F, porosity φ, water saturation Sw , and resistivities in clean
granular rocks.
 where m = porosity exponent,
Ro = resistivity of the formation when 100%
saturated with formation water,
Rw = formation water resistivity,
Rt = true resistivity of the formation,
n = saturation exponent.

arenaceous Pertaining to sand or sandy rocks (as, aranaceous shale).

argillaceous Rocks or substances composed of clay minerals, or having

notable proportion of clay in their composition such as shale and
slate.

arkose A sandstone containing 25% or more of feldspars, usually

derived from silicic igneous rocks.

arm (1) A bow spring or lever on a downhole tool which presses

against the borehole wall to centralize the tool, to push the tool
to the opposite side of the borehole, or to hold a sensor pad to the
borehole wall.

(2) To prepare a perforating gun so that it will fire when the

firing switch at the surface is operated. This usually requires
connecting the detonator and/or completing the electrical wiring
in the gun.

armor Layers of steel wire wrapped around insulated electrical

conductors of a survey cable. The strength of the cable under
tension is related to the number of wire strands in the armor and
their condition. See also weak point.
aromatic Pertaining to hydrocarbons, a liquid or solid hydrocarbon having
the formula CnH2n–6. Such compounds contain the benzene ring.
Compare paraffinic.

arrow plot A display of dipmeter or drift measurements. See tadpole plot.

artesian water Ground water that has sufficient hydraulic pressure to rise above
its aquifer. This water might or might not have sufficient
hydraulic pressureto rise above its aquifer. This water might or
might not have sufficient pressure to rise to or above the surface
of the ground.

artificial lift Any method used to raise oil to the surface through a well, after
reservoir pressure has declined to the point at which the well no
longer produces by means of natural energy. Sucker-rod pumps,
hydraulic pumps, submersible pumps, and gas lift are the most
common methods of artificial lift.

asphalt A dark colored bitumen found as a natural deposit. Crude oil of

high asphaltic content will leave asphalt as a residue when
subjected to distillation to remove the lighter fractions. Asphalt
is dark brown or black in color ans at room temperatures usually
is solid.

atmospheric The pressure exerted over the surface of the earth by the weight
pressure of the atmosphere. At sea level, this pressure is approximately
14.7 psia.

atom The smallest particle of an element which can exist alone, or in

combination with similar particles of the same of different
elements.
atomic number The number of protons within an atomic nucleus, or the number
of orbital electrons in a "neutral" atom.

atomic weight Atomic mass. The relative weight of an atom on the basis that
carbon is 12. For a pure isotope, the atomic weight rounded off
to the nearest integer equal to the total number of neutrons and
protons in the atomic nucleus.

attenuation When a form of energy is propogated through a medioum, its

amplitude is decreased. This decrease is termed attenuation. See
also wave train.

audio logging See noise logging.

authigenic Descriptive of rock constituents and minerals which are formed

or generated in the location where they are found.

Authigenic materials ussually are formed subsequent to

deposition, but might be formed at the time of deposition.
Compare allogenic.
azimuth (1) In well logging. In a horizontal plane, it is the clockwise
angle of departure from magnetic north. See also magnetic
declination.

(2) Curve recorded in dipmeter surveys. Looking down the hole,

it is the clockwise angle from magnetic north to the reference
electrode number 1 on the sonde or tool.

(3) In land surveying. It is the clockwise angle of departure in a

horizontal plane from true north.
azimuth A diagram on polar chart paper which presents only a count of
frequency plot the number of dip azimuth measurements which fall within each
ten-degree sector, within a given group of dips. Dip magnitude is
ignored. See illustration in azimuth.
B Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without
permission from SPWLA

background The radiation intensity existing in the environment which is in

radiation addition to the specfic radiation under consideration. On the
surface, this is the ionizing radiation produced by cosmic
irradiation and naturally occurring trace amounts of radioactive
elements. In the subsurface, this is the naturally occurring
radiation prior to the introduction of radioactive tracer materials
or activation.

back-pressure The pressure maintained on equipment or systems through which

a fluid flows.

back-up curve A curve recorded by a back-up galvanometer.

back-up A galvanometer which begins to record when the primary

galvanometer galvanometer has reached the limit of available track width or
goes off scale. The back-up galvaometer will be either less
sensitive than the primary galvanometer or have a shifted scale.

ball sealers Balls made of nylon, hard rubber, or both, and used to shut off
perforations through which excessive fluid is lost.

barefoot See openhole completion.

completion

barite BaSO4. A natural mineral used as weighting material in drilling

mud.
barn 10–24 cm2. A unit of measure for capture cross section.

barrel Petroleum barrel. A unit of measure for crude oil and oil
products equal to 42 U.S. gallons.

basalt A fine-grained igneous rock dominated by dark-colored

minerals, consisting of plagioclase feldspars (a calcium-sodium-
aluminum-silicate, usually present in amounts over 50%), and
ferromagnesium silicates. Basalts and andesites represent about
98% of all extrusive igneous rocks.

base A substance capable of combining with charged hydrogen atoms

(ions) to form a salt. A typical base is sodium hydroxide
(caustic), with the chemical symbol NaOH.

base exchange See ion exchange.

base-line shift (1) Generally refers to a naturally occurring shift of the base line
of any specific curve; e.g., the SP curve. Usually the base line
referred to is the shale base line, but could be the sand base line
or other base line.

(2) Sometimes refers to a manual or electrical shift in the curve

produced by the logging engineer. See manual shift.

basement A complex of undifferentiated rocks that underlies the oldest

sedimentary rocks. In many places the rocks of the complex are
igneous and metamorphic and of Precambrian age, but in some
places they are Paleozoic, Mesozoic, or even Cenozoic. In terms
of petroleum exploration, basement is the surface below which
there is no current exploration interest.
basin A synclinal structure in the subsurface, once the bed of an
ancient sea. Basins, in which sediments have accumulated. are
regarded as good prospects for oil exploration.

bearing See relative bearing.

bed A subdivision of a stratified sequence of rocks, lower in rank

than a member or formation, internally composed of relatively
homogeneous material exhibiting some degree of lithologic
unity, and separated from the rocks above and below by visually
or physically more or less well defined boundary planes.

bedding planes In sedimentary or stratified rocks, the division planes that

separate the individual layers, beds, or strata.

bedrock A general term for the rock, usually solid, that underlies soil or
other unconsolidated, superficial material.

bed thickness (1) True bed thickness is the thickness of the stratigraphic unit
measured along a line normal to the direction of extension of the
unit. True thickness can be derived from information determined
by the dipmeter.

(2) The bed thickness determined from some well logs is an

apparent bed thickness corresponding to the distance the
borehole remained in the bed. The borehole may not have
penetrated the bed normal to its upper or lower boundary surface
because of hole deviation and formation dip. See also true
vertical depth.

B electrode A current-return electrode in the current and measure electrode

configuration of a resistivity measuring device. Compare A
electrode. See also normal and lateral device.
bentonite A colloidal clay, composed of montmorillonite, which swells
when wet. Because of its gel-forming properties, bentonite is a
major component of drilling muds. See gel and mud.

beta particle A high speed disintegration electron (i.e., negatron or positron)

spontaneously emitted from an atomic nucleus as a form of
radiation. Electrons (negative or positive) do not exist in nuclei;
they are created at the moment of emission and are accompanied
by the transition of a neutron into a proton, or a proton into a
neutron. The atomic number of the nuclide is changed by a +1 or
a –1 with no significant change in atomic weight. A beta particle
can penetrate only a few millimeters of rock.

BHT Bottomhole temperature, usually obtained by maximum reading

thermometers.

bi-metallism Existence of contact between two dissimilar metals in the

logging instrument which results in a spurious emf. If electrical
leaks exist between the metals and the borehole fluid, a circuit
will be completed in the borehole fluid through which electrical
current will flow. Opposite resistive beds, the lines of current are
distorted and current flow is confined to the borehole. When this
current crosses the SP electrode it distorts the SP curve.

bit A cutting device attached to the bottom end of the drill pipe. Its
function is to perform the actual boring or drilling of the rock
formations.

blasting cap Electrical blasting cap, a detonator. An electrically activated

explosive device used to detonate high explosives (e.g., shaped
charges).

blind ram An integral part of a blowout preventer, serving as the closing

 element. Its ends do not fit around the drill pipe but seal against
each other and shut off the space below completely. See rams.

blind zone Shadow zone. Commonly observed on curves recorded by a

lateral device. A zone wherein the recorded resistivity is too low.
This zone corresponds to the depth interval logged while a thin
resistive bed of thickness less than the AO spacing is between
the A electrode and the midpoint of the measure electrodes. See
also reflection peak.

BLM See Bureau of Land Management.

blowout A sudden, uncontrolled flow of drilling fluid, oil, gas, or water

from a wellbore when the formation pressure in a permeable
formation exceeds the pressure in the borehole. A kick
sometimes warns of low pressure in the borehole.

blowout preventer BOP. (1) A safety device for closing the wellhead, which has
rubber rams which can be closed down on the logging cable in
the event the well begins to blow out. Blowout preventers may
be connected in series for improved control. See illustration at
lubricator. See also riser, stuffing box, hydraulic packing head,
and flow tube.
 (2) Equipment installed at the wellhead at surface level on land
rigs and on the seafloor of floating offshore rigs to prevent the
escape of pressurized fluids either in the annular space between
the casing and drill pipe or in an open hole during drilling and
completion operations. See also rams.

blue pattern A convention used in dipmeter interpretation. A blue pattern

denotes decreasing formation dip with increasing depth with a
uniform azimuth. The blue color is sometimes drafted on the
tadpole plot of the computed dipmeter log. Compare green
pattern and red pattern. See dip for illustration.

boiling point The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid becomes
equal to the pressure exerted on the liquid by the surrounding
atmosphere. The boiling point of water is 212°F or 100°C at
atmospheric pressure (14.7 psig).

bomb A thick-walled container, usually steel. used to hold samples of

oil or gas under pressure. See bottomhole pressure.

bond (1) The state of one material adhering or being joined to another
material (as cement to formation). See cement bond.

(2) To adhere or to be joined to another material.

bond index The ratio of attenuation in zone of interest (db/ft) to attenuation

in well-cemented section (db/ft). The computed bond index
value is an indicator of the quality of cement bond. Both the
value of the bond index and the length of cemented interval
exhibiting the calculated index value must be considered in
estimating the quality of isolation to be expected.

BOP See blowout preventer.

borehole The hole made by the drill bit into earthen formations.

borehole camera See camera.

borehole A well log of the interval transit lime: i.e., the time required for a
compensated compression wave to travel one foot in the formation (generally
sonic log in microseconds per foot); the reciprocal of the compressional
velocity. The borehole compensated sonic sonde carries two sets
of transducers, one with its transmitter above its receiver pair
and one with its transmitter below. The transmitters are pulsed
alternately, and the alternate measurements are averaged.
Spurious effects caused by borehole-size changes, and sonde tilt,
which would affect a measurement with a single set of
transducers, are thereby substantially reduced.
borehole effect The spurious influence on a well-logging measurement due to
the influence of the borehole environment; e.g., diameter, shape,
rugosity of the wall of the borehole, type of borehole fluid, and
presence of mud cake.

borehole A gravimeter designed for use in a borehole and equipped for

gravimeter remote leveling and reading at precisely determined well depths.
It can be used to determine bulk density deep, laterally within a
formation. See gravimeter.
borehole gravity A borehole gravimeter.
meter

borehole log See well log.

borehole A well-logging system wherein a pulsed, narrow acoustic (sonar)

televiewer beam scans the borehole wall in a tight helix as the tool moves
up the borehole. A display of the amplitude of the reflected wave
on a cathode ray tube (television screen) is photographed
yielding a picture of the borehole wall. The picture is a
representation of the wellbore wall as if it were split vertically
along magnetic north and laid out flat. Physical discontinuities
such as fractures, vugs, etc. are detailed on the log. The tool may
be used for casing inspection, without the magnetic orientation
for location of perforations or damage.

borehole volume Volume of the hole resulting from the integrated volume
calculated from the hole size recorded on a caliper log.

bottom-hole The pressure in a well at a point opposite the producing

pressure formation as recorded by a pressure measurement device.
Bouguer anomaly The gravity value existing after the Bouguer corrections to a
level datum have been applied.

Bouguer A correction to gravity data because of the attraction of the rock

correction between the station and the elevation of the datum (often sea
level). The Bouguer correction is 0.01276ρh mgal or
0.4186ρh mgal where ρ is the specific gravity of the intervening
rock and h is the difference between the station and datum
elevations in feet or meters, respectively.

bound water (1) Water which has become adsorbed to the surfaces of solid
particles or grains. Under natural conditions, this water is
viscous like and immobile but might not have lost its electrolytic
properties. See also adsorption and water wet.

(2) Water which is chemically bound by becoming part of a

crystal lattice. This water will have lost its electrolytic
properties.

brackish water Water that contains relatively low concentrations of any soluble
salts. Brackish water is saltier than fresh.

break circulation To start the mud pump to restore circulation of the mud column.
Because stagnant drilling fiuid gels during the period of no
circulation, a high pump pressure is usually required to break
circulation.

breccia (1) Fragmental rock whose components are angular and

therefore, as distinguished from conglomerates, are not
waterworn.

(2) Rock made up of highly angular coarse fragments that may

be sedimentary or formed by the action of crushing or grinding
along faults.
 (3) Volcanic breccia is a more-or-less indurated pyroclastic rock
consisting chiefly of accessory and accidental angular ejecta
32 mm or more in diameter lying in a fine tuff matrix.

brick-wall effect On borehole televiewer logs. An unusual effect produced on the

cathode-ray tube display by erratic movement of the tool as it
drags along the borehole.

bridge (1) Constriction in the borehole.

(2) Plugging of a perforation or other orifice by debris,

cementing materials, or sand grains. Bridging occurs inside the
orifice. Compare with arch.

bridge plug A downhole device composed primarily of slips, a plug mandrel.

and a rubber sealing element, that is run and set in casing to
isolate a lower zone while testing an upper section.

bridle (1) The disconnectable, rubber insulation-covered downhole end

of a survey cable on which current and measure electrodes (cable
electrodes) are mounted for resistivity measuring electrode
configurations requiring longer spacings than can be attained on
a sonde. The head, to which the sonde is attached, is an integral
part of the fishing bell and bridle.

(2) For those services which do not require bridle electrodes, it is

the short disconnectable length of cable on which the fishing bell
and head are attached. The disconnectable feature permits the
quick changing of head types and sizes, and easier servicing.

brine A highly saline solution. A solution containing appreciable

amounts of NaCl and other salts.

British thermal BTU. The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of
unit 1 lb of water 1°F at or near its point of maximum density
 (equivalent to 252 calories).

bubble flow A flow regime in which relatively uniform bubbles of gas or oil,
approximately homogeneously distributed, flow upward through
oil or water at a constant rate. The relative velocity is governed
mainly by the difference between the densities of the lighter and
heavier phases, and the viscosity of the heavier phase.

bubble point The temperature and pressure at which part of a liquid begins to
convert to gas. For example, if a certain volume of liquid is held
at constant pressure, but its temperature is increased, a point is
reached at which bubbles of gas begin to form in the liquid. This
is the bubble point. Similarly, if a certain volume of liquid is
held at a constant temperature but the pressure is reduced, the
point at which gas begins to form is the bubble point. Compare
dew point.

bubble-point The pressure at which gas first begins to come out of solution at
pressure constant temperature.

bucking Bucking-current electrodes. Current electrodes on a laterolog

electrodes type resistivity measuring system from which bucking current
fiows in order to confine the survey current into a thin,
horizontal investigative layer. Serve the same purpose as guard
electrodes except bucking electrodes are usually rings or point
electrodes (e.g., buttons). See laterolog.

bulk density It is the value of the density of rock as it occurs in nature. In well
logging, it is the density of the rock with the pore volume filled
with fiuid. Natural density. The equation commonly used to
compute porosity from well log derived bulk density is:

where φ is pore volume filled with a fluid of density ρf, ρb is the

 well-log-derived bulk density, and ρma is the density of the rock
framework. See density log and Z/A effect.

bulk modulus See elastic properties of rocks.

bulk volume The quantity of formation water present in a unit volume of rock.
water The product of water saturation and porosity.

bullet (1) A hollow projectile used for obtaining sidewall cores.

(2) A projectile used in gun perforating in order to create holes in

casing, cement sheath, and formation so that formation fluids can
be produced.

bull plug A threaded nipple with a rounded, closed end with O-ring seals.
Commonly used to plug off the bottom end of downhole logging
instruments from borehole fluids. Some logging tools, which can
be used jointly in tandem, require a bull plug for a seal when
used independently.

Bureau of Land BLM. The Bureau of Land Management was established July 16,
Management 1946, by the consolidation of the General Land Office (created
in 1812) and the Grazing Service (formed in 1934).

The Bureau is responsible for the total management of 341

million acres of public lands. These lands are located primarily
in the far west and Alaska; however, scattered parcels are located
in other States. In addition to minerals management
responsibilities on the public lands, BLM is also responsible for
subsurface resource management of an additional 169 million
acres where mineral rights have been reserved to the Federal
Government.

Resources managed by the Bureau include timber, minerals, oil

and gas, geothermal energy, wildlife habitat, endangered plant
and animal species, rangeland vegetation, recreation and cultural
values, wild and scenic rivers, designated conservation and
 wilderness areas, and open space. Bureau programs provide for
the protection (including fire suppression), orderly development,
and use of the public lands and resources under principles of
multiple use and sustained yield. Land use plans are developed
with public involvement to provide orderly use and development
while maintaining and enhancing the quality of the environment.
The Bureau also manages watersheds to protect soil and enhance
water quality; develops recreational opportunities on public
lands; administers programs to protect and manage wild horses
and burros; and under certain conditions, makes land available
through sale to individuals, organizations, local governments,
and other federal agencies when such transfer is in the public
interest. Lands may be leased to state and local government
agencies and to nonprofit organizations for certain purposes. The
Bureau has responsibility to issue rights-of-way, in certain
instances, for crossing federal lands under other agencies'
jurisdiction. It also has general enforcement authority. The
Bureau is responsible for the survey of federal lands and
establishes and maintains public land records and records of
mining claims. It administers a program of payments in lieu of
taxes based on the amount of federally owned lands in counties
and other units of local government.

button A small disc-shaped, button-like electrode used on

microresistivity pads.

buoyancy The apparent loss of weight of an object immersed in a fluid. If

the object is floating, the immersed portion displaces a volunme
of fluid the weight of which is equal to the weight of the object.
C Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without
permission from SPWLA

cable See survey cable.

cable clamp A rope socket. Also see weak point.

cable electrode An electrode mounted on a flexible insulating sheath for the

purpose of providing remote current or voltage measurement
contact with the borehole fluid. This extension is fastened
intermediately between the logging cable and the rigid logging
tool with appropriate connectors at each end. See bridle.

cable hanger A device used at the rotary table to support the weight of the
survey cable (usually during fishing operations). The device
clamps firmly on the cable and supports cable weight on a cross-
bar which rests on the rotary table. This removes all tension from
the survey cable between the rotary table and hoist unit.

cable head A quick-connecting and quick-disconnecting device, mounted at

the end of the logging cable, which provides the means to couple
a cable electrically and mechanically to a logging tool. See also
fishing bell.

cable tool drilling A drilling method in which the hole is drilled by dropping a
sharply pointed bit on the bottom of the hole. The bit is attached
to a cable and the cable is picked up and dropped, repeatedly, to
deepen or drill the hole.

cake thickness The thickness of the mud cake.

calcite See calcium carbonate.

calcium carbonate A chemical combination of calcium, carbon, and oxygen. the

main constituent of limestone. It forms a tenacious scale in
water-handling facilities and is a cause of water hardness.
Chemical symbol is CaCO3.

calcium sulfate A chemical combination of calcium, sulfur, and oxygen. It

sometimes contaminates drilling fluids but may be added to
provide certain properties. Like calcium carbonate, calcium
sulfate (CaSO4) forms a hard-to-remove scale in some water-
handling facilities. See anhydrite and gypsum.

calibration The process wherein the zero and sensitivity of the measuring
circuit is adjusted to meaningful units so that the recorded
measurements will be accurate with respect to an industry
standard.

calibration loop See test loop.

calibration source See test pill.

calibration tails Calibration test records documenting calibration procedures run

before and/or after a survey and attached to the logs. Sometimes
the calibration tail includes a copy of the test film.

caliper log A well log which is a record of hole diameter. Hole caliper
logging tools sometimes have 1, 2, 3, 4 or 6 arms. Some caliper
logging tools use acoustic methods of determining hole
dimensions.
calorie The amount of heat energy necessary to raise the temperature of
1 gram of water 1°C. Compare British thermal unit.

CAL Systems Computer Analyzed Log Systems. A computed log analysis

performed at a computer center. CAL Systems is a Welex
trademark.

camera (1) recorder. An instrument which records traces of light which

have been beamed on film by galvanometers responsive to
logging tool measurements. Some cameras may use laser
technology or fiber optics.

(2) borehole camera. A downhole instrument which photographs

the interior of the borehole or casing.

capacitor An electrical device that, when connected in the line of an

electrical circuit, stores a charge of electricity and returns the
charge to the line when certain electrical conditions occur. It also
is called a condenser.

cap rock Impermeable rock overlying an oil or gas reservoir that tends to
prevent the upward migration of fluids form the reservoir.

capture cross (1) The nuclear capture cross section for neutrons is the effective
section area within which a neutron passes in order to be captured by an
atomic nucleus. It is a probabilistic value dependent on the
nature and energy of the particle as well as the nature of the
capturing nucleus. Nuclear capture cross section is often
measured in barns (1 barn = 10–24 cm2).

(2) "Macroscopic capture cross section" Σ is the effective cross-

sectional area per unit volume of material for capture of
neutrons; hence, it depends on the number of atoms pre sent as
well as their nuclear capture cross sections. Thus, the
macroscopic capture cross section is the sum of the various
weighted capture cross sections. The unit of measure for Σ is
cm2/cm3 or reciprocal cm (cm–1) is often measured in "capture
 units" or "sigma units." A c.u. = 10–3 cm–1.

(3) The rate of absorption of thermal neutrons with a velocity v

is vΣ.

(4) Of gamma rays. See photoelectric absorption, photoelectric

effect, and photoelectric absorption cross section index.

capture gamma A gamma-ray photon produced upon the capture of a thermal

ray neutron by a neutron absorber such as chlorine. Gamma rays of
capture are important in some neutron logging methods (n-γ) and
in pulsed neutron logging methods such as the Thermal Decay
Time Log or Neutron Lifetime Log.

capture unit c.u., 10–3 cm–1. A unit of measure of macroscopic capture cross
section. Same as sigma unit.

carbonate A compound containing the radical CO3+2 or rock composed of

carbonate minerals. See carbonate rock.

carbonate A log which presents computed porosity in complex lithology

analysis log and sometimes includes secondary porosity and movable oil
plots.

carbonate reef See reef.

carbonate rock A sedimentary rock primarily composed of calcium carbonate

(limestone) or calcium magnesium carbonate (dolomite).

carbon-oxygen log A log which presents a measure of the relative abundance of

carbon to oxygen derived from the detection of the gamma rays
produced from both elements by the inelastic scattering of 14-
 Mev neutrons. The gamma rays are measured within energy
spectrum windows representing the gamma-ray escape peaks of
carbon and oxygen. The ratio of counting rates provides a means
of predicting the relative amounts of hydrocarbons and water.
The log is an alternate means for detecting hydrocarbons
(particularly oil) behind casing in formations not subject to
flushing or reinvasion by borehole fluids. The C/O ratio is
relatively independent of formation water salinity and shaliness.
In order to differentiate carbon in hydrocarbon molecules from
that in the rock framework (i.e., carbonate solid matter), a Si/Ca
ratio is also determined.

The carbon-oxygen log can be put to nearly the same uses as the
pulsed neutron capture logs, but has proved to be useful under
some conditions where pulsed neutron capture logs have shown
decreased effectiveness; e.g., in rocks where formation water
cannot easily be distinguished from oil because of the lack of
sufficient contrast in their neutron capture cross sections.
Carbon/Oxygen Log is a Dresser Atlas trademark.

cartridge A package which contains electronic modules or hard ware for

the downhole instrument. The package is carried in a protective
housing and is attached to, or becomes a part of, the downhole
instrument (logging sonde).

cased hole A wellbore in which casing has been run.

casing Steel pipe cemented in place in an oil or gas well as the drilling
progresses or when the well is completed. The casing serves
several purposes:

(1) to prevent the formation walls from caving or squeezing into

the hole during drilling;

(2) to protect one formation from damage when heavy mud

weights are required in drilling another;

(3) to provide a means to isolate porous and permeable

formations from one another at the wellbore;

(4) to prevent contamination of shallow aquifers by drilling

muds. See also casing string.
casing collar Used to locate casing collars and other features of downhole
locator hardware (e.g., packers, etc.) which often serve as reference
depths in subsequent completion operations.

(1) a magnetic casing collar locator. Involves a system of two

opposed permanent magnets in two similar magnetic circuits
which produce characteristic magnetic fields in which flux lines
pass through casing or tubing. A deformation of either of the
magnetic fields, caused by the gap between casing joints,
packers, sometimes holes, etc. is detected by a winding having a
core of high permeability The resulting electromagnetic
imbalance, first in one direction and then in another, is
telemetered to the surface where it is recorded, depth correlated,
as a feature of the downhole hardware arrangement.

(2) a mechanical collar locator. May involve feelers or fingers

which produce signals sent to the surface when the feelers cross
pipe connections or other irregular features inside casing or
tubing.

casing collar log A record of casing collar responses with depth as measured by a
casing collar locator. Usually is an intergral part of all well logs
run in the cased borehole. The casing collar log provides a means
for depth control for other measurements and responses which
cannot in themselves be accurately correlated with the formation
behind casing.

casinghead The top of the first string of casing set in a well. Usually a heavy,
flanged steel fitting which provides a means to attach various
fittings or assemblies.

casing inspection Uses a method of relating the effects of eddy currents on a

log magnetic field to casing wall thickness. The instrument consists
of two radial coils – an exciter and a pickup coil. The exciter coil
is fed from an AC voltage source at the surface, in turn
producing a magnetic field downhole. This field sets up eddy
currents in the casing wall. These currents cause the magnetic
field to be attenuated and shifted in phase. The resulting
magnetic field is detected by the pickup coil and transmitted to
the surface. The magnetic field as detected by the pickup coil is
 then compared with the original field generated by the exciter
coil, and the resulting phase shift in the magnetic field that has
occurred is recorded. The phase shift can indicate casing wall
thickness, splits, and holes.

casing point The depth in a well at which casing is set, generally the depth at
which the casing shoe rests.

casing potential Detects corrosion by measuring the electrical potential of the

profile casing at various levels to detect current entering or leaving the
casing. The amount of cathodic protection needed can be
determined and results monitored.

casing pressure Annular pressure between the casing and the well's tubing.

casing shoe A short, heavy, hollow, cylindrical steel section with a rounded
bottom that is placed on the end of the casing string to serve as a
reinforcing shoe and to aid in cutting off minor projections from
the borehole wall as the casing is being lowered. Also called a
guide shoe.

casing string Casing is manufactured in lengths of about 30 ft, each length or

joint being joined to another as casing is run in a well. The entire
length of the joints of casing is called the casing string. See
surface casing, protection casing, and production casing.

cathead A spool-shaped attachment on a winch around which rope is

wound for hoisting and pulling. The breakout cathead, a rotating
spool located on the driller's side of the drawworks, is used as a
power source for unscrewing drill pipe. The makeup cathead is a
power source for screwing together joints of pipe.
cation A positively charged ion.

cation-exchange Also called base-exchange capacity. A measure of the extent to

capacity which a substance will supply exchange cations.

Compensating cations serve to compensate the excess of (usually

negative) charge in clay lattices. The cation exchange capacity is
related to the concentration of compensating cations (or counter
ions) near clay-layer surfaces, which in the presence of water,
can be exchanged for other cations available in solution. The
cation-exchange capacity of a clay is expressed in terms of
milliequivalents of exchangeable ions per 100 grams of dry clay.
See also ion exchange.

cationic A membrane which permits the passage of cations but not of

membrane anions. Clay acts as such a membrane, allowing sodium ions to
pass but not chloride ions. Important in generating the
electrochemical potential.

cat line A hoisting or pulling rope operated by the driller at a cathead.

On a drilling rig, the cat line is the rope used for lifting well
logging tools from the catwalk to the drilling floor and for
exerting a pull on pipe tongs in tightening (making up) or
loosening (breaking out) joints of pipe.

catwalk A raised, narrow walkway extending from the front of a drilling

derrick or mast which serves as a staging area or work area from
which equipment is raised to the derrick.

cement (1) A powder consisting of alumina, silica, lime, and other

substances which hardens when mixed with water. Extensively
used in the oil industry to bond casing to the walls of the
wellbore.

(2) A secondary mineral growth of chemically precipitated

material on the surfaces and in the interstices of clastic
 sediments. Authigenic clay minerals are not considered cement.

(3) To fix the casing firmly in the hole with cement, which is
pumped through the drill pipe to the bottom of the casing and up
into the annular space between the casing and the walls of the
borehole. After the cement sets (hardens) it is drilled out of the
casing. The casing can be perforated to allow reservoir fluids to
enter the well.

cement evaluation CET. A cased hole cement evaluation log that displays data
log processed from ultrasonic transducers in such a way that
channels in the cement sheath can be detected. The quality of the
cement is given in eight radial segments, and the orientation of a
channel can be determined from a recording of the well deviation
and the relative bearing of the first transducer. An acoustic
caliper measurement is provided from eight radii measurements.
Compare cement bond log. CET is a Schlumberger mark.
cementation The process of precipitation or growth of a binding material
around grains or fragments of rocks. In clastic rocks,
cementation is necessary before the rock framework can become
consolidated. Chemically the cementing material may be the
same as, or different from, the host rock.
cementation The porosity exponent (m) in Archie's formation resistivity
factor factor-porosity relationship.

cement bond The adherence of casing to cement and cement to formation.

When casing is run in a well, it is set, or bonded, to the
formation by means of cement.

cement bond log Used to determine the presence of cement behind casing and the
quality of cement bond to casing or formation wall. Usually an
acoustic log.

The cement bond log is a continuous measurement of the

amplitudes of acoustic pulses after they have traveled a length of
the casing. The amplitude of a pulse is strong after traveling
along unsupported pipe because there is nothing to restrict the
vibration of the casing. On the other hand, the vibration of the
casing is dampened by the cement sheath in well-cemented pipe,
and amplitude is weak. If the formation bond is poor, acoustic
energy traveling through the formation is weak; if both the
casing and formation are well bonded, only the formation signal
is strong. The log may consist of (1) an amplitude log which
represents the amplitude of a portion of the acoustic wave train,
or (2) a display of the acoustic wave train in the amplitude-time
(wave train, x-y) mode or the intensity modulated-time (variable
density, x-z) mode.

cement casing To fill the annulus between the casing and formation with
cement to support the casing, improve zonal isolation, or to
prevent migration of fluids between permeable zones.

cementing The application of a liquid slurry of cement andwater to various

points inside or outside the casing. See cement casing.

centigrade The metric system of temperature measurement used universally

(Celsius) scale by scientists. In the centigrade scale, 0° represents the freezing
point of water and 100° its boiling point at 760-mm barometric
pressure. Degrees centigrade are converted to degrees Fahrenheit
 by the following equation:

°F = 9/5 (°C) + 32.

centipoise cp. One-hundredth of a poise.

centralized Positioned in the center of the hole by use of centering devices.

centralizer A device which positions the logging tool in the center or near
center of the well bore. aligned with the wellbore axis. Compare
decentralize, eccentering arm and standoff.

chalcedony A transparent, or more generally, a translucent cryptocrystalline

quartz; the material of agate.

channel (l) A defect in cement quality which prevents.zone isolation,

usually in the form of void space in the annulus behind cemented
casing. The channel constitutes a conduit for fluid flow between
a completed interval and other permeable strata.

(2) A course or perceptible depression where surface water has

traveled.

(3) In a pulse height analyzer, an energy gate in which only

pulses occurring within a specific energy range are registered.
The difference between the upper and lower limits is the width
of the channel. The detail of the spectrum thus produced is
related to the width and number of channels in the instrument.

(4) A path along which digital or other information may flow in

a computer.

(5) An allocated frequency or time segment in a data

multiplexing system; one of a stream of data bands.

(6) The position in a frame or sequence of data on magnetic tape

that represents a specific measurement.
character log A display of the acoustic wave train. See X-Y plane or
amplitude-time. Compare intensity modulated-time.

check shot survey A check shot survey determines formation seismic wave
velocities over specified depth intervals. Travel times from a
surface energy source to a downhole geophone located at
different depths are measured. Distance between successive
geophone locations, d. divided by the difference in travel time to
the geophones at the successive locations, Δt, is the average
formation velocity between the geophone locations; v = d/Δt

Source and receiver positions can be switched; i.e., small energy

sources can be used in the borehole with a fixed geophone at the
surface.

Interval velocities are needed for interpreting seismic reflection

profiles.

chemical Any of many processes in the oil industry that involve the use of
treatment a chemical to affect an operation. Some chemical treatments are:
acidizing, crude-oil demulsification, corrosion inhibition.
paraffin removal, scale removal, drilling-fluid control, refinery
and plant processes, cleaning and pumping operations,
waterflood injection, and water purification.

chert Cryptocrystalline varieties of quartz regardless of color.

chlorine log A log based on the counting rate of capture gamma rays
produced by capture of thermal neutrons by chlorine in the
formation. By limiting the count to a certain energy range, the
tool is made more sensitive to chlorine and relatively less
sensitive to formation porosity. The interpretation of such curves
yields a calculated water saturation. The chlorine log's primary
application is in cased holes.
choke An orifice or bean, with a small-diameter bore, installed at the
wellhead in a line to restrict and control the rate of production.

Christmas tree An assembly of valves mounted on the casinghead through

which a well is produced. The Christmas tree also contains
valves for testing the well and for shutting it in if necessary.

chromatogram The recorder chart response to an analysis of a gas air mixture. A

chromatogram records separated hydrocarbons in order of
molecular size.

chromatograph See partition gas chromatograph.

circulate To pass from one point throughout a system and back to the
starting point. Drilling fluid circulates from the suction pit
through the drill pipe to the bottom of the well and returns
through the annulus between pipe and formation.

circulate out The movement of drilling fluid from the bottom of the hole to
the surface (without drilling) for one or more of the following
reasons: to reduce levels of produced and/or liberated gas from
the drilling fluid, to obtain a rock cuttings sample from a
formation just penetrated, to check for high or excessive levels
of hydrocarbons from formations just penetrated by drilling.

circulation The forced flow of drilling fluid out of the mud pit into a drill
hole, down the drill pipe or tubing and up the annulus to return to
the surface.

clastic Sedimentary rock formed from mineral fragments which have

been moved individually from their places of origin.
clay minerals Fine, crystalline, hydrous silicates which form as a result of the
weathering and decomposition of such silicate minerals as
feldspar, pyroxene, and amphibole.

clean Containing no appreciable amount of clay or shale. Applied to

sandstones and carbonates. Compare dirty.

collar (1) A coupling device with internal threads used to join two
pieces of threaded pipe of the same size.

(2) Drill collar. A thick walled steel pipe used to stabilize the
bottom-hole drilling assembly. The drill collars are used to
provide the weight required to drill the hole. The collars are
usually under compression while the drill pipe is always under
tension.

collar locator See casing collar locator.

collar log See casing collar log.

collimated gamma Gamma radiation in which the stream of photons is beamed in a

radiation single direction.

combination A single assembly of logging tool components, often joined in

logging tool tandem, capable of performing more than one general type of
logging service with a single trip into the well bore.

compaction An empirical correction applied to porosity derived from the

correction sonic log in uncompacted formations such as sands at shallow
 depths or formations under abnormally high pressures.

In applying the empirical correction to the time-average

relationship for obtaining apparent porosities from interval
transit times, the relationship becomes:

where Cp is the compaction-correction coefficient; other symbols

as described in time-average relationship. In consolidated
formations Cp = 1 (corresponding to no correction). In
unconsolidated formations (which generally occur at shallow
depths) Cp has values greater than 1.

compatible scales The interpretation of well logs often requires a direct comparison
of one logging response with another, performed at the same
time or at a different time. In order to facilitate this comparison.
the same grid type and equal scale sensitivities must be used.
Overlay techniques particularly require the use of compatible
scales.

compensated See compensated formation density log.

density log

compensated A dual-spacing formation density log. The compensated

formation density formation density logging device employs two detectors spaced
log at different distances from the source. The detector at the shorter
spacing is particularly sensitive to the density of material
immediately adjacent to the face of the pad. The contribution of
this material. which includes mud cake and drilling mud filling
minor borehole wall irregularities, affects the response of each
detector to a different degree. The measurements from both
detectors provide a means for making a correction for the
influence of drilling mud and mud cake on the measurements.
This correction is automatically added to the uncompensated
density measurement from the detector at the longer spacing.
Through the use of appropriate instrumentation, the parameters
recorded are: a corrected or compensated value of bulk density, a
measure of the correction, Δρ, used in making the compensation,
and a caliper curve. With the unwanted borehole effects
 removed, the measurement is recorded directly in terms of bulk
density on a linear scale. See also density log, spine-and-ribs
plot, and Z/A effect.

compensated log A well log made with a tool designed to correct for unwanted
effects associated with the borehole. The compensated density
log uses the signal from a secondary detector to correct for the
effect of mud cake and small irregularities in the borehole wall.
The borehole compensated sonic log uses a special arrangement
of the transducers to correct tor irregularities in borehole size and
sonde tilt.

compensated A well log made with a mandrel type neutron logging tool
neutron log having two neutron detectors. The neutron porosity is derived
from the ratio of the counting rates of the two detectors. Use of
the count-rate ratio greatly minimizes borehole effects. This tool
can be run in liquid-filled holes, both cased and uncased, but is
not usually recommended for use in gas-filled holes. See dual
spaced neutron.

Compensated CSD, a Welex trademark. This tool combines the features of the
Spectral Density compensated density tool, which measures density by compton
scattering cross section of gamma rays, and the lithology effect
by measuring the low gamma-ray energies associated with the
photoelectric absorption cross-section. This lithology recognition
is further enhanced by borehole compensation of the
photoelectric gamma response.

complete a well To finish work on a well by making it ready to produce oil or

gas. After reaching total depth (TD) casing is run and cemented,
casing is perforated opposite the producing zone, tubing is run
and control and flow valves are installed at the wellhead. Well
completions vary according to the kind of well. depth, and the
formation from which it is to produce.

completion fluid A special drilling mud used when a well is being completed. It is
selected not only for its ability to control formation pressure, but
also for its properties that minimize formation damage.

completion tool Any tool or combination of tools designed to complete a well for
production; i.e., perforating gun, packersetting tool, etc.

composite log Several well logs of the same or similar types, usually from
different logging runs, which have been spliced together to form
a single continuous record from the shallowest to the deepest log
reading. Composite logs are valuable for correlation and
documentation purposes.
compressibility The volumetric change in a unit volume ot fluid (usually) when
the pressure on that volume is changed.

where ΔV = change in volume, V, due to change in pressure, ΔP

compression P-wave, longitudinal wave. An acoustic wave propagated

wave, parallel to the direction of particle displacement. Substances
compressional which tend to resist compression support the propagation ot
wave compression waves (e.g., liquids and solids). Compare shear
wave.

compressive The degree of resistance of a material to a force acting along one

strength of its axes in a manner tending to collapse it. Usually expressed
in pounds of pressure per square inch (psi) of surface affected.

Com-Pro Log See computed log analysis. Cornputer-processed interpretation

produced at a computer center. Com-Pro is a Birdwell
trademark.

Compton The inelastic scattering of photons (gamma rays) by collision

scattering with orbital electrons of an atom. When a gamma ray photon
having an energy in the intermediate range from about 2 keV to
about 2 MeV collides with an atom, it may transfer some energy
to one of the orbital electrons. which. as a result, is knocked out
of the atom. The photon thereby loses some energy (its
frequency is lowered) and changes direction according to its
energy loss. The Compton scattering power of a material is
proportional to the number of electrons in that material.
Important in density logging. One of the three interactions of
gamma rays with matter. Compare photoelectric effect and pair
production.
computed log Log analysis derived from computer manipulation of digital log
analysis data. Service company organizations have different tradenames
for their various. though sometimes similar, machine
interpretations.

computer- See computed log analysis.

processed
interpretation

condensate A light hydrocarbon liquid obtained by condensation of

hydrocarbon vapors. It consists of varying proportions of butane,
propane, pentane, and heavier fractions, with little or no ethane
or methane. Condensate generally has an APl gravity of
50 to 120 degrees and is water-white, straw or bluish in color.

condensate A reservoir in which both condensate and gas exist in one

reservoir homogeneous phase. When fluid is drawn from such a reservoir
and the pressure decreases below the critical level, a liquid phase
(condensate) appears.

conductive solid Any solid material which exhibits electrical conductivity.

conductivity The property of a solid or fluid medium which allows the

medium to conduct a form of energy; e.g., conductivity or
 thermal conductivity. In well logging, presently, the
conventional use of the term means electrical con. Conductivity,
which is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity. Usually expressed

as the reciprocal of ohm-meters × , or .

conductivity A calculation of the water filled porosity from electrical

derived porosity conductivity or resistivity.

conductor pipe A short string of large-diameter casing used to keep the well
bore open and to provide a means to direct the upflowing drilling
mud from the well bore to the mud pit.

cone (1) The rolling mechanism supporting the cutting edge of a drill
bit.

(2) The liner which is implanted in the shaped cavity of shaped

charges.

(3) A downward displacement of a gas-liquid isosaturation

surface, or upward displacement of an oil-water isosaturation
surface. Such displacement occurs around the well bore in some
wells with high oil production rates. See coning.

confirmation well A well drilled to "prove" the formation or producing zone

encountered by an exploratory or wildcat well.

conglomerate A sedimentary rock composed of coarse-grained rock fragments,

pebbles, or cobbles cemented together in a fine-grained matrix.
A cemented gravel.

coning The undesirable process of creating a distortion in the gas-liquid

or oil-water isosaturation surfaces at the well bore by the
withdrawal of oil at an excessive rate. Production of oil produces
 pressure gradients in all directions from the depth of withdrawal.
Therefore. there is a tendency to draw fluids from above and
below (as well as laterally) to the level of withdrawal. That
tendency is counterbalanced by the tendency of gas to stay above
oil because of its lighter density and water to stay below oil
because of its heavier density. Thus, when the pressure gradient
required to bring oil to the well bore exceeds the pressure
gradient to the gas or water-bearing levels, coning will occur and
gas will be drawn down and water will be lifted up toward the
withdrawal level.

connate water Water entrapped in the interstices of the rock (either sedimentary
or extrusive igneous) at the time the rock was deposited. It may
be derived either from ocean water or land water. Often used
incorrectly to denote formation water or interstitial water. The
composition of the original water may have been altered during
the compaction process by entrapment of ions, extrusion of
water, diffusion, osmosis, etc.

consolidated Pertains to a rock framework provided with a degree of

cohesiveness or rigidity by cementation or other binding means.

contact log A generic term referring to the log produced by any logging tool
which uses pad or skid devices to make direct electrical contact
with the formation wall.

continuity Property of being continuous.

(1) A term used in trouble-shooting electrical circuitry.

Continuity implies continuous electrical circuitry through
connections. Broken wires, corroded contacts, cold solder joints,
poor contacts all can impair continuity.

(2) In geology, continuity implies a continuous property or

pattern relating to rock type, beds, formations, or sedimentation.

(3) In reference to immiscible fluids in rock, continuity might

refer to the condition of the nonwetting phase when droplets or
insular globules of the nonwetting phase become connected to
 form a continuous web throughout the pores of the rock.

continuous A velocimeter which is designed to measure fluid velocities in

flowmeter the casing. Usually this tool is capable of passing through
production tubing to make fluid velocity measurements in the
casing below. The tool is held in the center of the fluid column
usually by spring centralizers and moved at a constant rate of
speed against (or with) the direction of flow. The spinner speed,
a linear function of fluid velocity relative to the tool, is recorded
continually versus depth.

Primarily, this tool should be used in monophasic flow regimes;

i.e., injection wells and high-flow-rate gas wells or oil wells.

continuous The continuous guidance tool provides a continuous gyroscopic

guidance log directional measurement in cased holes. The measurement is
based on a two-axis gyroscope whose spin axis is maintained
horizontal and is aligned towards the north The position of the
gyro is sensed by an acceleronmeter and a gyro-axis positional
resolver. This information is combined with data from another
 accelerometer to derive the azimuth and inclination of the hole.
See also directional survey.

continuous phase The liquid in which solids are suspended or droplets of another
liquid are dispersed. Sometimes called the external phase. In a
water-in-oil emulsion, oil is the continuous phase. Compare
internal phase.

continuous A log of the interval transit time of a compressional wave. See

velocity log sonic log, also acoustic log.

contour map A map that has lines marked to indicate points or areas that are
the same elevation above or below sea level. often used to depict
subsurface features.

convection A process of mass movements of portions of any fluid medium

 (liquid or gas) in a gravitational field as a consequence of
different temperatures in the medium and hence different
densities. The process thus moves both the medium and the heat,
and the term is used to signify either or both.

core (1) A cylindrical sample of rock taken from a formation for

analysis. Usually, a conventional core barrel is substituted for the
bit and obtains the sample as it penetrates the formation.

(2) A sidewall core.

(3) To obtain a conventional core or to obtain a sidewall core.

core analysis A laboratory analysis of recovered formation samples for the

purpose of measuring porosity, directional permeability, residual
fluid saturations, grain size, density, and other properties of the
rock and contained fluids. Core analysis aids formation
evaluation, reservoir development, and reservoir engineering.

core barrel (1) A hollow projectile used for obtaining sidewall cores. See
sidewall core and sidewall coring tool.

(2) Drill pipe core barrel. A hollow cylindrical device from

25 to 60 feet in length with a hollow drill bit which can be
attached to the bottom of the drill pipe for the purpose of
recovering a continuous sample of the formation while the hole
is being drilled. The sample recovered is a cylindrical core
which, under ideal conditions, might be as long as the core
barrel.

core bit A special drill bit for cutting and removing a plug-shaped rock
sample from the bottom of the well bore. The core bit is attached
to the bottom of the drill pipe core barrel.

coregamma A measurement of the intensity of natural gamma radiation of a

core. Its primary use is as a correlation aid with borehole
gamma-ray log over the cored interval.
coregraph Results of core analysis illustrated or graphed in the form of a
log. See core analysis.

core sample A solid column of rock, usually from two to four inches in
diameter, taken from the bottom of a well bore as a sample of an
underground formation.

core slicer A wireline open-hole device having two diamond edged saw
blades with converging orientation and vertical travel over
several feet when in position. The design allows a wedge-shaped
slice of formation to be cut from the side of a smooth borehole
for evaluation at the surface.

correlate To relate subsurface information obtained from one well to that

of others so that the formations may be charted and their depths
and thicknesses noted. Correlations are made by comparing
electrical well logs, radioactivity logs, and cores from different
wells.

correlation (1) The equivalence in stratigraphic positions of formations in

different wells. Similarities in the character of well-logging
responses and the occurrence of distinctive features which serve
as markers from one well to the next are used.

(2) The matching of different well-log curves and other well data
either in the same well or in different wells.

(3) The mathematical interdependence between variables.

correlation length The length of the formation interval over which a depth-related
correlation is made in order to determine the depth wise
displacement between curves on which the same geological
events have been logged. The correlation length is an important
parameter in the computation of dipmeter measurements.
Dipmeter log correlations are made in order to evaluate the
 displacements between the correlation curves; these
displacements are used in turn in the calculation of the formation
dip.

The correlation length used will depend on the purpose. Long

correlation lengths (10 to 20. or even 30 feet are used for
evaluating structural dip. Short correlation lengths (1, 2, or 3
feet) are useful in determining finer details of the dip for
sedimentation studies over such stratigraphic features as bars,
lenses or channels.

corrosion A complex chemical or electrochemical process by which metal

is destroyed through reaction with its environment, For example,
rust is corrosion.

coupling A collar. A short pipe fitting with both ends threaded on the
inside circumference used for joining two lengths of line pipe or
casing or tubing.

CPI computer-processed interpretation. See computed log analysis.

critical point The temperature and pressure at which the properties of a liquid
and its vapor become indistinguishable.

critical pressure The pressure needed to condense a vapor at its critical

temperature.

critical saturation The value of saturation of the specific liquid (or gas) phase at
which the liquid (or gas) will first begin to flow as the saturation
is increased. The ability to flow is related to the continuity of the
phase. A discontinuous phase will not flow under normal
producing conditions.
critical The highest temperature at which a fluid can exist as a liquid or
temperature vapor. Above this temperature the fluid is a gas and, regardless
of the amount of pressure applied, cannot be liquefied.

critical water The highest water saturation a rock can maintain while
saturation producing hydrocarbons before water will begin to flow.

crooked hole A wellbore that has deviated from the vertical. It usually occurs
where there is a section of alternating hard and soft strata steeply
inclined from the horizontal.

crossflow A condition of fluid flow, in some part of the well bore, from
one permeable zone to another at lower pressure.

crossplot A plot of one parameter versus another.

cross section (1) A contraction of capture cross section.

(2) A diagram showing geological features transected by a

vertical plane.

(3) A designation for a specific area (e.g., borehole cross

section).

crown block A stationary pully system located at the top of the derrick used
for raising and lowering the string of drilling tools. The sheaves
and supporting members to which the lines of the traveling block
and hook are attached.

crude oil Unrefined liquid petroleum. It ranges in gravity from

9 to 55 °API and in color from yellow to black, and it may have
a paraffin, asphalt or mixed base. If a crude oil, or crude,
 contains a sizable amount of sulfur or sulfur compounds, it is
called sour crude; if it has little or no sulfur, it is a sweet crude.
In addition, crude oils may be referred to as heavy or light
according to API gravity, the lighter oils having the higher
gravities.

crystalline Having regular molecular structure; contrasted with amorphous.

curie A standard measure of the rate of nuclear transformations, or

disintegrations equal to that of one gram of radium. This rate is
3.70 × 1010 disintegrations per second.

curie temperature The temperature at which ferromagnetic ef fects are destroyed by

thermal agitation in ferromagnetic substances. In common iron
alloys, the curie temperature (or curie point) is typically
500 to 700° C.

curve In well logging, a trace representing a continuous record of some

property or occurrence in the wellbore environment versus
depth. One or more curves may constitute a well log.

cushion (1) A column of water or drilling fluid placed inside drill pipe or
tubing to prevent it from being crushed by the hydrostatic
pressure of the fluid in the annulus of the wellbore. Usually the
pipe or tubing is full of liquid, but in certain operations it is
necessary to run the pipe or tubing nearly empty to maintain less
pressure inside the pipe than in the annulus. In such cases. a
cushion may be needed to prevent collapse of the pipe.

(2) The column of liquid in the wellbore to insure optimum

performance of a perforating gun.

cut-and-thread Strip-over technique. A method of fishing for stuck logging tools

fishing technique which consists of supporting the survey cable at the rig table,
cutting the survey cable, and threading the cable through the drill
 pipe until the overshot attached to the end of the drill pipe
engages the fish. The survey cable is then broken free at the
weak point and retrieved from the hole. The fish is withdrawn
from the well with the drill pipe.

cutoff (1) Galvanometer cutoff. A point at minimum or maximum

deflection on a galvanometer trace where the curve begins or
ends. Cutoff is produced by blocking the reflected light beam.

(2) Parameter cutoff. Upper or lower limiting value of a

reservoir-size parameter. Values outside these limits are not used
in computation or other data-handling manipulation.

cuttings Fragments of rock which are a result of the cutting action of the
drill bit on the formation. These cuttings are transported to the
surface by the drilling fluid.

Cyber Log Computed log analysis systems designed for use at the well site.
Systems Cyber Log Systems is a mark of Schlumberger.

cycle skip, cycle In acoustic transit time or sonic logging. When the amplitude of
skipping the first arrival form (cycle of the acoustic wave train is large
enough to be detected by the near receiver of a receiver pair) but
not large enough to be detected by the far receiver, then one or
more cycles will be skipped until a later cycle arrives which has
energy above the detection level. This situation is called "cycle
skipping." Its onset is characterized by a sharp deflection on the
transit time curve corresponding to one or more added cycles of
time between receivers. "Short cycle skipping," where the near
receiver is triggered a cycle too late can also occur, resulting in
an abnormally short travel time.
cyclonite A powerful, high explosive material (cyclo-
trimethylenetrinitramine) used as the main charge in shaped
charges. Also called RDX.

cylindrical plot A graphic presentation of the bed boundaries intersecting the

well bore. The beds are usually plotted on a clear plastic which is
rolled up to simulate the borehole so that the observer can see the
patterns cutting the well bore.
D Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without
permission from SPWLA

darcy, darcys, A unit of measure of permeability. The permeability of a porous

darcies medium which will allow a flow of one milliliter per second of
fluid of one centipoise viscosity through one square centimeter
under a pressure gradient of one atmosphere per centimeter. The
commonly used unit is the millidarcy or 1/1000 darcy.

Darcy's equation Sometimes referred to as Darcy's law. A relationship for the fluid
flow rate q through a porous medium:

where: k = permeability. A = cross-sectional area, µ = viscosity

and Δp = pressure difference across the distance Δx.

dead oil (1) An oil that has undergone a lowering of pressure such that
there is no longer any gas in solution. Compare live oil.

(2) A residual oil measured at 60°F and 14.7 psia after all gas has
been removed by differential liberation at reservoir temperature.

(3) A viscous oil, asphalt. or tar which has undergone a lowering

of pressure so that the gases and lighter oil fractions have come
out of solution and expanded. Leaving the heavier hydrocarbon
fractions behind.

dead time In radioactivity logging. The length of time the system requires
to recover from counting an event, in order to count a successive
event. Events occurring during dead time are not counted.
Usually measured in microseconds.

decay The spontaneous reduction of an effect with time.

(1) The disintegration process of the nucleus of an unstable

isotope by the spontaneous emission of charged particles and/or
 photons.

(2) The equilibration process of heat transfer after the

disturbance of thermal equilibrium.

(3) The progressive reduction in amplitude of a transient signal

due to damping or energy absorption.

decay time See thermal decay time and half life.

decentralize To eccenter. To purposely force a tool against the borehole or

casing wall by means of an arm or bow spring.

decentralizer See eccentering arm.

deep investigation The measurement of formation properties far enough from the
well bore that the effects of the invaded zone become minimal.

deep propagation A well log that provides the resistivity and dielectric constant of
log the formation. The deep propagation tool (DPT) radiates
electromagnetic energy into the formation surrounding the
wellbore. Measurements of the attenuation and velocity of this
electromagnetic wave provide values to determine the resistivity
and dielectric constant of the formation. The tool operates at a
frequency in the tens of megahertz range and measures signal
level and relative phase at four receivers. Compare
electromagnetic propagation tool.

deep well A logging device for the continuous measurement of

thermometer temperatures in a well bore. Compare maximum reading
thermometer.
deflection (1) The internal movement in a galvanometer, in response to
current, which produces the excursion on a logging trace or
curve.

(2) The lateral movement or excursion of a curve is often

referred to as a deflection.

(3) A change in the drilling angle of the borehole. In directional

drilling, it is the angle in degrees from vertical. The angle of
deviation.

degrees API A unit of measurement of the American Petroleum Institute that

(°API) indicates the weight, or gravity, of oil. See API gravity.

dehydrate (1) To lose water.

(2) To cause to lose water.

Delaware An anomalous effect on guard log and early laterolog curves first
gradient observed in the Delaware Basin. It can be recognized as an
erroneous high-resistivity gradient in conductive beds when
these beds are overlaid by thick high resitivity formations.
delay panel A memorizer panel. An electrical device which stores signals
measured by the sonde so that all measured signals can be
recorded with the same depth reference. See memorizer.

delayed gamma As a result of some nuclear reactions, especially those involving

ray neutrons, a nuclide will emit prompt gamma rays and be left in a
ground state, which may be unstable. To decay further (usually
by beta emission) to excited states of a different nuclide.
Delayed gamma rays are emitted in the decay of these excited
states.

delta-t (Δt) The interval transit time from an acoustic log in

microseconds per foot or microseconds per meter. It is the
inverse of velocity. The official symbol of SPE of AIME and
SPWLA for Δt is now the symbol t.
densimeter A device which measures the average density of the fluid
mixture in a borehole by means of a vibrating cylinder. The
holdups for the heavy and light phases can be determined from
the measured average density, when the bottomhole densities are
known for each phase and if a contrast exists.

density Mass per unit volume (often expressed as specific gravity). Well-
logging units are g/cm3, often written g/cc.

density log A well log that records formation density. The logging tool
consists of a gamma-ray source (e.g., Cs137) and a detector
shielded from the source so that it records backscattered gamma
rays from the formation.The backscattering depends on the
electron density of the formation, which is roughly proportional
to the bulk density. The source and detector usually are mounted
on a skid which is pressed against the borehole wall. The
compensated density logging tool includes a secondary detector
which responds more to the mud cake and small, borehole
irregularities. The response of the second detector is used to
correct the measurements of the primary detector. The density
log applies primarily to uncased holes. Sometimes called a
gamma-gamma log. See also Compton scattering, Z/A effect,
and compensated formation density log. Compare nuclear
cement log.
departure In true vertical depth calculations from directional surveys.
Departure is the horizontal displacement in an east or west
direction from the wellhead of a location or station in the
borehole at which directional survey measurements were taken.
Compare latitude.

departure curves Graphs which show the influence of various conditions on the
basic measurement. Such curves, for example, show the effects
of temperature, hole diameter, mud resistivity, bed thickness,
adjacent bed resistivity, etc. Sometimes the effects are
 correctable.

deplete To exhaust a supply. An oil and gas reservoir is depleted when

most or all recoverable hydrocarbons have been produced.

depositional The conditions under which sediments were laid down.

environment Depositional environments are divided into five groups: marine
(oceanborne), aeolian (windborne, alluvial (river-borne). deltaic
(borne by a river at its delta), and interdeltaic (between river
deltas).

depth column A depth track. A narrow column near the center of the well log
in which the depths within the well are recorded. Usually depths
are recorded at l00 foot (meter) intervals and sometimes 50-foot
(meter) intervals. See API log grid.

depth-control log A well log run in cased holes for the purpose of providing
correlation with open-hole logs in order to establish depth
control for certain completion operations. Usually the depth-
control log is made with a radioactivity logging tool in
conjunction with a casing collar locator. The correlation log may
be a gamma-ray log and/or neutron log, or in some cases a
pulsed neutron capture log.

depth datum The zero-depth reference for well logging. A location on or

above the surface (land or water) at which an elevation can be
determined for depth reference. The elevation of this datum will
be the reference for all depth measurements made in the well
bore. Usually, the top of the kelly bushing is used as depth datum
in drilling wells, but could be ground level, derrick floor, or any
other specific depth reference.

depth of invasion The radial depth from the well bore to which mud filtrate has
invaded porous and permeable rock. Usually measured in inches.
See also diameter of invasion and invaded zone.
depth of Radius of investigation. The radial distance from the measure
investigation point on a downhole tool to a point usually within the formation
where the predominant tool-measured response may be
considered to be centered. Varies from one type of device to
another because of design and techniques of compensation and
focusing. May also change from formation to formation because
of changes in formation properties.

depth scales See scale.

derrick A tower-like load-bearing structure, usually of bolted

construction. In drilling, the standard derrick has four legs
standing at the corners of the substructure and reaching to the
crown block. The substructure is an assembly of heavy beams
used to elevate the derrick and provide space to install blowout
preventers, casingheads, etc. Because the standard derrick must
be assembled piece by piece, it has largely been replaced by the
mast, which can be lowered and raised without disassembly. The
derrick is used to raise and lower equipment (pipe, casing, etc.)
used in the drilling and testing of a well.

derrick floor DF. The drilling rig floor. sometimes used as depth datum.

detail log A borehole log recorded on larger depth scale than correlation
scale of 1 or 2 inches per 100 feet. Specifically, a log recorded at
a depth scale of 5 inches of record length per 100 feet of
formation logged (sometimes 1 foot per 200 feet). See scale.

detector A sensor used for the detection of some form of energy. Usually
this term is used to refer to the device used in nuclear logging
tools to detect neutrons and gamma rays. See scintillation
counter and Geiger-Mueller counter.
detonate To explode in an extremely violent chemical reaction See high
explosives. Compare low explosives.

detonator Electrical blasting cap. Unstable compounds such as high

explosives require initial shock or other disturbance to set off the
chemical reaction. A blasting cap is usually used to set off
Primacord, which in turn sets off shaped charges.

detrital sediment Sediment formed from accumulations of minerals and rocks

derived either from mechanical erosion of previously existing
rock or from the mechanically weathered products of these
sediments.

development well A well drilled in an area in a field to complete a pattern of

production. An exploitation well.

deviated hole A borehole which has been intentionally drilled at an angle from
vertical by special downhole drilling tools to guide the drill
assembly in the desired direction. Deviated holes are drilled to
reach a part of a formation or reservoir which cannot be drilled
by a straight or vertical hole because of environmental, political,
or economic reasons.

deviation (1) Departure of a borehole from vertical. See deviated hole,

drift, and directional survey.

(2) Angle measured between tool axis and vertical as in dipmeter

or dip log.

deviation angle The inclination of the wellbore from the vertical. The angle of
deviation, angle of drift, or drift angle is the angle in degrees that
shows the variation of the borehole from the vertical as revealed
by a deviation survey or directional survey.
deviation survey An operation made to determine the angle from which a hole
drilled by the bit deviated from the vertical during drilling. There
are two basic deviation survey, or drift survey, instruments: one
reveals the angle of deviation only, the other indicates both the
angle and direction of deviation.

dew point The temperature and pressure at which a liquid begins to

condense out of a gas. For example, if a constant pressure is held
on a certain volume of gas but the temperature is reduced, a
point is reached at which droplets of liquid condense out of the
gas. That point is the dew point of the gas at that pressure.
Similarly, if a constant temperature is maintained on a volume of
gas but the pressure is increased, the point at which liquid begins
to condense is the dew point at that temperature. Compare
bubble point.

d exponent See drilling exponent.

DF Derrick floor.

diagenesis The chemical, physical, and biological changes that a sediment

undergoes after initial deposition and burial that convert the
sediment to consolidated rock and/or result in the creation of
some forms of porosity. Such changes might result from
compaction, cementation, recrystallization or replacement, but
exclude metamorphism and fracturing resulting from tectonic
stresses.

diagenetic Porosity developed in a sediment after its initial deposition as a

porosity result of chemical and biological changes and burial. A form of
secondary porosity as opposed to primary porosity. Fracture
porosity is not thought of as diagenetic porosity.
diameter of The diameter to which drilling-mud filtrate has invaded porous
invasion and permeable rock. Usually measured in inches. See also depth
of invasion and invaded zone.

diapir A dome, core, or anticlinal fold of plastic or igneous material

which has been squeezed upward to pierce overlying rocks.
Common diapirs in sedimentary strata are domes of salt or shale.

diatoms A microscopic, single celled plant growing in marine or fresh

water. Diatoms have siliceous skeletons of a great variety of
forms that may accumulate in sediments in enormous numbers.

diatomite A siliceous sediment consisting of the skeletons of diatoms.

dielectric A material having low electrical conductivity compared to that

of metal.

dielectric constant Relative permittivity. A measure of the relative ability of a

material to store electric charge for a given applied field
strength. Dielectrics are considered nonconductors. A state of
electric stress can exist between two conductors separated by a
dielectric without a continuous supply of energy from outside the
system. For an isotropic medium, the dielectric constant is the
ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor filled with a given medium
to that of the same capacitor having only a vacuum as dielectric.

differential log A well log which records the depth-rate-of-change of a

parameter measureable from the well bore. This kind of log is
sensitive to small changes measured in the absolute value of the
parameter. An example is the differential temperature survey.

differential The difference between two fluid pressures. For example, the
pressure difference between the pressure in a reservoir and in a wellbore
drilled into the reservoir.

differential- A condition in which the drill stem becomes stuck against the
pressure sticking wall of the wellbore because part of the drill stem (usually the
drill collars) has become embedded in the mud cake. Necessary
conditions for differential-pressure sticking (or wall sticking) are
a permeable permeable formation, a pressure differential across a
nearly impermeable mud cake, and drill stem.

differential SP A curve recorded as a result ot simultaneous SP measurements

from two electrodes located downhole, each serving as a
reference potential for the other. The purpose of a differential SP
is to minimize or eliminate unwanted effects induced on the SP
measuring circuitry (i.e., electrode and survey conductor). The
"twin" circuitry allows spurious efforts induced simultaneously
on each segment of the circuit to negate each other at the
recording galvanometer. The two downhole electrodes selected
for this purpose should be separated by enough distance that
their equal and opposite responses do not cancel the valid SP
signals produced by different segments of the formation. See SP,
downhole ground, and telluric currents.

differential A log consisting of a curve which is a continuous record of the

temperature temperature gradient in the borehole. It can be measured by two
survey separate sensors having identical thermal characteristics
separated by a fixed vertical distance on a sonde; or, by a
technique involving the use of a single temperature sensor and
placing the measured signal into storage so it can be played back
after the sensor has moved a distance in the borehole equal to a
predetermined vertical distance. The differential temperature
curve enhances small changes in temperature occurring in the
borehole. A differential temperature survey should always
include a recorded measurement of temperatures in the borehole.
See also temperature log.

diffuse layer In liquid. The position of a charge on the outer surface of a solid
is rigidly fixed. Adsorbed to this surface may be an essentially
immobile layer of oppositely charged ions from the liquid. This
 is called the Stern layer. Further in the solution is a layer of
charge in which the ions having the same charge as the immobile
layer outnumber the ions having the opposite charge. This is the
diffuse layer. Beyond this layer is a region of neutral charge
where anions and cations exist as neutral pairs. Only ions in the
diffuse region and neutral region are free to move under the
influence of fluid motion.

diffusion (1) Of ions. The spontaneous migration of ions from a more

concentrated solution into a more dilute solution. Compare
osmosis.

(2) Of thermal neutrons. A net movement or flow of thermal

neutrons from regions of higher neutron concentration to regions
of lower concentrations. The neutrons are moving with velocities
corresponding to their energies in more or less random directions
(due to repeated scattering interactions). Thus, there is a
tendency for more neutrons to leave the higher-concentration
zone and for fewer to enter it.

An example case is when the neutron population in the borehole

is much lower than that in the formation because the neutrons are
rapidly captured by the abundant chlorine nuclei in the very
saline borehole fluid. More neutrons will diffuse from formation
to borehole than from borehole to formation, and there will be a
net flow of neutrons from formation to borehole.

There is generally a net diffusion flow away from the source

(i.e., toward zones of lower neutron concentration) and a
tendency for net flow from a zone of smaller capture cross
section to one of larger capture cross section.

diffusion effect The contribution of thermal-neutron diffusion to the thermal-

neutron die-away or decay measurement. In thick beds, diffusion
effects are not readily separable from borehole effects, and
appropriate departure curves are used to correct for both at the
same time. See diffusion, thermal neutrons.

diffusion potential Liquid junction potential. See electrochemical potential.

digital Representation of quantities in discrete (quantized) units. A
digital system is one in which the information is contained and
manipulated as a series of discrete numbers, as opposed to an
analog system, in which the information is represented as a
continuous trace or curve of the quantity constituting the signal.

digitize Convert data from analog trace records to digital, machine-

useable numbers.

dilatancy The property of rock to expand.

(1) Consolidated rock can expand as a result of the creation of

microfractures.

(2) Unconsolidated rocks, which have a large number of grain

contacts, have the property to expand by readjusting grain
positions to those positions resulting in fewer contacts.

diode error An unwanted portion of the total electrical conductivity signal

sent to the surface from downhole induction logging instruments.
The diode error is produced by the measure circuit electronics of
the induction cartridge. It is isolated and measured during the
calibration operation at a step where the sonde output is zero.
Once evaluated, it is cancelled during the survey operation. See
also sonde error.

dip The angle that a structural surface (e.g., a bedding or fault plane)
makes with the horizontal, measured perpendicular to the strike
of the structure. Observe dip patterns on idealized log in
illustration. Also see illustration of dip at strike.
dip log See dipmeter log.

Diplog See dipmeter log. Diplog is a Dresser Atlas trademark.

dip log tool – 4 See high-resolution dipmeter tool.

arm

dipmeter, A downhole tool used to make a dipmeter log or dip log.

dipmeter tool
dipmeter log A dip log. (1) A well log from which formation dip magnitude
and azimuth can be determined. The resistivity dipmeter includes
three or four (sometimes eight) micro-resistivity readings made
using sensors distributed in azimuth about the logging sonde and
a measurement of the azimuth of one of these; a measurement of
the hole deviation or drift angle and its bearing; and one or two
caliper measurements. The azimuth, deviation, and relative
bearing are measured by a system similar to that described for
the poteclinometer. The microresistivity curves are correlated to
determine the difference in depth of bedding markers on
different sides of the hole. See also high-resolution dipmeter and
poteclinometer.

(2) Other types of dipmeters use three SP curves, three wall

scratchers, etc. to produce logs.

(3) A log showing the formation dips calculated from the above,
such as a tadpole plot or stick plot. See illustration of dip
patterns at dip.
directional Slant hole drilling. The technique of intentional. controlled
drilling drilling at an angle from the vertical by deflecting the drill bit.
Although wellbores are normally drilled vertically, it is
sometimes necessary or advantageous to drill at an angle from
the vertical. Controlled directional drilling makes it possible to
reach subsurface areas laterally remote from the point where the
bit enters the earth. It involves the use of turbodrill, whipstocks,
or other deflecting tools.

directional hole Deviated hole. A borehole intentionally drilled at an angle from

the vertical. See directional drilling.

directional log See directional survey.

directional survey Measurements of drift, azimuth. and inclination of a borehole

with the vertical. A directional survey is often made as part of a
dipmeter survey or sometimes as a continuous log with a
poteclinometer. Sometimes measurements are made at discrete
levels with a photoclinometer.

dirty Containing appreciable amounts of clay and shale of different

material from the host rock. Such material may decrease
permeability and effective porosity of the rock. Compare clean.

discontinuous See internal phase. Compare continuous phase.

phase

discovery well The first oil or gas well drilled in a new field. The well that
reveals the presence of a petroleum-bearing reservoir.
Subsequent wells are development wells.
disequilibrium In radioactivity logging for uranium. After a long period of
disintegration, if the radioactive parent and its daughter isotopes
remain undisturbed, equilibrium will be attained between the
production and decay of the respective radioactive materials.
Since U-238 does not emit gamma rays, the gamma-ray activity
recorded is due to the quantity of daughter isotopes. When U-
238 is in equilibrium with its daughter isotopes, the amount of
daughter isotopes detected is an index to the amount of U-238
present. Disequilibrium results when anything has occurred to
disturb the relative quantities of radioactive materials (selective
leaching, escape of radon gas, etc.).

dispersed A term used in well-logging to refer to solid particles distributed

within the interstices of the rock framework. A form of
distribution of clays and other small particles and crystals.
Detrital and/or authigenic materials often are found dispersed in
the form of fines or crystal growths occupying pore space and
lining the walls surrounding the pores.

displacement (1) The distance between the logging tool measure points for
various parameters measured by a combination logging tool.
Also, the correction necessary to record all parameters at the
same depth reference.

(2) Pertaining to the dipmeter, it is the vertical distance in the

hole between equivalent responses measured at different
quadrants in the hole.

(3) Also refers to the replacement of a portion of the interstitial

fluids by borehole fluids, near the borehole, during the invasion
process.

disposal well A well into which salt water is pumped, usually part of a
saltwater disposal system.

dissociation The breaking up of a compound into its simpler components

such as molecules, atoms, or ions. Results from the action of
some form of energy on gases and from the action of solvents on
substances in solutions.
dissolution Secondary porosity which is created when solid materials in
porosity sediment dissolve in interstitial solutions. Dissolution porosity
results from the dissolution of: sedimentary constituents,
authigenic cementing minerals, and authigenic replacive
minerals.

dissolved-gas A solution-gas drive. See also reservoir drive mechanism and

drive bubble point.

distillate Liquid hydrocarbons, usually water-white or pale straw color,

and high API gravity (above 60 degrees) recovered from wet gas
by a separator that condenses the liquid out of the gas stream.
(Distillate is an older term for the liquid. More commonly it is
called condensate or natural gasoline.) The product obtained
from the condensation of vapors in distillation.

ditch gas Is that portion of the hydrocarbons removed from the mud at the
flowline by any type of mechanical means.

doghouse A portable, one-room shelter (usually made of light tank-iron) at

a well site for the convenience and protection of the drilling crew
and others. The doghouse serves as lunch room, change house,
dormitory, and for keeping small supplies and records.

dogleg A sharp bend or change in direction of the borehole.

dolomite A type of sedimentary rock similar to limestone but rich in

magnesium carbonate. sometimes a reservoir rock for
petroleum. CaMg (CO3)2.
dome A geologic structure resembling an inverted bowl. A short
anticline plunging on all sides. See salt dome.

downhole A term used to describe tools, equipment, and instruments which

are run into the borehole. Also pertains to techniques, processes,
and conditions which apply to the wellbore and its environment.

downhole ground Cable armor or a long electrode often attached to the logging
cable some distance (perhaps 100 feet) above an electrical
logging sonde, or hung just below the casing, used as the
reference electrode instead of an electrode at the surface. Used in
the case of bad SP interference from electrical surface facilities
or telluric currents. See differential SP.

down time (1) The length of time it takes for drilling mud to travel from a
location on the surface to the bottom end of the drill stem
(assembly of drill pipe, etc.) during a drilling operation. It is a
function of the inside diameter and length of drill pipe and the
output of the mud pump.

(2) The length of time lost during an operation because of non-

scheduled stoppages such as failure, delay, etc.

(3) The period during which an item of equipment cannot be

operated because of ongoing repair or maintenance.

drainage The migration of oil or gas in a reservoir toward a wellbore due

to pressure reduction caused by production of reservoir fluids by
the well. A drainage point is a wellbore (or in some cases several
wellbores) which drains the reservoir.

drainage radius The radius, measured from a wellbore, of a circular area of a

reservoir which is drained bv a single well.

drawdown (1) The difference between static and flowing bottom-hole

 pressures.

(2) The distance between the static level and the pumping level
of the liquid in the annulus of a pumping well.

drawworks The hoisting mechanism on a drilling rig. It is essentially a large

winch that spools on or off the drilling line and thus raises or
lowers the drill stem and bit.

drift The attitude of a borehole. The drift angle or hole deviation is

the angle between the borehole axis and the vertical; the drift
azimuth is the angle between north and the vertical projection of
the borehole on a horizontal surface.

drift angle See deviation angle.

drill bit See bit.

drill collar A heavy, thick-walled pipe, usually steel, used between the drill
pipe and the bit in the drill stem to weight the bit in order to
improve its performance.

driller One who operates a drilling rig. The person who is in charge of
drilling operations and who supervises the drilling crew.

drilling break An increase in the penetration rate of the drill bit caused by a
change in the formation, often indicative of penetration into a
porous zone.

drilling exponent The drilling exponent (d), the exponent corrected for mud
 density (dc), and the exponent corrected for mud density and bit
wear (dcs) are used to detect undercompacted shaly formations
and associated high-pressure zones.
(1) d = uncorrected drilling exponent

when: R = drilling rate (ft/hr)

K = rock drillability (~ 1 for shales)
N = rotary speed (rpm)
W = weight on bit (lb)
D = bit diameter (in.)
(2) dc = drilling exponent corrected for mud density

where: d1 = equivalent mud density of normal pore

pressure gradient.

d2 = equivalent mud density of actual pore

pressure gradient
(3) dcs = drilling exponent corrected for nmud density
and bit wear.

Same as "dc" except that instead of R (drilling rate at time t) the

drilling rate Ro (corrected for bit wear) is used.

drilling log A log of drilling parameters such as penetration rate, rotary

speed, weight on the bit pump pressure, pump strokes, etc.

drilling mud See mud.

drilling riser See marine drilling riser.

drilling-time log A record of the time to drill a unit thickness of formation.

Drilling Porosity DPL. A log derived from a mathematical treatment of drilling

Log parameters (e.g., penetration rate, rotary speed, weight on the bit,
pump pressure, pump strokes, etc.) which has been calibrated to
indicate porosity in known rock types. Drilling Porosity Log
trademark of The Analysts.

drill pipe Heavy, thick-walled, seamless steel pipe used in rotary drilling
to turn the drill bit and to provide a conduit for the drilling mud.
Joints of drill pipe are about 30 feet long.

Drill Pipe Electric A resistivity well log which is obtained from a logging
Log instrument which has a self-contained recording mechanism. The
log consists of a SP and short and long normal curves. The tool
is lowered through the drill pipe, and the flexible electrode
assembly is pumped through a port in the bit. The log is recorded
by a tape recorder within the tool during the process of
withdrawing pipe from the hole. The tape is played back to
obtain the log. Drill Pipe Electric Log is a trademark of Welex.

drill stem The drill stem is comprised of the drill pipe, drill collars,
bottomhole assembly, and drill bit. The drilling fluid is pumped
down this pipe at a desired pressure and then jetted out the bit.
The drill stem imparts certain characteristics on the dynamics of
the drilling operation.

drill-stem test DST. A procedure for testing a formation through drill pipe.
Often defined as a temporary completion of a well to determine
the fluid content of a reservoir and its ability to produce.
Formation fluid is recovered in the drill pipe through temporary
relief of backpressure imposed on the formation. Hydrostatic,
flowing and shut-in pressures are recorded versus time.

drill string The column, or string, of drill pipe, not including the drill collar
 or kelly. Often, however, the term is loosely applied to include
both the drill pipe and drill collars.

dry gas Natural gas from the well free of liquid hydrocarbons. Gas that
has been treated to remove all liquids.

dry hole Any well that does not produce oil or gas in commercial
quantities. A dry hole may flow water, gas, or even oil, but not
enough to justify production.

dry rock Rocks beneath the earth's surface that do not have meteoric or
juvenile water supplied to them by an aquifer or any other
source.

DST See drill-stem test.

dual completion A single well that produces from two separate zones at the same
time. Production from each zone is segregated by running two
tubing strings with packers inside the single string of production
casing; or one tubing string with a packer may be run through
one zone while the other is produced through the annulus.

Dual Dipmeter Four dual electrodes record eight microconductivity curves

allowing side-by-side button correlations and pad-to-pad
correlations for high-density dip results. The solid state
inclinometer system has a triaxial accelerometer and three
magnetometers for information on tool deviation and azimuth.
Also see dipmeter tool and dipmeter log. Dual Dipmeter is a
mark of Schlumberger.

dual guard log A formation resistivity log made from a system consisting of
both very deep and shallow investigative guard log schemes. The
 tool records, in combination, deep and shallow guard log curves
and a gamma ray and/or SP curve. The dual guard-FoRxo is a
simultaneously recorded dual guard log and FoRxo. See also
guard log and FoRxo log.

dual induction log DIL. An induction log consisting of two induction curves
representing electrical conductivity measurements taken at
different depths of investigation. Usually run in conjunction with
a focused resistivity device with a shallow depth of investigation,
such as a shallow laterolog or guard log. See also induction log.
DIL is a mark of Schlumberger.

dual laterolog DLL. A formation resistivity log made from a system consisting
of both very deep and shallow investigative laterolog schemes.
The tool records. in combination, deep and shallow laterolog
curves and a gamma ray and/or SP curve. The dual laterolog-Rxo,
is a simultaneously recorded dual laterolog which also includes
flushed zone resistivity information derived from a micro-
Spherically Focused Logging device. See also laterolog. DLL is
a mark of Schlumberger.
dual-spaced See compensated density log.
density log

dual-spaced TDL. A log made with a pulsed neutron tool utilizing two
thermal decay log radiation detectors. See Thermal Multigate Decay Log.

dual-spaced DSN. A well log made with a tool having two thermal neutron
neutron log detectors. The neutron porosity is derived from the ratio of the
counting rates of the two detectors. Use of the count-rate ratio
greatly minimizes borehole effects. This tool can be run in
liquid-filled holes, both cased and uncased, but is not usually
recommended for use in gas-filled holes.
dual porosity DNL. The dual porosity compensated neutron tool has two
CNL thermal and two epithermal neutron detectors for separate
porosity measurements. The epithermal measurement can also be
made in air- or gas-filled holes. Also see compensated neutron
log. See Dual Porosity CNL Tool diagram.
dual-spacing See compensated formation density log.
formation density
log

Dual-Spacing TDT. A well log produced by a thermal decay time tool utilizing
Thermal Decay two radiation detectors. TDT is a mark of Schlumberger. See
Time Log Thermal Decay Time Log.

dynamic In a state of motion. In well logging, it usually refers to borehole

fluid in motion; specifically, fluid (liquid or gas) moving in the
well bore under injecting, producing, or crossflowing conditions.

dynamic measure A depth reference point on the downhole instrument where

point measurements are taken. On most instruments, the measure point
and the dynamic measure point are found at the same point or
place on the sonde. In nuclear tools, lag makes the dynamic
measure point appear below the static measure point by the
distance of the lag. See lag.

dynamic A method by which a floating offshore drilling rig is maintained

positioning in position over an offshore well location. Generally, several
motors called thrusters are located on the hull(s) of the structure
and are actuated by a sensing system. A computer to which the
system feeds signals then directs the thrusters to maintain the rig
on location. See illustration of marine drilling rig at marine
drilling riser.
E Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without
permission from SPWLA

eccentering arm Eccentralizer. decentralizer. A protrusible arm (sometimes a

bow spring) which presses the sonde body against the borehole
wall.

effective The ability of the rock to conduct a fluid in the presence of

permeability another fluid, immiscible with the first, is called its effective
permeability to that fluid. It not only depends on the
permeability of the rock itself, but also upon the relative
amounts of the two (or more) different fluids in the pores.
Usually measured in millidarcies, or darcies. Compare relative
permeability.

effective porosity (1) Interconnected pore volume occupied by free fluids.

Hydrodynamically effective pore volume. Compare total
porosity. See porosity.

(2) Also electrically effective porosity. May differ from

hydrodynamically effective pore volume.

effluent A fluid that flows out.

Eh See oxidation-reduction potential.

elastic collision A collision of particles wherein the resultant sum of kinetic

energies of the particles remains the same after collision as
before. In well logging. the elastic collision between a fast
neutron and nucleus of a hydrogen atom (proton) is the
predominant means by which the neutron loses energy to reach
epithermal or thermal energy levels. Elastic collision and the
resulting elastic scattering is important in neutron-logging
methods involving neutron-neutron interactions. See also
epithermal neutron and thermal neutron. Compare inelastic
 collision.

elastic constants See elastic properties of rocks.

elastic properties Those properties that serve to describe the ability of a material
of rocks to withstand stress without undergoing permanent deformation.
All solid substances, including rocks, follow Hooke's law, that
is, the proportionality relation between strain (or deformation)
and stress (or force per unit area). The stress-strain ratio in
simple linear compression or expansion is Young's modulus of
elasticity (E),

where F/A is the force per unit area or stress, and ΔL/L is the
strain or elongation or shortening per unit length under the
application of expansion or compression.

The stress-strain ratio under hydrostatic compression or

expansion is the bulk modulus of elasticity (K),

where ΔV/V is the volume expansion or shrinkage per unit

volume under the application of expansion or compression.

The stress-strain ratio in shearing, or application of a force,

tangential to the surface displaced, is the rigidity or shear
modulus of elasticity (µ).
 where F/A is the shearing stress and ΔL/L is the shearing strain
or deformation without change in bulk volume.

Poisson's ratio (σ) is a measure of the geometric change of

shape

where W stands for width. It is always comprised between 0 and

1/2, its theoretical value being 1/4 for elastic bodies. The above-
mentioned properties are responsible for the propagation of
sound or acoustic waves through rocks.

Two types of body waves are propagated through elastic media:

(a) longitudinal or compressional waves wherein the back and
forth oscillations of particles are in the direction of propagation,
their velocities being given by

where ρb is bulk density of rock. (b) Transverse or shear waves

wherein the back and forth oscillations of particles are in a
direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation, their
velocities being given by

The longitudinal waves always arrive before the transverse

waves, and to the present time, the former only have been used
extensively in well logging. (From Pirson.)

elastic scattering Scattering produced by elastic collisions. See elastic collision.

elastic wave See acoustic wave.

electrical coring The name given to a series of well-surveying operations in open
holes, for the determination of borehole and geophysical data,
by C. and M. Schlumberger and E. G. Leonardon in 1932. The
survey measurements made in this early well-logging program
were:

(1) Resistivity of the rocks. By a lateral device.

(2) Delineation of porosity in rocks by electrofiltration potential

measurements made with an SP electrode.

(3) Electrical anisotropy of the rocks. Determination of the

direction of dip by an early form of dipmeter.

(4) Temperature measurements.

(5) Resistivity of the mud. Location of water flows.

(6) The electromagnetic teleclinometer. Survey of crooked

holes.

electrical log See electric log.

electrical survey A generic term used to refer to the specific resistivity well log
which usually consists of short normal, long normal, lateral, and
SP curves. Often used incorrectly to refer to borehole electric
logs of other types. Compare electric log.

The electrical survey (i.e., normal and lateral formation-

resistivity measuring systems) is suitable for use in wells drilled
with relatively fresh mud.

In the early years of the development of electrical resistivity

measuring well-logging tools. several different devices were
employed utilizing a number of different electrode spacings.
These devices were used in making the electrical surveys often
referred to as "ancient" resistivity surveys, or sometimes ancient
well logs. The curves on these resistivity logs were simply
referred to as first curve, second curve, third curve, and fourth
curve. The first, second, and third curves usually could be
recorded simultaneously while logging upward during the depth-
controlled survey. The fourth curve was recorded usually while
the tool was being run into the hole. From time to time attempts
were made to standardize the electrode spacings of the
respective devices used within certain geographical regions. But,
it was difficult to arrive at a common standard because of the
diversity of rock types, bed thicknesses, environmental
conditions, and customer (or user) preferences. It was not until
1947 that the API recommended spacings (for different devices)
were adopted throughout the oil and gas industry. From that
time on, the standard API spacings were offered to the industry,
except where customers specifically asked for spacings tailored
to meet their specific requirements. After 1947, the spacings
were to appear on the log heading and the curve types and
spacings were standardized (with few exceptions) as follows:

First Second Third Fourth

Curve Curve Curve Curve

SP 16" normal 64" normal 18'8" lateral

Between l932 and the late 1940s, before the API standards were
adopted, the electrical survey could have consisted of the
following curves and spacings for various geographic locations.

FIRST SECOND THIRD FOURTH

REGION CURVE CURVE CURVE CURVE

Gulf Coast SP 8" normal 16' lateral

SP 10" normal 18'8"
lateral
SP 16" normal 64" normal 16' lateral
SP 16" normal 64" normal 18'8"
lateral

West SP 16" normal 55" normal

Texas and
SP 16" normal 64" normal
New
Mexico SP 18" normal 28" 13' lateral
limestone
curve
SP 18" normal 28" 18' lateral
limestone
curve
SP 10" normal 28" 19' lateral
 limestone
curve
SP 10" normal 32" 19' lateral
limestone
curve
SP 10" normal 32" 24' lateral
limestone
curve

North SP 16" normal 24' lateral

Texas

Oklahoma SP 18" normal 14' lateral

SP 18" normal 16' lateral
SP 16" normal 64" normal 15' lateral
SP 16" normal 64" normal 19' lateral
SP 16" normal 64" normal 24' lateral

Rocky SP 18" normal 16' lateral

Mtns
SP 16" normal 64" normal 15'8"
lateral
SP 16" normal 64" normal 19' lateral
SP 16" normal 64" normal 24' lateral

Kansas SP 16" normal 64" normal 16' lateral

California SP 20" normal 12' lateral

SP 20" normal 20' lateral
SP 10" normal 8.5' Iateral 19' lateral

Northeast SP 16" normal 64" normal 24' lateral

U.S.

Canada SP 16" normal 64" normal 18'8"

lateral
SP 16" normal 64" normal 24' lateral
 Quite often, today's user of the old or "ancient" electrical
surveys will discover that the curve type (e.g., normal, lateral, or
limestone curve) and the spacing used (e.g., 16", 64", 18'8", etc.)
will be missing from the log heading. In that event, the user
must determine what kind of devices and what spacings were
used for the second, third. or fourth curves by a careful
examination of the behavior of each curve through different bed
thicknesses and as the curve approaches surface casing. The
preceding table might provide some guidance.

electrical zero The electrical zero is the recorded output of the electronic
measure circuit when no signal is being measured. Any
imbalance or false response is cancelled in the calibration
process so that the output corresponds to the zero measured
input. The result is an electrical zero.

electric log A generic term used to mean electric well log or electrical well
log, without specific reference to type. Compare electrical
survey.

electrochemical The component of the SP comprised of the sum of the liquid-

potential junction potential and the shale-membrane potential, both of
which are related to the ratio of the activity of the formation
water to that of the mud filtrate. The liquid junction potential is
produced in the formation at the interface between the invading
filtrate and the formation water, as a result of the differences in
ion diffusion rates from the more concentrated to the more dilute
solution. The negatively charged chloride ions have greater
mobility than the positive sodium ions and an excess negative
charge tends to cross the boundary, resulting in an emf. The
shale membrane potential results because the shale bed acts as a
cationic membrane, permitting the sodium cations to flow
through it but not the chloride anions. That results in an excess
of positive charges in the dilute solution and an excess of
negative charges in the concentrated solution. The liquid
junction potential and shale potential are additive. See SP and
SSP.
electrode In resistivity well logging, an electrical terminal in that part of
the electrical circuit exposed to the drilling mud or drilled
formation wall. The electrode is the electrical contact between
the electrical circuit of the measuring device and the medium
which is to be measured. The electrode can be a current
electrode, through which electrical current enters or leaves a
medium; or it can be a measure electrode, which is used for
 measuring the potential resulting from the flow of electric
current. Also used in SP logging. See A electrode and M
electrode, also normal device and lateral device.

electrofiltration See electrokinetic potential.

potential

electrokinetic Streaming potential, electrofiltration potential. A component of

potential the SP produced as a result of movement of the invasion fluid
through the mud cake or permeable formation. The
electrokinetic potential is the potential difference which arises
across a capillary when a stream of invading fluid is passed
through it. The ions in the diffuse layer are swept along by the
invading fluid so that a displacement of charge occurs. Opposite
charges are built up at opposite ends of the capillary.

An electrofiltration potential also exists at the interface between

the borehole and shale beds, a circumstance which tends to
nullify somewhat the effect of the mud-cake electrofiltration
potential in producing variations on the curve. In rare instances,
in the case of a very low-permeability formation, little mud cake
may be formed and a large electrofiltration potential may be
generated across the formation itself.

Electrolog EL. See electrical survey. Electrolog is a Dresser Atlas

trademark.

electrolyte (1) A material in which the flow of electric current is

accompanied by a movement of ions.

(2) Any chemical compound which when dissolved in water

dissociates into positive and negative ions, thus increasing its
electrical conductivity. See dissociation.

electromagnetic See casing inspection log.

casing inspection
log
electromagnetic A well log that shows the propagation time and attenuation of a
propagation log 1.1-GHz electromagnetic energy wave propagation through the
formation near the borehole. The pad-type antenna assembly of
the electromagnetic propagation tool contains two transmitters
and two receivers to minimize the effect of hole rugosity and
tool tilt. Because the propagation time of water differs sharply
from that of oil, gas, or rock, the electromagnetic propagation
tool measurement provides a means to identify hydrocarbon
zones regardless of the formation water salinity.

electromagnetic EPT. The EPT is a device that measures the propagation time
propagation tool (TP1) and attenuation rate (A1) of a microwave frequency
electromagnetic wave that is propagated through the formation
near the borehole. These two measurements can be related to the
(composite) dielectric constant of the formation close to the
borehole. The EPT is a shallow investigation device that has a
depth of investigation of 1 to 4 in., depending on the formation
conductivity. As a result, the EPT responds primarily to the
flushed or invaded zone of the formation. The utility of the EPT
arises from two basic facts. First, the dielectric constant of earth
formations is dominated by the amount of water contained in the
rock pores. That results from the fact that the dielectric constant
of water is an order of magnitude greater than that of the other
constituents of reservoir rocks; namely, oil, gas, and the rock
matrix. Second, at microwave frequencies, the dielectric
constant of water saturated rocks is relatively independent of
water salinity, except in ranges corresponding to very high salt
concentrations. Those two facts imply that the dielectric
constant inferred from the EPT measurements is effectively a
salinity independent datum capable of distinguishing between
water and oil in the zone of investigation. Also, these
measurements can be used to derive values for formation
porosity and water saturation that are essentially salinity
independent. EPT is a mark of Schlumberger.
electromagnetic The inspection tool is composed basically of a sonde with two
thickness log coils. The upper (transmitter) coil generates an electromagnetic
field in the borehole, casing. and formation. For all practical
purposes only the field passing through the casing in front of the
coils, and through the medium behind the casing between the
coils, creates an electromotive force into the lower (receiver)
coil. This electromotive force is out of phase with the
transmitted signal. This difference in phase is recorded and is
proportional to the average thickness of the casing in front of
both coils. Changes in average casing thickness can generally be
attributed to corrosion or other damage. Interpretation is greatly
enhanced by having a base log, run early in the life of the
casing, for comparison with subsequent logs.

electromotive emf. (1) The force that drives electrons and thus produces an
force electric current.

(2) The voltage or electric pressure that causes an electric

current to flow along a conductor.

electron density Electron population/unit volume.

electronic casing A technique which uses an electromagnetic noncontact method

caliper logging of relating currents induced on the inner surface of casing or
tubing to the inner diameter of that casing or tubing. A coil
system generates an electromagnetic field which induces
currents on the inner surface of pipe. These currents are detected
by a second coil system. The measurement obtained is related to
the average inner diameter of the pipe over a length of one or
two inches. The technique can be used to record the inner
diameter of pipe through scale, paraffin. or cement adhering to
the inner surface, and to detect some vertical splits and holes.

electron volt eV. A unit of energy equal to the kinetic energy acquired by an
electron passing through a potential difference of 1 volt. Equal
to 1.6 × 10–12 erg.

electropolarization An emf produced at the surface of electrodes. Usually

potential considered a result of corrosion. Electropolarization potential
generally is large when an electrode is first placed into a
medium (ground or drilling mud), and decreases with the
passage of time. Electropolarization on a remote SP electrode
produces spurious displacement on the SP curve which is
balanced electrically by a compensation voltage applied by a
millivolt box. Since the applied voltage is constant and the
electropolarization potential changes with time, a drift on the SP
curve can result.

elevation It is the distance measured above or below, a specific depth

reference. In well logging, it is the vertical distance between the
depth datum used for depth measurements in the well bore and
sea level (with appropriate sign). See depth datum.
elevator bails The linkage between the elevators and traveling block.

elevators A heavy, hinged clamp attached to the hook and traveling block
by bail-like arms and used for lifting drill pipe, casing, and
tubing and lowering them into the hole. In hoisting a joint of
drill pipe, the elevators are latched onto the pipe just below the
tool joint (coupling) which prevents the pipe from slipping
through the elevators. Also used to support the upper sheave
wheel, over which survey cable moves, during the well-logging
operation

embrittlement See hydrogen embrittlement.

empty hole A cased or uncased borehole filled only with air or gas.

emulsion A stable mixture of two immiscible fluids in which one phase is

dispersed in droplets or globules in a continuous phase of the
other. The continuous phase is said to be external; and the
discontinuous phase, internal.

endothermic Characterized by or formed with absorption of heat.

enhanced oil EOR. An enhancement of the conventional methods of oil

recovery recovery at any stage of their applica tion. Enhanced oil
recovery method refers to any recovery method other than
primary and the conventional secondary recovery methods of
flooding by injecting water or gas. All tertiary recovery methods
are enhanced, but not all enhanced methods are tertiary.

environmental In nuclear logging. An environmental calibrator is a

calibrator manufactured environment in which the logging instrument can
be placed. or which can be placed about the detection
mechanism of the instrument, which provides a known reference
response related to the accepted standard (i.e., API test pits).
Provides a means to calibrate logging instruments at remote
locations (e.g., wellsite).

environmental oil- A mud in which water is emulsified in a continuous oil phase

emulsion mud made up of paraffinic oils. Few or no aromatic compounds are
present in the oil of an environmental oil mud. Such mud as this
is sometimes referred to as nontoxic oil-emulsion drilling fluid.

Epilog See computed log analysis. Epilog computations are computer-

processed interpretations performed at a computer center. Epilog
is a Dresser Atlas trademark.

epithermal A neutron (with a lower kinetic energy level of a few hundredths

neutron eV to an upper energy of about 100 eV) which has been slowed
down in the moderation process from a high kinetic energy level
of about 100 keV. The energy level of an epithermal neutron is
just above that of a thermal neutron (about 0.025 eV). See
neutron and neutron log. Compare thermal neutron.

evaporite A sedimentary rock (as gypsum or salt) that originates from the
evaporation of seawater in enclosed basins.

excavation effect A decrease in the neutron log apparent porosity reading below
that expected on the basis of the hydrogen indices of the
formation component. Excavation effect results from the
presence of a second formation fluid with a hydrogen index
lower than that of the water. Thus, for example, in the presence
of gas saturation:

φN = φSgHg + φSwHw – ΔφNex

where φN is derived for the existing lithology type and where Sg

and Sw are respectively gas and water saturation. Hg and Hw are
 respectively the hydrogen indices of gas and water, and ΔφNex is
the excavation effect.

The term "excavation effect" originates from the comparison of

a fully water-saturated formation with another one containing
the same water content, but having a larger porosity, the
additional pore space being filled with zero hydrogen-index gas.
On the basis of hydrogen index. both formations should give the
same neutron porosity response. However, the second formation
differs from the first in that the additional pore space occupied
by the gas has been provided by "excavating" some of the rock
framework. The two formations give neutron log apparent-
porosity responses which differ by the amount of the excavation
effect for this case.

Excavation effect is greater for larger contrasts between the

hydrogen indices of the second fluid and the formation water,
for higher formation porosities, and for intermediate water
saturations.

exchange cation A positive ion that exists in the lattice or on a broken edge of
some clay minerals which has the property of being easily
replaced by another cation from a water solution that comes in
contact with the clay. The most common exchange cations in
clay materials are Ca++, Mg++, H+, K+, NH4+, and Na+.

excursion Lateral movement of a well logging curve or trace in response to

a galvanometer deflection. "Excursion" is often referred to as
deflection.

exothermic Designating or pertaining to a reaction that occurs with a

liberation of heat.

expendable gun A perforating gun that consists of a metal strip upon which are
mounted shaped charges in special capsules. After firing,
nothing remains of the gun but debris. See gun perforating.
exploratory well Well drilled to find the limits of a hydrocarbon-bearing
formation only partly developed.

external phase See continuous phase.

extrusive A term applied to those igneous rocks that have cooled and
solidified after reaching the earth's surface.
F Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without
permission from SPWLA

facies Appearance, character. Characteristics of a bed which reflect the

conditions of its origin. Such characteristics may change relative
to the same bed. or other beds which are deposited at the same
time, reflecting changes in the depositional environments.

Fahrenheit scale A temperature scale devised by Gabriel Fahrenheit. in which 32°

represents the freezing point and 212° the boiling point of water
at standard sea-level pressure. Fahrenheit degrees may be
converted to centigrade degrees by using the following formula:

°C = 5/9 (°F – 32)

fault Fracture or break in subsurface strata. Strata on one side of the

fault line have been displaced (upward, downward, or laterally)
relative to their original positions.
fault block A mass bounded on at least two opposite sides by faults. It may
be elevated or depressed relative to the adjoining regions, or it
may be elevated relative to the region on one side and depressed
relative to that on the other. See illustration in fault definition.

fault trap A subsurface hydrocarbon trap created by faulting, which causes

an impermeable rock layer to be moved to a location opposite
the reservoir bed.

feldspar A group of abundant rock-forming minerals of the general

formula, MAl (Al,Si)3O8 where M can be K, Na, Ca, Ba, Rb, Sr,
 and Fe. Most widespread of any mineral group, feldspar may
constitute 60% of the earth's crust, occurring in all types of rock.
When the positive ion is K+, the mineral is orthoclase; when it is
Na+, it is albite; when it is Ca+2, it is anosthite.

felsic A mnemonic term derived from "fe" for feldspar, "l" for lenads
or feldspathoids, and "s" for silica. The term is applied to light-
colored rocks containing an abundance of one or all of these
constituents. Also applied to the minerals themselves. The chief
felsic minerals are quartz, feldspars, feldspathoids, and
muscovite. Compare mafic.

FFI Free fluid index. See nuclear magnetism log.

field A geographical area in which a number of oil or gas wells

produce from a continuous reservoir. A field may refer to surface
area only or to underground productive formations as well. In a
single field, there may be several separate reservoirs at varying
depths.

field print A preliminary print of the well log presented in the field at the
completion of the survey operation.

field tape A magnetic tape on which well-log data were recorded during
the logging operation.

film badge A small piece of x-ray or similar photographic film in a light-

proof paper usually crossed by lead or cadmium strips, carried in
a small metal or plastic frame. The badge is used to estimate the
amount of radiation to which an individual wearing the badge
has been exposed.
filter A porous medium through which a fluid is passed to separate it
from material suspended in it.

filter cake See mud cake.

filter loss The amount of tluid that can be delivered through a permeable
filter medium after being subjected to a differential pressure for a
specified time.

filter press A device used in separating the suspended colloidal material

from the liquid of drilling mud.

filtrate Usually refers to mud filtrate.

filtration The process of filtering a fluid.

filtration loss The escape of the liquid part of a drilling mud into permeable
formations.

final print A print generally supplied as the permanent well-log record. This
is a composite log (if the current survey is the last of a series)
which has been printed on high quality reproduction paper after
final entry of all pertinent log heading information, addition of
calibration tails, and necessary drafting.

fines Fragments or particles of rock or mineral which are too minute

to be treated as ordinary coarse material. When found in pore
spaces of reservoir rock, fines sometimes can be moved by
produced fluids to cause formation damage. See skin effect.
fire flood In-situ combustion.

first curve The self potential curve, SP. See further discussion under
electrical survey and SP.

first reading FR (1) The depth of the first useable reading or value recorded
on a curve at the onset of the survey.

(2) Usually the depth in the hole of the deepest reading for any
given curve normally recorded in the bottom-to-top direction.
See also pick-up.

Fischer assay A prescribed laboratory procedure for assaying the production of

liquid and gaseous products upon pyrolysis of organic matter
contained in rock. The destructive distillation from this process
can give the content of water, oil, and ash. The residue rock can
contain coke.

fish (1) A foreign object (such as tool or pipe) lost in the borehole
which obstructs routine functions performed in the well. Usually
must be removed or by-passed.

(2) To attempt to retrieve the object lost in the well bore.

(3) A portable surface electrode, attached to the end of a line,

making a remote ground electrical connection. The fish is
usually placed in a shallow hole dug into the ground and filled
with mud. Compare ground stake.

fishing bell The cable end of the housing enclosing the connectors at the
downhole end of the survey cable. The housing has a neck or
reduced diameter at the cable end which is designed to enter an
overshot and be caught securely during fishing operations.
fishing neck Cable end of the fishing bell.

fissure A crack or fracture in a subsurface formation.

flat-topping Forming a plateau of maximum recorded values. A result of the

loss of sensitivity caused by saturation of some part of the
measuring or recording system.

float collar A special coupling device. inserted one or two joints above the
bottom of the casing string, that contains a check valve to permit
fluid to pass downward but not upward through the casing. The
float collar prevents drilling mud from entering the casing while
it is being lowered, allowjng the casing to float during its descent
and also decreasing the load on the derrick. The float collar also
prevents a backflow of cement during the cementing operation.

floating pad A term used to refer to the pad of any contact logging tool that
does not make sufficiently good contact with the formation wall
to record quality information. For example. dipmeter pads in
oval shaped holes and microlaterolog pads in slant holes where
the weight of the tool might pull the pad away from the borehole
wall.

float shoe A short, heavy, cylindrical steel section with a rounded bottom,
attached to the bottom of the casing string. It contains a check
valve and functions similarly to the float collar but also serves as
a guide shoe for the casing.

flood To drive oil from a reservoir into a well by injecting water under
pressure into the reservoir formation. See water flood.

flow check An interruption in circulation with no or very little movement of

 the drill pipe. It is performed in order to determine if there is an
influx of gas, oil, or water into the hole and drilling mud.

flowing pressure The pressure registered at the wellhead of a flowing well.

flowing well A well that produces oil or gas by its own reservoir pressure
rather than by use of artificial means (as pumps).

flowline Large-diameter pipe which conducts mud coming out of the hole
from the annulus to the shale shaker and mud tanks.

flowmeter A downhole tool used to measure the rate-of-flow and

sometimes direction-of flow of borehole fluids. Usually these
tools utilize impellers. During use the tools are run continuously
with or against the direction of fluid flow. Sometimes the
flowmeter measurements are made at stationary levels when
fluid is diverted past the impeller blades by an inflatable packer.
See also continuous flowmeter, fullbore-spinner flowmeter,
packer flowmeter, spinner survey, and radioactive-tracer log.

flow tube The lower end of the hydraulic packing head (control head) of a
lubricator. Grease or other viscous material is injected into flow
tubes (containing seals, etc.) providing additional seal and
lubrication. Flow tubes can be stacked for additional pressure
control through step-down pressure reduction.

fluid Any substance which will undergo continuous deformation when

subjected to shear stress. Liquids and gases are fluids.

fluid level A misnomer. Often used incorrectly to refer to liquid level in the
open or cased borehole.
fluid loss The loss of the liquid part of the drilling mud into a formation,
often minimized or prevented by the blending of additives with
the mud.

fluid travel log FTL. A record of borehole fluid flow rate. See radioactive-tracer
log. Compare flowmeter.

fluid sampler A device used to recover accurately depth-controlled fluid

samples of wellbore fluids for PVT analysis. The taking of the
fluid in the well bore and the transfer of the fluids to a PVT
receptacle is accomplished in a way to avoid pressure loss.

fluid wave A compressional wave in the liquid column. The wave form
arrival which has been transmitted to the receiver directly
through the liquid column within the well bore.

flushed zone The zone at a relatively short radial distance from the borehole,
immediately behind mud cake, which is considered to be flushed
by mud filtrate (i.e., is considered to have all mobile formation
fluids displaced from it). See also invaded zone.

focused log Refers to a well log produced by any well-logging device in

which survey-current flow is focused or otherwise controlled.
Examples of focused logs are: laterolog, guard log,
microlaterolog, induction log, and spherically focused log.

There are two main purposes for focusing survey current of

resistivity-measuring devices: (1) To increase vertical resolution
of the logging tool; i.e., improve its capability to resolve thin
beds. That reduces the influence of adjacent beds on the
measurements. (2) To reduce the influences of borehole and mud
cake in the presence of saline drilling mud.
fold A flexure of rock strata into arches and troughs, produced by
earth movements. See anticline and syncline.

formation (1) A general term applied in the well-logging industry to the

external environment of the drilled well bore without
stratigraphic connotation.

(2) The basic or fundamental rock-stratigraphic unit in the local

classification of rocks, consisting of a body of rock (usually a
sedimentary stratum of strata, but also igneous and metamorphic
rocks) generally characterized by some degree of internal
lithologic homogeneity or distinctive lithologic features (such as
chemical composition, structures, textures, or gross aspect of
fossils).

Formations may be combined in groups or subdivided into

 members and beds. A formation name should preferably con sist
of a geographic name followed by a descriptive lithologic term
(usually the dominant rock type) or by the word formation if the
lithology is so variable that no single lithologic distinction is
appropriate

formation damage See skin effect.

formation density See density log.

log

formation dip The angle at which a formation bed inclines away from the
horizontal. See dip. See illustration at strike.

formation The analysis and interpretation of well-log data, drill-stem tests,

evaluation etc. in terms of the nature of the formations and their fluid
content. The objectives of formation evaluation are (1) to
ascertain if commercially producible hydrocarbons (or other
forms of energy and minerals) are present, (2) to determine the
best means for their recovery, and (3) to derive lithology and
other information on formation characteristics for use in further
exploration and development.

formation factor See formation resistivity factor.

formation factor A log in which the formation resistivity factor curve derived
log from a resistivity or porosity estimating device is shown as a
function of depth. Usually recorded on a logarithmic grid.

formation See hydraulic fracturing. A less common means of formation

fracturing fracturing employs the use of explosives.
formation interval A formation tester.
tester

formation The pore pressure existing within reservoir rock or non-reservoir

pressure rock at a specified time. The pressure exerted by fluids in a
formation, recorded in the hole at the level of the formation with
the well shut in. It is also called reservoir pressure or shut-in
bottom-hole pressure. See reservoir pressure. Compare
geopressure.

formation Formation factor, F. Equal to the ratio of the resistivity of the

resistivity factor l00% water-saturated rock framework to the resistivity of the
water solution contained in the rock. The limiting formation
factor is an intrinsic characteristic of the rock, obtainable with
reliability only when the interpore water solution is highly salt
saturated. The apparent formation factor. most often obtained, is
a function of porosity, salinity of water filling the pores, pore
geometry, clay content, and presence of electrically conductive
solid matter. See Archie's formulas.

formation signal The signal related to the formation. with the logging tool at a
given depth in the borehole, as opposed to signals generated
from the tool itself (e.g., diode error, sonde error) or coming
from borehole fluids.

formation strike See description and illustration under strike.

formation tester A wireline tool used for recovering fluid samples from the
formation and recording hydrostatic, flowing, and shut-in
pressures versus time.

formation testing The gathering of data on a formation to determine its potential

productivity before installing casing in a well. The conventional
 method is the drill-stem test. Incorporated in the drill-stem-
testing tool are a packer. valves, or ports that can be opened and
closed from the surface, and a pressure-recording device. The
tool is lowered to bottom on a string of drill pipe and the packer
set, isolating the formation to be tested from the formations
above and supporting the fluid column above the packer. A port
on the tool is opened to allow the trapped pressure below the
packer to bleed off into the drill pipe, gradually exposing the
formation to atmospheric pressure and allowing the well to
produce to the surface, where the well fluids can be sampled and
inspected. From a record of the pressure readings, a number of
facts about the formation can be inferred.

formation volume The ratio of the volume of gas or liquid with its dissolved gas at
factor reservoir conditions of tempcrature and pressure to its volume at
standard conditions.

formation water See interstitial water. Compare connate water.

FoRxo Log A focused resistivity log recorded from a pad which contains a
small button electrode surrounded by a guarding electrode and
which is forced against the side of the bore hole. The current
from the button electrode is forced to flow out into the first few
inches of the formation, which would be the Rxo zone in a
permeable formation. FoRxo is a Welex trademark.

fossil fuel A deposit of organic material containing stored solar energy that
can be used as fuel. The most important are coal, natural gas, and
petroleum.

fourth curve A name given to a deep investigation resistivity curve appearing

on electrical surveys in the 1930s and 1940s. Usually, this was a
lateral curve. See further discussion under electrical survey.

FR See first reading.

frac job See hydraulic fracturing.

fracture A break, parting, or separation in brittle rock.

Fracture Finder An acoustic well log used in the location of fractures. Usually
log the log consists of one or more curves in which the amplitudes of
the compression and/or shear wave forms are shown across a
formation segment. Fractures may produce attenuation of both
compressional and shear waves, if the fractures are properly
oriented. Fracture Finder is a Welex trademark.

fracture gradient Is the pressure per unit depth required to fracture or cause the
rock of the formation to separate. See also hydraulic fracturing.

fracture log See Fracture Finder log, an acoustic method. Other types of
fracture logs employ resistivity measurements to show possible
fractures.

fracture porosity Porosity resulting from the presence of openings produced by the
breaking or shattering of brittle rocks.

free-air correction A correction for the elevation of a gravity measurement required

because the measurement was made at a different distance from
the center of the earth than the datum. The first term of the free
air correction is 0.09406 mgal/ft or 0.3086 mgal/m.

free fluid index FFI. The percent of the bulk volume occupied by fluids which
are free to flow, as recorded on the nuclear magnetism log. Gas
gives a low FFI.
free interstitial Mobile interstitial water. Compare bound water.
water

free pipe Pipe or casing in a well bore which is free to vibrate or respond
to stress. Casing or tubing which is free of the restraint of a
cement sheath or formation materials.

free point The deepest depth in the well bore that stuck casing or drill pipe
is free and can be salvaged.

free-point A tool designed to measure the amount of stretch in a string of

indicator stuck pipe and to indicate the deepest point at which the pipe is
free. The free-point indicator is lowered into the well on a
conducting cable. Each end of a strain-gauge element is
anchored to the pipe wall by friction springs or magnets, and, as
increasing strain is put on the pipe, an accurate measurement of
its stretch is transmitted to the surface. The stretch measurements
indicate the depth at which the pipe is stuck.

frequency (1) The number of cycles or waves completed in a unit of time.

In electronics, one cycle per second is a frequency unit called a
hertz.

(2) The number of occurrences or events over a specified period

of time or length of borehole.

fresh mud A relative, though inaccurate, term which describes the condition
where the make-up water for the drilling mud is fresher than the
water in the formations to be drilled.

fresh water Very low in dissolved salts. Sometimes used comparatively with
respect to normal sea water (which has 35,000 parts of dissolved
 salts per million). Sometimes used comparing mud filtrate with
formation water.

froth flow In producing wells, a fluid-flow condition in well bores in which

larger bubbles and slugs of gas have united to move up the center
of the column. The gas carries some oil droplets, although most
of the oil flows up along the pipe walls.

fullbore-spinner A flowmeter with retractable impeller blades which can be used

flowmeter below the bottom of tubing where the impeller blades open to
almost full inside diameter of the casing.

The measurement made is related to the velocity of the fluid

relative to the tool, which in turn is related to the volumetric
flow rates. In polyphasic flow, however, much higher threshold
flow rates are needed for useful measurements. A continuous log
can be recorded with or against the flow of fluid.

full waveform A representation of the acoustic wave train in the amplitude-time

recording mode. A trace in the X-Y plane illustrating the wave amplitude
vs. time. See acoustic log. Compare Micro-Seismogram or
intensity modulated-time. See wave train and illustration at wave
train display.

full wave train See wave train.

funicular See description and illustration under saturation.

saturation

funnel viscosity Viscosity as measured by the Marsh funnel, based on the number
of seconds it takes for 1,000 cm3 of drilling fluid to flow through
the funnel.
G Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without
permission from SPWLA

gal A unit of acceleration used in gravity measurements. One

gal = 1 cm/sec2 = 10–2 m/sec2. The earth's normal gravity is
980 gal. See milligal and gravity unit.

galvanometer A sensitive ammeter which has a miniature mirror fastened to the

moving coil. Through a system of precision-placed mirrors, light
from a source is directed onto the galvanometer mirror from
which it is reflected onto a moving photoraphic film where it
traces a curve. Galvanometers often are part of the recorder or
camera.

galvanometer A change in the mechanical zero of a recording galvanometer

drift during the course of a survey. The drift sometimes is a result of a
change in temperature of the galvanometer or the occurrence of a
bubble in the galvanometer fluid.

gamma-gamma See density log.

log

gamma ray A photon having neither mass nor charge. It is a high-energy

electromagnetic wave which is emitted by atomic nuclei as a
form of radiation. Gamma rays are emitted by nuclei in their
transition from an excited state to a lower energy state, in
transmutations, and in radioactive disintegrations. Gamma rays
have characteristic energy levels which can be used to identify
the parent substance.

gamma-ray See mass absorption.

absorption
gamma-ray See ionization chamber, Geiger-Mueller counter and scintillation
detectors counter.

gamma-ray index GRI. A clayiness index determined from the difference between
the radioactivity level of the zone of interest and that of clean
rock compared to the difference between the radioactivity level
in clay shale and that in the clean rock.

gamma-ray Gamma rays interact with matter in three different ways: see
interactions with photoelectric absorption, Compton scattering, and pair
matter production.

gamma-ray log A well log of the natural formation radioactivity level.

(1) In sediments the log mainly reflects clay content because clay
contains the radioisotopes of potassium, uranium, and thorium.
Potassium feldspars, volcanic ash, granite wash, and some salt
deposits containing potassium (potash for example) may also
give significant gamma-ray readings. The log often functions as
a substitute for the SP for correlation purposes in nonconductive
borehole fluids in open holes, for thick carbonate intervals, and
to correlate cased-hole logs with open-hole logs.

(2) Used in exploration for radioactive minerals.

gamma-ray An encapsulated radioactive material used in density logging.

source Usually Cesium-137. Compare test pill.
gamma The gamma spectometry tool (GST) measures both inelastic and
spectometry log capture gamma ray spectra, providing a detailed measurement of
formation response to neutron bombardments. Eight essential
elements are identified and their concentrations are determined.
Measurements of carbon, oxygen, silicon, calcium, iron,
chlorine, hydrogen, and sulfur are used to compute the
hydrocarbon saturation, salinity, lithology, porosity, and
shaliness of the formation. See also carbon-oxygen log. GST is a
mark of Schlumberger.
gas A fluid, compressible substance that completely fills any
container in which it is confined. Its volume is dependent of the
size of the container.

gas cap A free-gas phase overlying an oil zone and occurring within the
same reservoir as the oil. See reservoir.

gas-cap drive Drive energy supplied naturally (as a reservoir is produced) by

the expansion of gas in a cap overlying the oil in the reservoir.
See reservoir-drive mechanism.

gas An analytical instrument used for separating the various

chromatograph components of a gas mixture, and measuring the relative
concentrations of each. These instruments are used routinely by
 mud logging contractors to identify the types of hydrocarbons
encountered in the drilling process. See partition gas
chromatograph.

gas condensate Liquid hydrocarbons present in casinghead gas that condense

upon being brought to the surface; formerly distillate, now
condensate. Also casinghead gasoline; white oil.

gas cone See cone and coning.

gas-cut mud Drilling mud aerated or charged with gas from formations
downhole. Because a large amount of gas in mud lowers its
density, gas-cut mud often must be treated to lessen the chance
of blowout.

gas detector An electrochemical device used by mud logging contractors to

determine the presence and relative concentration of the total
combustible fraction of the gas and air mixture drawn off the
return stream of drilling mud.

gas drilling See air drilling.

gas drive The use of the energy that arises from gas compressed in a
reservoir to move crude oil to a well bore. Gas drive is also used
in a form of secondary recovery, in which gas is injected into
input wells to sweep remaining oil to a producing well.

gas hydrate A combination of natural gas and water under pressure which
forms solid crystals at temperatures above the freezing point of
water. These solids are an expanded form of ice (gas molecules
trapped inside) and look like dirty ice.
gas in solution (1) Gas dissolved in water or crude oil.

(2) Gas dissolved in crude oil decreases the specific gravity and
viscosity of the oil in a reservoir. Dissolved-gas energy is freed
by the expansion of the gas released from solution as the
pressure drops along the gradient from the reservoir, through the
well. and to the tank As gas expands, it moves along the pressure
gradient carrying or driving oil along with it.

gas lift The process of raising or lifting fluid from a well by injecting
gas down the well through tubing or through the tubing-casing
annulus. Injected gas aerates the fluid to make it exert less
pressure than formation pressure; consequently, the higher
formation pressure forces the fluid out of the wellbore. Gas may
be injected continuously or intermittently, depending on the
producing characteristics of the well and the arrangement of the
gas-lift equipment.

gas-lift valve A device installed on a gas-lift mandrel, which in turn is put on

the tubing string of a gas-lift well. Tubing and casing pressures
cause the valve to open and close thus allowing gas to be
injected into the fluid in the tubing to cause the fluid to rise to
the surface.

gas-oil contact The lowest depth (deepest depth in a well) opposite a formation
at which virtually 100% gas can be produced. This depth is at the
top of the gas-oil transition zone.

gas-oil interface See gas-oil contact.

gas-oil ratio GOR. A measure of the volume of gas produced with oil,
expressed in cubic feet per barrel or cubic meters per metric ton.
gas tracer A radioactive isotope (e.g., I131 in a methyl iodide carrier) used to
follow gas flow in a well bore and determine a velocity flow
profile.

gate A window or opening, usually in time, during which certain

measurements are made. The gate has specific beginning and
ending time boundaries.

gauge hole A borehole with a diameter the same size as the drill bit.

gauge ring Gage ring. A nonrecording device run into cased boreholes in
order to determine minimum inside diameter of the casing before
running tools that might be easily damaged or become stuck
because of the close tolerances involved.

Geiger-Mueller A form of gamma-ray detector. Similar to the ionization chamber

counter in that a center rod electrode is maintained at a positive potential
relative to the cylindrical chamber wall. The difference is that
the Geiger-Mueller tube chamber contains gas at a low pressure
and maintains the center electrode at a high positive voltage
(e.g., 900-l000 volts). Incident gamma rays cause the ejection of
electrons from detector walls into the gas. As the ejected electron
is drawn toward the highly charged center electrode, other
collisions occur between each electron and gas atoms, thus
producing additional electrons which in turn cause additional
ionization by collision. That results in a multiplication of the
ionization events, and an avalanche of electrons arrives at the
central electrode. The surge of electrical current must be
quenched before another surge can be determined. That results in
a number of easily detectable pulses related to the number of
gamma-ray interactions. Increased length and additional plates
and baffles are used to increase the number of interactions by
incident gamma rays. The increased length tends to decrease
vertical resolution. Compare scintillation counter.

gel A semisolid, jellylike state assumed by some colloidal

dispersions at rest. When agitated, the gel converts to a fluid
 state. See thixotropy.

geofluid Any natural fluid found in earth formations or rocks. Formation

fluid.

Geolograph A trade name for a patented device used on a drilling rig which
records automatically the depth and rate of penetration during
each consecutive 24-hour period.

geology The science that relates to the study of the structure, origin,
history, and development of the earth as revealed in the study of
rocks, formations, and fossils

geometrical factor The geometry-dependent weighting factor for determining how

the conductivities of each medium in the vicinity of an induction
logging tool affect the apparent conductivity measurement. The
only well-logging devices for which this concept is sound are the
induction tools, because when Rxo > Rt, only with these tools is
the measuring geometry independent of variations in Rxo/Rt.

When conductivities are not high, skin effect may be neglected,

and the response of induction logs can be described in terms of
conductivities and "geometrical factors" of the volumes
surrounding the tool. The geometrical factor, (G), of a volume
having a specific geometrical orientation with the sonde is
simply the fraction of the total signal that would originate with
that volume in an infinite homogeneous medium. For
computation of geometrical factor to be practical. it is necessary
to assume that the volumes conform to symmetry of revolution
about the sonde.

The magnitude of the signal in conductivity units is the product

of the geometrical factor and the conductivity of the material,
and the total signal sensed by the tool is the sum of these
products for all volumes within range (which extends to infinity,
but can be circumscribed to practical limits).

Since the G's add up to unity by definition, this can be stated:

 CIL = C1G1 + C2G2 + C3G3 . . . + CNGN

where the C's and G's refer to the zones of differing conductivity,
and N is the total number of such zones.

The chief significance of this concept is the fact that a volume of

space defined only by its geometry relative to the sonde has a
fixed and computable geometric factor. That permits the
construction of mathematically sound correction charts to
account for the effects of borehole mud, the invaded zone, and
adjacent beds on the R measurement, providing symmetry of
revolution exists. Compare pseudo-geometrical factor.

geophone An instrument that detects vibrations passing through the earth's

crust, used in conjunction with seismography. The geophone,
also referred to as a seismometer, converts seismic oscillations of
the ground into electrical signals. The most common type
consists of a coil and magnet: one fixed rigidly with respect to
the ground and the other suspended from a fixed support by a
spring. Relative motion between the coil and magnet produces a
current in the coil. Vertical and horizontal ground motion can be
measured. Exploration geophones operate in the 5-200 Hz range.
They can be used on the surface or in special downhole
packages. Downhole geophones must be "locked" to the
borehole wall when recording. Downhole geophones are used in
velocity check surveys and vertical seismic profiling.

geopressure (1) Pressure pertaining to the earth, ground, or crust of the earth.
A specific pressure regime, as geothermal pertains to a specific
temperature regime.

(2) Undisturbed formation pressure. The pore pressure existing

within a body of interest prior to disturbance.

(3) Historically misused to indicate high abnormal pore pressure.

geopressure The change in pore pressure observed per unit change in depth.
gradient If the pore pressures are normal, then the geopressure gradient
pertains to the normal pressure gradient (on the Gulf Coast about
0.465 psi/foot depth).
geostatic Of or pertaining to overburden or the aggregate of overlying rock
column and fluid.

geostatic load Overburden. The combined load of the overlying rock column
and the fluids contained within the pores of the rock from the
depth of the stratum of interest to the surface.

geostatic pressure That pressure exerted by the weight of the entire geostatic load.

geothermal Pertaining to temperatures in the earth, ground, or crust of the

earth

geothermal The internal energy of the earth. Available to human beings as

energy heat from heated rocks or water.

geothermal The rate of increase of temperature in the earth with depth. The
gradient gradient near the surface of the earth varies from place to place
depending on the heat flow in the region and on the thermal
conductivity of the rock. Caused by the continuous flow of heat
outward through the crust of the earth.

gilsonite A mineral form of asphalt. Softens on heating and soluble in

carbon disulfide.

GL Ground level.

glands Used in a stuffing box and hydraulic packing head. Rubber seals
that can be squeezed down over logging cable to form a pressure
seal in the event pressure develops at the surface. Cable can be
moved in closed down glands if the cable is lubricated by fluid
 or injected grease. If glands should cut out, the blowout
preventer can be closed and glands replaced. Compare rams.

globular Insular saturation. See description and illustration under

saturation saturation.

gooseneck A curved device that fits over the fishing bell. Used during the
process of lifting heavy downhole tools from a horizontal
position to a vertical position. The logging cable or bridle fits
into the curvature of the device thus minimizing localized stress
and flexure on survey line and conductors.

graben A block of the earth's crust that has slid downward between two
faults; the opposite of a horst. See illustration in fault.

grade ore Weight percent of a mineral of interest in a volume of ore

containing the mineral.

grade thickness The macroscopic ore grade determined by a logging instrument

which investigates a volume of formation of greater than unit
thickness. The average grade ore determined by the instrument
(e.g., gross-count gamma-ray tool) would be grade thickness
divided by thickness.

gradient The change in any parameter per unit change of another

parameter.

gradiomanometer A device used to measure the average density of the fluids

contained in a fixed length of the well bore located between
sensitive membrane-type pressure sensors, irrespective of the
fluid distribution. The measurement recorded as a function of
depth is called specific gravity. The recorded curve would
 represent a specific gravity profile of fluids in the borehole for
the conditions under which the survey was run. In some cases it
may be affected by hole deviation, a friction component. and a
kinetic component.

granite In a broad sense, a coarse-grained igneous rock consisting

essentially of quartz, feldspar, and mafic minerals, by far the
most abundant of all plutonic rocks. See also pluton.

grain density The density of a unit volume of a mineral or other rock matter at
zero porosity. The density of the rock framework. Sometimes
called matrix density. Usual units are g/cm3.
grand slam A combination of logs or a computation procedure for
calculating the depth of invasion and the resistivity of both
invaded and uncontaminated zones, based on a dual induction-
laterolog and a proximity log or microlaterolog.

graphic log Strip log.

gravel pack A mass of very fine gravel placed around a slotted liner in a well.

gravel packing A method of well completion in which a slotted or perforated

liner is placed in the well and surrounded by small-sized gravel.
The well is enlarged by underreaming at the point where the
gravel is packed. The mass of gravel prevents sand from flowing
into the well but allows continuous rapid production.

gravel pack log The gravel pack logging tool is a neutron-type device that
evaluates the condition of the gravel pack. Count rates from two
detectors are used to compute porosity. The count rates from
both detectors are presented with the cased-hole porosity and
compared to the porosity measured in the open hole if open-hole
measurements are available. The log provides a quantitative
analysis of the areas in the pack that need to be replaced before
the well is placed on production.

gravimeter An instrument for measuring variations in gravltational

attraction; a gravity meter. Most present gravimeters are of the
unstable or astatic type. The gravitational force on a mass in the
meter is balanced by a spring arrangement, and a third force is
provided which acts when the system is not in equilibrium. This
third force intensifies the effect of changes of gravity and
increases the sensitivity of the system. In the LaCoste-Romberg
gravimeter, the main spring that balances out the gravitational
pull on the weight is a "zero-length spring" inclined at an angle.
A zero length spring has a stress-strain curve that passes through
zero length when projected back to zero strain. (For example, a
 spring that requires an initial stress before the coils begin to
separate.) Zero-length springs have very long periods and high
sensitivity.

gravimetry The measurement, correction, mapping, and interpretation of the

earth's gravitational field by surface or borehole measurements.

gravity (1) The force of attraction between bodies of finite mass. Usually
expressed in milligals.

(2) API gravity. A method for specifying the density of crude

petroleum. The density in °API is equal to

where P is the specific gravity of the oil measured at 60°F.

gravity anomaly Difference between theoretical calculated and observed

terrestrial gravity; excess observed gravity is positive and
deficiency is negatively anomalous.

gravity drainage The movement of oil in a reservoir toward a wellbore resulting

from the force of gravity. In the absence of water drive or
effective gas drive, gravity dramage is an important source of
energy to produce oil. It is also called segregation drive.

gravity meter See gravimeter.

gravity unit A unit of gravitational acceleration, equal to 0.1 mgal or l0–

6
m/sec2. Sometimes called G unit.
graywacke A variety of sandstone generally characterized by its hardness,
dark color, and angular grains of quartz, feldspar, and small rock
fragments set in a matrix of clay sized particles

green pattern A convention used in dipmeter interpretation. The "green

pattern" represents structural dip as denoted by a succession of
dips of relatively constant direction and magnitude. Becomes
more evident after removal of blue pattern and red pattern.
Compare blue pattern and red pattern. See dip for illustration.

grid See API log grid.

gross-count A tool that can be applied to a much wider range of radioactivity

gamma-ray tool than natural gamma-ray logging tools used in the petroleum
industry. Responds to changes in gamma-ray activity at very
high radiation levels. Used in the exploration for radioactive
minerals.

ground electrode A ground stake. With SP and resistivity logging, it is a portable

surface grounding electrode placed at some remote location from
the rig and logging unit and connected with a conductor line to
provide ground connection for the instruments.

ground level GL. Elevation of the undisturbed ground surface. Sometimes

used as a depth datum.

ground line (1) With SP and resistivity logging. It is the conductor line, to
which is attached a portable surface electrode, which is extended
to some remote location from the rig and logging unit to provide
electrical ground connection.

(2) With perforation safety. Ground strap. It is a heavy-gauge,

low-resistance line provided with appropriate connectors or
clamps to electrically connect together the masses of the hoist
unit, rig, and surface casing (wellhead). This negates voltage
 differences which may occur between the masses.

ground safety line A ground strap used for perforation safety. See ground line Part
(2).

ground stake Portable surface electrode used in SP and resistivity logging.

Makes a remote electrical connection with earthen mass. A metal
stake, connected to the end of an electrical ground line, which is
driven into the ground. Compare fish. See also ground electrode.

guarded electrode The short center electrode of a guard tool. The electrode on
which most measurements are based.

guard electrode (1) One of the long electrodes above and below the short center
electrode, or guarded electrode, of a guard tool.

(2) Sometimes used, incorrectly, to refer to the guarded electrode

or the entire guard tool.

guard log A well log of formation resistivity which involves the use of a
guard tool.

guard logging tool See guard tool.

guard logging See guard tooll.

sonde

guard tool The guard tool behaves similarly to one elongated current
electrode from which current flows radially in all directions to a
distant current-return electrode. In practice, the current-emitting
 electrode is separated into three parts by insulation so that the
center part, which is made short, can be treated as a discrete
electrode without alteration of the current-flow pattern. The
current from the center electrode, which serves as both a current
and measure electrode, flows in a thin horizontal layer at an
angle of 90° to the tool because of its central location in the
configuration.

Through the method of focusing described above, this

arrangement provides good resolution of thin beds and permits
the use of the tool in boreholes filled with saline muds.

The log usually is presented with one resistivity curve and a

gamma-ray curve and/or SP curve (recorded from an electrode
not physically a part of the guard electrode). Compare laterolog.

gun An assemblage including a carrier, electrical circuitry, explosive

charges, and either percussion-type bullets or core barrels for
 taking formation samples, or projectiles or shaped charges for
gun perforating or formation testing.

gun perforating The wireline procedure involving the use of a gun in introducing
holes through steel casing into a formation so that fluids can
flow from the formation into the casing. The gun can be
selectively positioned opposite the formation and has the
capability of firing bullets or shaped charges.

gusher An oil well which has come in with such great pressure that the
oil jets out of the well like a geyser. In reality, a gusher is a
blowout and is extremely wasteful of reservoir fluids and drive
energy. In the early days of the oil industry, gushers were
common, and many times were the only indications that a large
reservoir of oil and gas had been found.

gypsum A naturally occurring crystalline form of hydrated calcium

sulfate. Gypsum is a calcium dihydrate (CaSO4·2H2O) in the
monoclinic crystalline form. At elevated temperatures the
dihydrate in a dry environment may lose some of its water of
crystallization to become the unstable hemihydrate (which will
rehydrate when exposed to water). A monoclinic crystal of
gypsum cannot become an orthorhombic crystal of anhydrite by
simple dehydration. Compare anhydrite.
H Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without
permission from SPWLA

half-life The length of time required for a radioactive material to lose

one-half of its radioactivity by decay (i.e., half of the radioactive
element has spontaneously disintegrated).

half thickness Half value thickness. That thickness of an intervening absorbing

material which is necessary to reduce the intensity of incident
radiation by one-half.

halite Natural salt, sodium chloride. A common mineral of evaporites.

hard rock In the petroleum industry, a hard rock is a cemented, well-

consolidated formation.

hardware Physical entities such as computers, electronic circuits and

components, peripherals such as tape machines, etc. Contrasted
with software.

head (1) The connector end of the fishing bell. Located at the
downhole end of the survey cable. The head consists of insulated
electrical connectors or pins and a threaded connector which will
attach to various downhole instruments.

(2) The threaded connector end(s) of downhole logging

instruments.

heading The form attached to the top of a well log which supplies and
documents all vital information and supplementary data
regarding the well, the survey, and the wellbore conditions.
heaving shale Shale which becomes dislodged by bit, drill pipe, or jet action.
Also shale which becomes hydrated during the drilling process
and falls into the well bore. Heaving shale quite often leaves
cavities and ledges. Heaving shale is not necessarily related to
overpressure. Compare plastic shale.

hertz Hz. A unit of frequency measurement equal to one cycle per

second.

high-angle An expression which applies to a method developed for the

borehole logging purpose of logging highly deviated holes and holes with serious
system bridging problems. At the present time, systems such as this
involve the use of drill pipe to carry specially designed well-
logging tools through highly deviated boreholes or past wellbore
constrictions to a depth where logging can be performed. A
survey cable connects the downhole logging instrument to the
surface where the measurements are recorded.

Usually, this is an operation designed for performing openhole

surveys below a surface- or protective casing string, but can be
used for performing some cased-hole surveys as well. Examples
are Slant-hole Express and Toolpusher.
high explosives High explosives are unstable chemical compounds that are
sensitive to shock. temperature, and their own detonative wave.
High explosives detonate with a violent chemical reaction. The
detonative wave velocity is a density phenomenon and is in the
order of magnitude of 30,000 feet/second. Shaped charges and
Primacords are high explosives. Compare low explosives.

high-resolution A dipmeter tool which records four high-resolution

dipmeter tool microresistivity curves and has an additional electrode on one
pad which yields another curve at displaced depth. The
displaced-depth curve is used to correct for variations on sonde
speed. Provides not only improved resistivity resolution. but also
improved dip resolution or refinement.
high-resolution A small-diameter, surface recording, fast-response downhole
thermometer temperature tool for logging open or cased horeholes.

holdup In a producing well, the volume fraction of a specific fluid phase

(e.g., water holdup, oil holdup) in the upward moving flow
stream. The relative quantities of the fluids produced at the
surface are related to the holdup and upward velocity of each
phase.

hollow carrier A perforating gun consisting of a hollow, thick-walled.

gun cylindrical metal case into which are loaded shaped charges or
bullets. Upon firing, debris from the detonated charges falls into
the carrier to be retrieved with the reusable gun.

horns Spurious high-resistivity anomalies found on induction log

curves inside the upper or lower boundary of a resistive bed in
which the apparent resistivity markedly contrasts with that of a
conductive adjacent bed. A result of improper boundary
compensation for the level of formation resistivity being logged.

horst A block of the earth's crust that has been raised between two
faults. The opposite of a graben. See illustration in fault.

hostile Hostile wellbore environment. Any well bore that meets one of
environment the following criteria:

(1) depth greater than 20,000 ft.

(2) pressure greater than 20,000 psi
(3) temperature greater than 325°F
(4) hole deviation greater than 50°
(5) H2S or gas-cut mud

Any one or a combination of these will severely affect or restrict

the logging operations.
hot rock Pertains to any rock that is volcanically or radiogenically heated.

hot-water system A system that is dominated by a circulating liquid that transfers

most of the heat and largely controls subsurface pressures.
Characterized by hot springs that discharge at the surface.

hot wire analyzer A device used to detect hydrocarbon gases returned to the
surface by the drilling mud. Basically a Wheatstone bridge, two
arms of which are kept at a high temperature. Hydrocarbon gases
become oxidized as they pass over one arm, which increases its
temperature, changes its resistance, and unbalances the bridge.
The hot wire analyzer response is sometimes plotted as a strip
log.

housing A cylindrical metal case which protects downhole electrical

circuitry. Particularly, a housing which encases the electronic
cartridge of the downhole logging instrument. The housing
protects the cartridge from damage from pressure and moisture.

huff-and-puff Cyclic steam injection. A form of enhanced oil recovery.

Humble formula A modified form of Archie's formation factor/porosity

relationship.

F = 0.62φ–2.15
where F = formation resistivity factor, and φ = porosity.

HVT Half value thickness. See half thickness.

hybrid scale A resistivity scale used with laterologs and guard logs which
compresses high resistivity values. Below midscale. the scale is
 linear with resistivity. Above midscale, the scale is scaled in
resistivity units. but is linear with conductivity (reciprocal of
resistivity). The hybrid scale presentation has been replaced by
the logarithmic scale on modern laterologs and guard logs.

hydrate (1) To combine with water.

(2) A hydrocarbon and water compound that is formed under

reduced temperature and pressure in gathering, compression, and
transmission facilities for gas. Hydrates often accumulate in
troublesome amounts and impede fluid flow. They resemble
snow or ice.
hydration A process by which water molecules become associated (or
react) with other substances without destruction of the water
molecule.

(1) Water molecules (dipoles) become adsorbed on ions or on

solid surfaces exhibiting electrostatic charge.

(2) Water molecules become imbibed as a result of conditions

which tend to cause osmotic absorption of water into the space
between the crystal surfaces (as in montmorillonite clays).

(3) Water molecules become bound chemically at fixed points as

part of the crystal lattice of hydrated substances. The water
becomes water of crystallization and loses the properties of the
original water.

hydraulic Ratio of flow velocity to driving force for viscous flow under
conductivity saturated conditions of a specific liquid in a porous medium.

hydraulic The breaking or parting of reservoir rock through the use of

fracturing injected fluids. Hydraulic fracturing is a method of stimulating
production or injection at a specific depth in a formation of low
permeability by inducing fractures and fissures in the formation
by applying high fluid pressure to its face. Fluids (liquids, gases,
foams, emulsions) are injected into reservoir rock at pressures
which exceed the strength of the rock and overcome internal
stresses of the rock. The fluid enters the formation and parts or
fractures it. Sand grains, aluminum pellets, glass beads, or
similar materials are carried in suspension by the fluid into the
fractures. These are called propping agents or proppants. When
the pressure is released at the surface, the fracturing fluid returns
to the wellbore as the fractures partially close on the proppants,
leaving paths with increased permeability for fluid flow.

hydraulic head The pressure caused by the weight of an equivalent column of

liquid upon a unit area expressed by the height or distance of the
liquid above the point at which the pressure is measured.
Although head refers to distance or height, it is used to express
the pressure resulting from the weight of a body of liquid since
the weight is directly proportional to the height.
hydraulic packing Replaces stuffing box when high pressure exists at the surface.
head Grease under pressure hydraulically packs the glands around the
cable and provides cable lubrication. Cable can be moved under
pressure in the packing head. When glands become cut, the
blowout preventer can be closed and glands replaced.

hydraulic pad An articulating, liquid-filled pad used to place current and

measure electrodes in direct contact with the drilled formation
wall. Used on microresistivity devices (i.e., microlog,
microlaterolog, etc.). The liquid-filled pad allows better
electrode contact by improving pad conformity with the wall.

hydraulic (1) As applied to an aquifer, the rate of change of pressure head

pressure gradient per unit of distance for flow past a given point and in a given
direction.

(2) A vector point function equal to the decrease in hydraulic

head per unit distance in direction of greatest decrease in rate.

hydrocarbon The product of hydrocarbon saturation and porosity and the

porosity feet number of feet exhibiting those values of saturation and porosity.

hydrocarbon Fraction of the pore volume filled with hydrocarbons (oil or gas).
saturation

hydrodynamic Fluid pressure directed laterally along the bed from a higher to a
pressure lower pressure head. Compare hydrostatic pressure.

hydrofracture See hydraulic fracturing.

hydrogen The corrosive effect produced on steel armor of survey cables

embrittlement and other steel equipment by the penetration of hydrogen
 released from the decomposition of hydrogen sulfide, H2S. The
presence of H2S in wellbore fluids will result in a degree of
embrittlement in steel equipment unless the steel has been
protected by an inhibitor, or the pH of solutions has been
otherwise controlled.

hydrogen index The ratio of the number of hydrogen atoms per unit volume of a
material to that number in pure water at 75°F. Neutron logging
response depends mainly on the hydrogen index.

hydrogen sulfide A gaseous compound, H2S, of sulfur and hydrogen commonly

found in petroleum. which causes the foul smell of sour
petroleum fractions. It is extremely poisonous and corrosive. See
also hydrogen embrittlement.

hydrostatic head The pressure exerted by a body of water at rest. The hydrostatic
head of fresh water is 0.433 psi per foot of height. Those of other
liquids may be determined by comparing their gravities with the
gravity of water. See pressure gradient.

hydrostatic level That level, which for a given point in an aquifer, passes through
the top of a column of water that can be supported by the
hydrostatic pressure of the water at that point.

hydrostatic load The weight of formation fluid filling the pores of the rock and in
communication with the water table at the well site, or sea
surface. Usually the fluid is considered to be formation water.

hydrostatic That pressure due to the weight of a column of liquid (formation

pressure water, drilling mud, etc.) extending from the depth of interest to
the liquid level which might or might not be at the surface.
hydrothermal Pertains to heated or hot aqueous-rich solutions, to the processes
in which they are concerned, and to the rocks, ore deposits, and
alteration products produced by them. Hydrothermal solutions
are of diverse sources, including magmatic, meteoric, and
connate waters.

hydrothermal The phase changes resulting from the interaction of

alteration hydrothermal fluids with pre-existing solid phases. Included are
the chemical and mineralogical changes in rocks brought about
by the addition or removal of materials through the medium of
hydrothermal fluids.
I Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without
permission from SPWLA

ID Inside diameter of pipe or tubing. Compare OD.

Ideal gas A gas which obeys the general gas law perfectly (PV = NRT).
The term implies (1) atomic-sized gas particles, (2) the
molecules are in random motion and obey Newton's laws of
motion, (3) the total number of molecules is large, (4) the
volume of the molecules is a negligibly small fraction of the
volume occupied by the gas, (5) no appreciable forces act on the
molecules except during a collision, and (6) collisions are elastic
and are of negligible duration.

igneous rock Rock formed from a melt or magma by cooling and

solidification. The solidification may occur beneath the surface
of the earth from magma (intrusive) or at the surface from lava
(extrusive or volcanic). If the solidification occurred at depth, the
rock is called "plutonic"; if formed from magma erupted onto the
surface, it is called "volcanic."

igniter Usually a small device containing an electrical filament used to

ignite low explosives. Used in sidewall coring tools and
perforating guns firing bullets.

impedance The opposition that an electrical circuit presents to the flow of an

alternating current (AC). The ratio of the maximum voltage in an
AC circuit to the maximum current. Compare resistance.

impermeable Preventing the passage of fluid. A formation may be porous yet

impermeable if there is an absence of connecting passages
between the voids within it. See permeability.
immiscible Not capable of mixing or being permanently mixed (as oil and
water).

inclination Deviation angle. Measured in directional surveys and used in

calculating true vertical depths. It is the angle between the axis
of the measuring tool (hence, borehole axis) and true vertical.
The inclination can also be measured with respect to true
horizontal.

inclinometer A device for measuring hole inclination and azimuth. See

directional survey.

index A relative parameter; e.g., resistivity index, hydrogen index,

gamma-ray index, etc.

induced IP. An exploration method involving measurement of the slow

polarization decay of voltage in the ground following the cessation of an
excitation current pulse (time domain method) or low-frequency
(below 100Hz) variations of earth impedance (frequency-domain
method).

induced spectral An activation log wherein the formations have been bombarded
gamma-ray log by high-energy neutrons. Specific atoms upon irradiation
transform into isotopes which emit gamma rays exhibiting
specific energy levels within the energy spectrum. Identification
of the energy levels of the induced gamma radiation is a means
of identifying the original atoms in place in the formation. The
quantity of material containing the original atoms is deduced
from the amount of gamma radiation at specific energy levels.
Downhole instruments may use encapsulated sources, which
emit neutrons continuously as the tool is moved along the
formation wall, or neutron generators, which emit neutrons in
cyclic pulses with measurements made between pulses. The type
of source used depends on the substances searched for. Compare
spectral gamma-ray log. Also see neutron activation.
Induction- IEL. A log made by combining an induction logging device and
Electrolog a short normal or laterolog device. Induction-Electrolog is a
Dresser Atlas trademark.

induction log A log recorded in uncased boreholes which involves the use of
electromagnetic induction principles for the measurement of
formation conductivity or resistivity. The induction logging tool
has advantages for use in nonconductive borehole fluids (air. oil
gas) where other electrical resistivity logging tools cannot be
easily used or should not be used. The induction log is widely
used in electrically conductive drilling muds where it works well
provided the formations are not too resistive and borehole effects
are known and not too great (i.e., mud not too saline and hole
diameter not too large).

Practical induction sondes include an array of several transmitter

and receiver coils designed to provide focusing and deep
investigation and to minimize borehole and adjacent-formation
effects. A high-frequency alternating current, constant in
magnitude, is passed through the transmitter coils. The resulting
alternating magnetic field induces currents in the formation
which flow in circular ground-loop paths coaxial with the sonde.
 Those ground-loop currents generate their own magnetic fields
which induce in the receiver coils signals which at low
conductivities are essentially proportional to formation
conductivity. At high conductivities, the reading may be affected
by skin effect. Receiver-coil signals produced by direct coupling
with the transmitter coil are balanced out by the measuring
circuits.

Induction tools can be run separately or can be combined with

other devices to run combination services. Integrated tools,
combining in one tool the devices necessary to perform different
resistivity-measuring operations, are commonly used in the well-
logging industry. Examples of such tools are the induction
device with a deep depth of investigation in combination with:
another induction device having a shallower depth of
investigation, invaded zone investigative devices (e.g., short
normal device, short laterolog or guard log, or Spherically
Focused Logging device), long lateral, and SP.

inelastic collision A collision in which the total kinetic energy of the colliding
particles is not the same after the collision as before the collision.
For example. in the case of a fast moving neutron colliding with
a nucleus of an element, the nucleus becomes excited and excess
energy is reduced by emitting a gamma ray that is characteristic
of the element. Compare elastic collision.

inelastic Scattering produced by inelastic collisions. See inelastic

scattering collision.

injection well A well into which fluids have been pumped, and from which
fluids have been injected into an underground stratum to increase
or maintain reservoir pressure.

in situ In place. In its natural location.

in-situ A method of enhanced oil recovery in which heat is generated

combustion within the reservoir by injecting air, oxygen, or mixtures of air
 and oxygen and burning a portion of the oil in place. The heat of
in-situ combustion cracks the crude hydrocarbons, vaporizes the
lighter hydrocarbons, and deposits the heavier hydrocarbons as
coke. As the fire moves from the injection well in the direction
of producing wells, it burns the deposited coke, releases hot
combustion gases. and converts interstitial water into steam. The
vaporized hydrocarbons and the steam move ahead of the
combustion zone, condensing into liquids as they cool, and
moving oil by miscible displacement and hot water flooding.
Combustion gases provide additional gas drive. Carbon dioxide
generated is dissolved in oil, causing oil to swell. and heat
lowers the viscosity of the oil. These allow oil to flow more
freely. This method is used to recover heavy, viscous oil. Also
called fire flooding.

insular globules A nonwetting phase exists in the form of insular globules when it
is found as discrete, isolated spheroids suspended in the wetting
phase.

insular saturation See description and illustration under saturation.

insulation (1) The covering on electrical wiring (or other conductive

materials) which provides electrical isolation.

(2) The quality of electrical isolation, measurable with a test set,

necessary for proper operation of logging instruments and
calibrated measurement of downhole properties of formation and
borehole.

integrate To add or to accumulate all the increments of a specific property

within the formation or borehole. For instance, to accumulate the
interval transit time (microseconds/foot) over a length of
formation (feet) to arrive at a total travel time (microseconds) for
that length of formation.

integrated travel See time-depth integration.

time
intensity An acoustic wave train display form. A display mode of the
modulated-time acoustic wave train in the X-Z plane in which the intensity of the
photographic beam is modulated with the amplitude of the wave
form to produce a variable photographic density pattern as a
function of time. All positive half-cycles appear as dark streaks,
and all negative cycles which have been cut off appear as light
streaks. See acoustic log and variable density. Compare
amplitude-time or X-Y plane. See illustration at wave train
display.

interface The contact surface between two boundaries of immiscible

fluids, dissimilar solids, etc.

intermediate The string of casing set in a well after the surface casing in order
casing string to keep the hole from caving. Sometimes the blowout preventers
are attached to it. The string is sometimes called protection
casing.

internal phase The fluid droplets or solids that are dispersed throughout another
liquid in an emulsion. Compare continuous phase.

international S.I. units. A system of units of measurement based on the metric

system of units system, adopted and described by the Eleventh General
Conference on Weights and Measures. It involves seven base
units: (1) meter for length; (2) kilogram for mass; (3) second for
time; (4) Kelvin for temperature; (5) ampere for electric current;
(6) candela for luminous intensity; and (7) mole for amount of
substance.

interstitial water Water occupying interstices or pore volumes in rock.

interval transit The travel time of a compressional wave (usually) over a unit
time distance, hence proportional to the reciprocal of compression
 wave velocity. Measured in the sonic log, usually in
microseconds per foot.

interval transit See transit time integration.

time integration

interval transit- An increase in interval transit time which occurs when

time stretch attenuation of the acoustic energy is significantly greater at the
far receiver (of a receiver pair) than at the near receiver The
stretching of interval transit time is not related to skipping of a
cycle. Compare cycle skip.

intervalometer A device used for setting the amount of delay (distance along a
formation) before a signal in storage is played back. See
memorizer.
intrinsic thermal (1) The thermal-neutron decay time intrinsic to a particular
decay time material or medium. defined by (1/vΣabs)where v is neutron
velocity and Σabs is the macroscopic capture cross section of the
medium.

(2) The thermal-neutron decay time of a particular formation

corrected for borehole and diffusion effects. See thermal decay
time, Thermal Decay Time Log, and capture cross section.

intrusive Having been forced while in a fluid state into or between other
rocks, but solidifying before reaching the surface. Said of
plutonic igneous rocks and contrasted with extrusive.

invaded zone The portion of formation surrounding a well bore into which
drilling fluid has penetrated. displacing some of the formation
fluids. This invasion takes place in porous, permeable zones
when the pressure of the mud is greater than that of the
formation fluids. A mud filter cake builds on the formation wall,
limiting further invasion into the formation by mud filtrate.
Directly behind the mud cake is a flushed zone from which
almost all of the formation water and most of the hydrocarbons
have been displaced by filtrate. The invasion process alters the
distribution of saturations and other properties and,
consequently, alters the values which are recorded on logs. The
depth of invasion is the equivalent depth in an idealized model
rather than the maximum depth reached by filtrate. In oil-bearing
zones, the filtrate may push a bank of formation water ahead of it
to produce what is referred to as an annulus.
invasion diameter See diameter of invasion.

invert oil An emulsified drilling mud in which oil is the continuous

emulsion lexternall phase and the aqueous discontinuous (internal) phase
occupies more than ten percent of the volume. Electrically
nonconductive. Compare oil emulsion and oil-base mud.
invert oil mud See invert oil emulsion.

ion(s) Atoms, or groups of atoms, which have either taken on or given

up one or more orbital electrons. As a result of the gain or loss of
one or more electrons, each ion bears electrical charge.
Positively charged ions are called cations and negatively charged
ions are called anions.

In solutions, the ions interact with the solvent to become

hydrated and the properties of the ion become modified by the
solvent molecules attached in varying degrees to the ion. Other
than in solutions, ions may exist in the solid state as in a crystal
lattice; or in the gaseous state, where they are produced by the
action of high-energy radiation on neutral atoms or molecules of
the gas.

ion exchange Base exchange. The reversible chemical reaction in which

certain ions in a crystal lattice on particle surfaces or edges can
become hydrated in the presence of aqueous solutions with the
result that they can be replaced, equivalent for equivalent, by
ions (usually cations) exhibiting similar charge from the solution
without a loss in the crystal structure.

According to a widely held view, the cations do not occupy

precise sites: some are located in a plane parallel to and within a
few angstroms of the clay surface (Helmholtz layer); others are
contained in a zone of diminishing concentration (called the
diffuse layer) extending outward from the Helmholtz layer.

Materials, particularly clays, which exhibit this property support

surface conductance with their exchangeable cations.

ionization The process by which a neutral or uncharged atom or molecule

(of gases, liquids, solids) acquire a charge, thus becoming an ion.

When a substance dissolved in a liquid (or the liquid itself)

undergoes ionization, electrolytic ion pairs of opposite charge
are produced at once. A substance in the gaseous state requires a
source of energy for ionization. When a substance in gaseous
state is ionized, usually by radiation, only positively charged
molecules or ions are formed as the result of the loss of one or
more electrons. Both the positive ions and electrons are free to
 cause further ionization of the gas and produce both positive and
negative ions. In all cases, the charged particles and ions are
subject to motion or deflection in electric fields. Their motion
constitutes a flow of electric current.

ionization (1) A type of gamma-ray detector. Consists of a gas-filled

chamber cylindrical metal shell containing a center rod (i.e., electrode)
maintained at about 100 volts positive to the cylinder wall. An
incident gamma ray interacts with the cylinder wall material or
the gas maintained at high pressure in order to produce a high-
speed electron. The high-speed electron, drawn to the positively
charged center rod, produces additional electrons and ions in the
collision with gas atoms. The electrons (along with some
negative ions) moving to the center electrode constitute a minute
flow of electrical cur rent, the size of which is proportional to the
number of gamma-ray interactions. Long chamber lengths and
high gas pressures are used in order to improve detector
efficiency, but vertical resolution suffers with increased chamber
size. See also pair production. Compare Geiger-Mueller counter,
proportional counter, and scintillation counter.

(2) Has been used as a slow-neutron detector.

IR drop Voltage drop, potential difference. The difference in potential

(E) produced by a flow of current (I) through a length of material
exhibiting resistance (R). Mathematically represented in Ohm's
law: E = IR.

irradiation The exposure of a material to radiation. In well logging,

irradiation is the process in which the elements in the formation
are exposed to radiation or bombardment by nuclear particles
(e.g., neutrons in neutron logging or induced spectral gamma-ray
logging).

irreducible The irreducible saturation of a fluid is the minimum saturation of

saturation that fluid attainable when that fluid is displaced from a porous
medium by another fluid immiscible with the first.
irreducible water The fraction of the pore volume occupied by water in a reservoir
saturation at maximum hydrocarbon saturation. In water-wet rock. it
represents the layer of adsorbed water coating solid surfaces and
the pendular water around grain contacts and at pore throats.
Irreducible water saturation is an equilibrium situation. It differs
from "residual water saturation," measured by core analysis
because of filtrate invasion and the gas expansion that occurs
when the core is removed from the bottom of the hole and
brought to the surface.

isopach map A geological map of subsurface strata slowing the various

thicknesses of a given lormation underlying an area. It is widely
used in calculating reserves and in planning secondary-recovery
projects.

isosaturation In a zone where saturations are changing, as in a transition zone,

surface it is an imaginary surface which passes through all saturations of
a specific fluid which have the same value.

isothermal That process which takes place at a constant temperature.

Isothermal relationships between pressure and volume of a gas
or other fluid result when the temperature is constant and when
heat is added or subtracted by an outside substance or body.
Compare adiabatic.

isotopes Atoms of a single element which have differing masses. Isotopes

are either stable or unstable (radioactive). Radioisotopes emit
particulate (alpha, beta) or electromagnetic (gamma) radiation as
they transform or decay into stable isotopes. Daughter products
produced by primary distintegration or irradiation are isotopes.
See also Z/A, alpha particle, beta particle, and gamma ray.

isotropy The property of homogeneity or uniformity of a rock which

allows it to show the same responses or characteristics when
measured along different axes. Compare anisotropy.
iterative Describes a procedure which repeats until some condition is
satisfied. Successive approximations, each based on the
preceding approximations, are processed in such a way as to
converge onto the desired solution.
J Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without
permission from SPWLA

jet (1) A high-speed stream of fluid exiting a nozzle.

(2) A high-pressure, high-velocity, vapor stream exhibiting mass

which is produced by the detonation of high explosives with
shaped, lined cavities. Used in gun perforating and salvage
operations. See shaped charge.

jet charge See shaped charge.

joint A length of pipe, casing, or tubing usually from 20 to 30 feet

long. On drilling rigs, drill pipe and tubing are run the first time
(lowered into the hole) one joint at a time. When pulled out of
the hole and stacked in the rig, they are usually pulled two, three,
or four at a time depending upon the height of the derrick. These
multiple-joint sections are called stands.

joule A unit for all forms of energy or work. The joule is equal to
107 ergs which is on the order of 1 watt-second. It is
approximately equal to 0.738 foot-pound of 0.239 calorie.

Joule-Thomson A thermal phenomenon produced by passing a gas at a higher

effect pressure through an aperture or porous material to an
environment at lower pressure. Hydrogen and helium gain heat
(become warmer) in the process of expansion, whereas all other
gases (nonperfect) lose heat (become cooler).

junk Any kind of debris, extraneous to the formation, and that has
become detached from some part of equipment used in an
operation on a well and has become lodged or lost in some part
of the borehole or borehole wall. Junk may be a lost bit, pieces
of a bit, milled pieces of pipe, wrenches, or any relatively small
object that impedes drilling. It often obstructs casing, tubing. or
 open hole and must be fished out. See also fish.

junk basket (1) A device made up on the bottom of the drill stem to cut a
core into the bottom of the hole on which junk rests. As the core
is cut, the junk enters a barrel in the tool and is held by metal
projections, or catchers. When the basket is brought back to the
surface, the junk is removed with the core.

(2) A basket-like device which can be run on a wireline survey

cable for the purpose of removing small debris from inside a
cased well bore.

juvenile water Water that is derived from the interior of the earth and has not
previously existed as atmospheric or surface water.
K Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without
permission from SPWLA

KB Kelly bushing.

kelly The heavy steel, pipe-like, four- or six-sided member suspended

from the swivel through the rotary table and connected to the
top-most joint of drill pipe which turns the drill stem as the
rotary table turns. It has a bored passageway that permits fluid to
be circulated into the drill stem and up the annulus, or vice versa.
Sometimes called kelly joint.

kelly bushing KB. The heavy bushing at the rotary table, through which the
kelly passes, which transmits the rotary motion of the rotary
table to the drill pipe. The top of the bushing is often taken as a
depth datum.

kelly joint See kelly.

kelly hose Flexible steel-reinforced hose which carries mud between the
standpipe and the kelly. Permits the drill string to be moved
vertically while mud-pumping and drilling operations continue.

Kelvin A temperature scale with the degree interval of the centigrade

temperature scale scale and the zero point at absolute zero. On the Kelvin scale,
water freezes at 273° and boils at 373°. See absolute temperature
scale.

kerogen Organic matter found in rock in the form of a mineraloid which

is of indefinite composition, insoluble in petroleum solvents.
Kerogen is a pyrobitumen, and oil is formed from kerogen by
heating. It consists chiefly of low forms of plant life such as
algae, of pollen, spores, spore coats, enzyme shells, coal, and
 protein material. Chemically it is a complex mixture of
hydrocarbon compounds of large molecules, containing
hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur. Kerogen is the
chief source of oil in oil shales.

key-seat A crevice or groove in the formation wall of the well bore or a

split in casing in which a survey cable can become wedged. Most
likely to occur at "dog legs" in deviated boreholes.

kick An eruption or flow of drilling mud from a wellbore resulting

from the entry of formation fluids, oil, gas, or water into the
borehole. Such entry occurs when the pressure in the borehole
does not counterbalance the pressure in permeable formation.

kill a well (1) To bring under control a well that is threatening to blow out.

(2) To circulate water and mud into a completed well before

starting well-servicing operations.
K Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without
permission from SPWLA

KB Kelly bushing.

kelly The heavy steel, pipe-like, four- or six-sided member suspended

from the swivel through the rotary table and connected to the
top-most joint of drill pipe which turns the drill stem as the
rotary table turns. It has a bored passageway that permits fluid to
be circulated into the drill stem and up the annulus, or vice versa.
Sometimes called kelly joint.

kelly bushing KB. The heavy bushing at the rotary table, through which the
kelly passes, which transmits the rotary motion of the rotary
table to the drill pipe. The top of the bushing is often taken as a
depth datum.

kelly joint See kelly.

kelly hose Flexible steel-reinforced hose which carries mud between the
standpipe and the kelly. Permits the drill string to be moved
vertically while mud-pumping and drilling operations continue.

Kelvin A temperature scale with the degree interval of the centigrade

temperature scale scale and the zero point at absolute zero. On the Kelvin scale,
water freezes at 273° and boils at 373°. See absolute temperature
scale.

kerogen Organic matter found in rock in the form of a mineraloid which

is of indefinite composition, insoluble in petroleum solvents.
Kerogen is a pyrobitumen, and oil is formed from kerogen by
heating. It consists chiefly of low forms of plant life such as
algae, of pollen, spores, spore coats, enzyme shells, coal, and
 protein material. Chemically it is a complex mixture of
hydrocarbon compounds of large molecules, containing
hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur. Kerogen is the
chief source of oil in oil shales.

key-seat A crevice or groove in the formation wall of the well bore or a

split in casing in which a survey cable can become wedged. Most
likely to occur at "dog legs" in deviated boreholes.

kick An eruption or flow of drilling mud from a wellbore resulting

from the entry of formation fluids, oil, gas, or water into the
borehole. Such entry occurs when the pressure in the borehole
does not counterbalance the pressure in permeable formation.

kill a well (1) To bring under control a well that is threatening to blow out.

(2) To circulate water and mud into a completed well before

starting well-servicing operations.
L Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without
permission from SPWLA

lag In continuous nuclear logging techniques, radioactivity

measurements are made over a period of time in order to average
statistical variations. During the statistical averaging period (time
constant), the detector is continually moved while surveying.
The distance the detector moves during one time constant is
commonly called the amount of lag. See dynamic measure point.

lag time Up time. The time it takes for a sample of rock cut from a
formation by the drilling bit to be carried from its depth of origin
to a location on the surface, where it is collected. Lag time is
calculated by subtracting down time from the total time it takes
for a marker, introduced into the drilling mud at the surface, to
travel to the bottom of the borehole and back to the surface
where it can be detected or collected.

laminar In the form of a thin layer(s) of sedimentary rock which is of

different mineralization or lithology and is visually separable
from the host rock or other laminae. Laminae of sand or other
permeable sediment sometime show unusually high productivity.
Laminae of clay, sandwiched between layers of a host rock, not
only support overburden but also take the place of some of the
host rock and whatever porosity the host rock would contain.

laminar flow Nonturbulent fluid flow. A smooth flow at relatively low

velocity in which the fluid elements follow paths that are straight
and are parallel to the channel walls. Compare turbulent flow.

last reading LR. (1) Refers to the depth of the last useable reading or value
recorded on a curve at the completion of the survey.

(2) Usually the depth in the hole of the shallowest reading for
any given curve normally recorded in the bottom-to-top
direction. Often coincides with casing depth for open-hole
logging operations.
lateral curve An unsymmetrical resistivity curve recorded by a lateral device.

lateral device A resistivity measuring system using a "lateral" electrode

configuration. A constant current is passed between an electrode
A on the bridle and a distant electrode B, while the potential
difference is measured across two electrodes, M and N, located
on the sonde. The MN distance is small compared to the AO
spacing, which is the distance between the current electrode and
the midpoint between the potential-measuring electrodes,
typically about 18 feet 8 inches. A short lateral sometimes uses a
spacing of 6 to 9 feet. The potential electrodes described above
are located below the current electrodes, but on the reciprocal
sonde the functions are interchanged so that potential electrodes
are above the current electrodes. The measure point is the
midpoint between the two electrodes separated by the shortest
distance (i.e., MN electrodes; or, AB electrodes on the reciprocal
sonde).

The lateral device has a deeper depth of investigation than the

normal devices with which it is generally used, but has the
disadvantage that it requires thick homogeneous beds for
optimum usefulness and produces an unsymmetrical curve.
laterolog A resistivity log (run in uncased hole filled with electrically
conductive mud) made with a tool that achieves focusing
through the use of additional current electrodes above and below
a central measure-current electrode. Bucking currents from the
additional electrodes serve to confine the measure current to
essentially a narrow disc of current flowing outwardly
perpendicular to the sonde. Should the survey current tend to
flow vertically in the mud column (because of highly resistive
beds), currents from the symmetrically positioned bucking
electrodes are caused to increase or decrease in order to maintain
the horizontal attitude of the survey-current flow.

The currents from the bucking electrodes are automatically

adjusted for proper focusing of the measure-current beam by use
of a monitor voltage signal, either from monitorelectrode pairs
on either side of the measure-current electrode, or from the
voltage difference between bucking and measure electrodes.
Because of the comparatively small thickness of the focused
 sheet of current (which is usually a few inches to a few feet
thick. the laterolog gives a very detailed curve and puts clearly in
evidence the sharp contrasts between successive beds, however
conductive the mud may be.

The laterolog tool differs from the guarded electrode logging

tool, or guard tool, in the use of smaller-sized electrodes and the
use of a monitored bucking-current system to achieve focusing.
Compare guard tool.

latitude In true vertical depth calculations from directional surveys.

Latitude is the horizontal displacement in a north or south
direction from the wellhead of a location or station in the
borehole at which directional survey measurements were taken.
Compare departure.

latitude (1) A correction of gravity data because ol variation in

correction centrifugal force resulting from the earth's rotation as the
distance to the earth's axis varies with latitude θ and for variation
of the earth's radius because of polar flattening. The International
Gravity Formula (1930) for such variation is

g = 978,049 (1 + 0.0052884 sin2θ – 0.0000059 sin22θ) mgal.

The latitude correction amounts to 1.307 sin2θ mgal/mile =

0.812 sin2θ mgal/km.

(2) A gyrocompass correction for the rotation of the horizontal

north vector is a function of latitude. (The horizontal north
vector is tangent to the earth and hence the rotation is the result
of the earth curvature.)

lava Fluid rock that issues from a volcano or a fissure in the earth's
surface. Also the same material solidified by cooling.

lay down pipe To pull drill pipe or tubing from the hole and place it in a
horizontal position on a pipe rack.
leak, leakage A condition which allows electrical current to bleed off or leak
out of the electrical circuit. The electrical current remaining in
the circuit is uncalibrated or does not otherwise meet design
specifications. Leaks can result fronm damage to insulation
coverings or, more frequently, from small amounts of moisture
which bridges insulating spacers at connecting pins.

lease (1) A legal document executed between a landowner, or lessor,

and a company or individual, as lessee, that grants the right to
exploit the premises for minerals or other products.

(2) The area where production wells, stock tanks, separators, and
other production equipment are located.

least-squares fit An analytic function which approximates a set of data such that
the sum of the squares of the distances from the observed points
to the curve is a minimum. One must determine the functional
form of the fit (whether linear, quadratic, etc.) in order to define
the problem.

lens (1) A porous, permeable, irregularly shaped sedimentary deposit

surrounded by impervious rock.

(2) A lenticular sedimentary bed that pinches out, or comes to an

end, in all directions.

liberated gas Gas (from a formation) physically liberated into the drilling fluid
by the bit as it penetrates the formation.

limestone A bedded sedimentary rock consisting chiefly of calcium

carbonate (CaCO3) yielding lime when burned. Limestone is the
most important and widely distributed of carbonate rocks and is
the consolidated equivalent of limy mud, calcareous sand, or
shell fragments.
limestone device See limestone sonde.

limestone sonde Also called limestone device, which is now obsolete. Uses a
combination of electrodes in a symmetrical, double, short lateral
electrode configuration which gives a resistivity curve with
constant values opposite thick, highly resistive beds and which
shows sharp minima at the level of conductive beds.

line (1) Ground line.

(2) Survey cable. Logging cable.

liner (1) A smaller diameter casing hung inside a larger diameter

casing. A liners top is located below the surface.
 (2) The cone-like metallic liner used to provide jet mass and
shape the cavity in shaped charges.

liner hanger A slip device that attaches the liner to the casing.

line wiper (1) Stuffing box with glands.

(2) Rubber spiral line stripper or wheel type line stripper which
removes excess mud or oil from the line as it emerges from the
wellhead. Prevents excessive mud or oil in work areas.

liquefied natural LNG. A liquid composed chiefly of natural gas (i.e., mostly
gas methane). Natural gas is liquefied to make it easier to transport if
a pipeline is not feasible (as across a body of water). Not as
easily liquefied as liquefied petroleum gas, LNG must be put
under low temperature and high pressure to become liquefied.

liquefied LPG. A mixture of heavier, gaseous, paraffinic hydrocarbons,

petroleum gas principally butane and propane. These gases, easily liquefied at
moderate pressures, may be transported as liquids but converted
to gases on release of the pressure. Thus, liquefied petroleum gas
is a portable source of thermal energy that finds wide application
in areas where it is impracticable to distribute natural gas. It is
also used as a fuel for internal-combustion engines and has many
industrial and domestic uses. Principal sources are natural and
refinery gas, from which the liquefied petroleum gases are
separated by fractionation.

liquid A state of matter in which the shape of the given mass depends
on the containing vessel, but the volume of the mass is
independent of the vessel. A liquid is practically incompressible
fluid.

liquid-junction Diffusion potential. See electrochemical potential.

potential
lithification The conversion of unconsolidated deposits into solid rock.

Litho-Density Log The Litho-Density tool (LDT) uses a pad-mounted gamma-ray

source and two scintillation detectors to measure the bulk density
and the photoelectric absorption cross section (Pe). The Pe
measurement is closely related to the lithology of the formation.
A spectral analysis of the detected gamma rays is used for the Pe
measurement and to improve the response of the density
measurement. See also compensated formation density log.
Litho-Density is mark of Schlumberger.

lithologic log A log showing lithology as a function of depth in a borehole.

Sometimes a strip log based on samples; sometimes a computed
 log derived from other borehole logs.

lithology (1) The physical character and composition of the rock. Refers to
the different rock strata within the formations penetrated by the
borehole.

(2) The study of rocks, usually macroscopic.

lithostatic load The weight of the overlying rock column without the fluids
contained in the pore volumes of the rock.

little slam See small slam.

live oil Oil that contains dissolved gas. See also gas in solution.
Compare dead oil.

log (1) Well log. A record containing one or more curves related to
properties in the well bore or some property in the formations
surrounding the well bore.

(2) To run a survey or well-logging operation.

logarithmic grid (1) A well-log grid scaled in logarithmic divisions. Usually used
with resistivity logs. The use of the logarithmic grid serves to
enhance resolution or magnify resistivity readings in the low-
resistivity range and eliminates the need for back-up
galvanometers and associated curves in the high-resistivity
range. Permits the use of overlay techniques in the solution of
some exponential relationships.

(2) On the API log grid, tracks 2 and 3 of the grid are divided
usually into 4 logarithmic cycles and the grid lines follow
logarithmic scales. See scale for illustration.
logging cable See survey cable.

logging tool An openhole or cased-hole tool for performing downhole well

log data gathering services for determining properties of the
formation, or characteristics of the well bore environment.

log scale insert A section bearing scale information, well identification, and
other pertinent information. It is inserted in the log between
depth-scale changes, different runs, tool changes, etc.

log zero Depth datum for the survey.

longitudinal wave See compression wave.

long normal curve A symmetrical resistivity curve representing measurements made

by a normal device with the spacing between the A and the M
electrodes. Usually equal to 64 in.

long-spaced sonic Long-spaced sonic tools are used to provide shear wave analysis,
log formation travel time through casing, and more accurate acoustic
data in enlarged boreholes and in areas where formations are
altered by the drilling process. See sonic log.

long string The last string of casing set in a well. The string of casing which
is set through the producing zone. Production casing.

lose returns An occurrence which can happen during the drilling process in
which less drilling fluid returns to the surface than is pumped
 into the hole. This indicates that some drilling fluid is lost into
porous rock, fractures, or sizable formation cavities.

lost circulation The loss of quantities of whole mud to a formation, usually in

cavernous, fissured, or coarsely permeable beds, evidenced by
the complete or partial failure of the mud to return to the surface
as it is being circulated in the hole.

lost-circulation A substance added to cement slurries or drilling muds to prevent

material the loss of cement or mud to the formation.

low explosive Low explosives burn rapidly at various rates to form a gas. They
are self-sufficient and do not require the presence of air or
oxygen to sustain the reaction. The gas confined to limited space
is at elevated pressure and exerts considerable force. The rate of
burning is controlled by the size and shape of the explosive
grain. Burning is a surface phenomenon. Time and high
temperature are necessary for igniting low explosives. Used in
sidewall coring tools, wireline plug-setting tools, and bullet
perforators. Compare high explosive.

LR See last reading.

lubricator Refers to the assembly of wireline pressure-control equipment

consisting of blowout preventer, riser, flow tube, and stuffing
box (or hydraulic packing head).
M Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form
without permission from SPWLA

machine A computed log analysis.

computation

macroscopic See anisotropy.

anisotropy

macroscopic See capture cross section.

capture cross
section

magma Molten rock material within the earth from which an igneous
rock results by cooling.

magmatic water Water which exists in or is derived from molten igneous rock or
magma.

Magnaflux A trade name for the equipment and processes used for detecting
cracks and other surface discontinuities in iron or steel. A
magnetic field is set up in the part to be inspected. and a powder
or paste of magnetic particles is applied. The particles arrange
themselves around discontinuities in the metal, revealing defects.

magnetic The acute angle between the direction of true north and magnetic
declination north determined at or for a specific geographic location.

magnetostriction The change in dimension of a body when subjected to a

magnetic field. A magnetostrictive transducer, for example, is
 one which converts electromagnetic energy to mechanical
energy and vice versa.

make a trip To hoist the drill stem out of the wellbore to perform one of a
number of operations such as changing bits, attaching core
barrel, etc. and then to return the drill stem to the wellbore.

mandrel A support member for sensors or actuator assemblies of a

downhole tool.

manometer A continuous, borehole-pressure measuring device used in some

production-logging tools.

manual shift Usually an intentional electrical or mechanical shift given to a

specific curve by the logging engineer during a survey in order
to maximize the utility of a curve or otherwise keep the curve
within a given track.

marine drilling Marine riser, drilling riser. A string of specially designed steel
riser pipe which extends from a drill ship or platform to the subsea
wellhead. Marine risers are used to provide a return fluid-flow
conductor between the well bore and the drill vessel and to guide
the drill string to the wellhead on the ocean floor. The riser is
made up of several sections including flexible joints and a
telescoping joint to absorb the vertical motion of the ship or
platform caused by wave action.
mark (1) A magnetic mark or metal shim on a survey cable. Usually
located every 100 feet for depth-control purposes.

(2) To measure cable. The act of placing magnetic marks at 100

 foot intervals over the useful length of the survey cable.

(3) One of a number of marks on a log used to compute logging

speed. See minute-mark.

(4) tic-mark. See tic mark.

mark detector A device utilizing a moving-coil pickup which produces an

electric output when it is moved in the magnetic field of the
magnetic marks on survey cable, or vice versa. Often portable.

marker bed A distinctive, easily identified rock stratum, especially one used
as a guide for drilling.

marl A semisolid or unconsolidated clay, silt, or sand.

Marsh funnel A calibrated funnel used in field tests to determine the viscosity
of drilling mud.

mass absorption The absorption of nuclear particles or photons by the mass of

material through which the energy must pass. In nuclear logging,
this refers to the loss of radiation caused by the collective mass
of materials in the wellbore environment through which the
radiation energy must pass before being detected. With respect to
the natural radioactivity level of some rock formations, it is
sometimes referred to as self-absorption.

mast See explanation under derrick.

master bushing The rotary bushing in the rotary table of a drilling rig, which
mates with the kelly bushing. The master bushing transmits the
torque of the rotary table to the kelly bushing during the drilling
 process. The kelly bushing, in turn, rotates the kelly and drill
string.

matrix (1) The solid framework of rock which surrounds pore volume.

(2) In a rock in which certain grains are distinctly larger than the
others, the grains of smaller size comprise the matrix.

(3) The natural material in which any metal, fossil, pebble, or

crystal is imbedded.

(4) In mathematics, a rectangular array of numbers which obey

certain rules.

maximum Pertaining to well logging, this is the maximum pressure for

pressure rating satisfactory operation of a specific downhole instrument.

maximum- A mercury-filled thermometer with a constriction in the capillary

reading tube which registers the maximum temperature attained. When
thermometer in use, it is contained in a protective case and attached to the
downhole instrument or bridle.

maximum Pertaining to well logging, this is the maximum temperature for

temperature satisfactory operation of a specific downhole tool.
rating

md Millidarcy. 1/1000 darcy.

measured depth MD. Depth measured along the drilled hole. Reported in drilling
records, measured by well-logging cables, and shown on well
logs. This depth has not been corrected for hole deviation.
Compare true vertical depth.
measurements- MWD. A wireless system for making downhole measurements
while-drilling of azimuth, inclination, and tool facing from sensors mounted
inside of a nonmagnetic drill collar located near the drill bit.
Formation properties can be measured, such as: natural
radioactivity, resistivity, and temperature. These measurements
are sent to the surface by means of pressure pulses induced in the
drilling mud by a mud-pulse transmitter, or stored downhole and
brought to the surface when the bit and MWD collar are brought
out of the hole.

measure point A depth reference point on a logging tool at which measurements

are taken. Usually the lowermost sensor or lowermost measure
point. Static measure point. Compare dynamic measure point.

mechanical shift See manual shift.

mechanical zero The reading of a galvanometer at rest, or the reading of any other
recording system when no signal is input. With no potential
applied, this is a zero reference for galvanometer deflections.

M electrode The potential-measuring electrode nearest the A electrode in the

electrode configuration of a resistivity measuring device.
Compare N electrode. See also normal and lateral devices.

memorizer An electronic storage device which delays the measured signal.

Different logging measurements made simultaneously by one
downhole instrument quite often do not have the same measure
point. For example, one system may be located above another
and, therefore, when logging "up," the upper will record entry
into a formation while the other is still below the formation. The
upper logging system measurements must be delayed or
memorized to play back at the measure point of the lower device
so that all measurements will be recorded on film simultaneously
and at the same depth.
merged data Refers to well-log data derived from different well logging
measurements which have been adjusted for differences in
depths of the measurements.

metamorphic An igneous or sedimentary rock which has partially or

rock completely recrystallized in response to elevated temperature,
pressure, and chemical environnment. The change the
metamorphic rocks have undergone generally occurs in the solid
state and at depth in the earth.

meteoric water Water which is found in or is derived from the atmosphere.

metric system A decimal system of weights and measures based on the meter as
the unit of length. the gram as the unit of weight, the cubic meter
as the unit of volume, the liter as the unit of capacity. and the
square meter as the unit of area.

metric ton A measurement equal to 1000 kg or 2204.6 lb avoirdupois. In

many oil-producing countries, production is reported in metric
tons. One metric ton is equivalent to about 7.4 barrels (42 U.S.
gal = 1 bbl) of crude oil with specific gravity of 0.84, or 36 °API
gravity.

mho A unit of electrical conductance. Equal to the reciprocal of ohm.

mho per meter 1000 mmho per nmeter. A unit of electrical conductivity. The
conductivity of a cubic meter of material which offers a
resistance of one ohm between opposite faces. Reciprocal of
ohm-meter.

mica A silicate mineral characterized by sheet cleavage. Biotite is

ferromagnesian black mica. and muscovite is potassic white
 mica. Sometimes mica is used as a lost-circulation material in
drilling.

microannulus A type of impairment in cement bond quality. Can occur

opposite poorly consolidated formations after cemented casing
has been subjected to internal pressure. The application of
internal pressure results in an expansion of the casing and the
cement sheath into soft formations. Removal of the pressure and
the resultant contraction of the pipe leaves a microannulus
between the casing and the cement sheath. Can be produced. for
example, by pressure testing, perforating, fracturing, or cement
squeeze operations.

microinverse A very short lateral electrode arrangement used in obtaining

microresistivity measurements for one of the curves of a
microlog.

microlaterolog A microresistivity log made from a tool of the laterolog type

with a bucking electrode and two monitor electrodes arranged
concentrically on a sidewall pad which is pressed against the
formation. The survey current flow is concentrated into a
gradually flaring tube shape. Because the spacing is small, the
measurement is responsive to the resistivity of a small volume of
formation in front of the pad. Measurements of the resistivity of
the flushed zone are made. A caliper curve is recorded
simultaneously. Compare proximity log and microspherically
focused log.
microlog A type of microresistivity log recorded from a tool that uses
three button electrodes spaced 1 in. apart in a line, located on a
pad that is pressed against the formation wall. The lower
electrode is the A current electrode. The potential of the upper
electrode with respect to a remote reference electrode gives a
2 in. micronormal, and the difference between the two upper
electrodes gives a 1.5 in. microinverse (lateral type)
measurement. Because mud cake usually has appreciably lower
resistivity than the formation, the microinverse will read less
than the micronormal when mud cake is present. This difference
(called positive separation) usually indicates a permeable
formation. A caliper curve is usually recorded at the same time.
micronormal A very short normal-electrode arrangement used in obtaining
microresistivity measurements for one of the curves of a
microlog.

microresistivity A log of the resistivity of the flushed zone around a borehole,

log measured with electrodes on a pad pressed against the formation
wall. See microlog, microlaterolog, proximity log, and
 microspherically focused log.

Micro- MSG. An acoustic log showing the wave train in the intensity
Seismogram modulated-time mode. Micro-Seismogram is a Welex trademark.

microspherically A microresistivity log produced by a tool of the spherically-

focused log focused type which has electrodes mounted on a sidewall pad
which is pressed against the drilled formation. Because of the
kind of focusing method used, the tool gives improved flushed
zone measurements over those made from microlaterolog- and
proximity log-type tools. Mud cakes with thicknesses up to
3/4 in. have little effect on the measurements of the
microspherically focused tool; and, resistivity measurements are
made from the region just behind the mud cake where the
flushing is most effective. A caliper curve usually is recorded
simultaneously.

migration The movement of oil from the area in which it formed to a

reservoir rock where it can accumulate.

millidarcy md. Equal to 1/1000 of a darcy.

milligal mgal. A unit of acceleration used in gravity measurements.

Equivalent to 10-3 gal or 10 microns per second which is
approximately one millionth of normal acceleration of gravity at
the earth's surface.

millivolt box A source for calibrated emf which usually is applied to offset
unwanted signals during logging or calibration procedures. See
manual shift and electropolarization potential.

mineral A naturally occurring material having a definite chemical

 composition and, usually, a characteristic crystal form. May be
disseminated in some other mineral or rock. Most mineralogists
include the requirements that a mineral have inorganic origin and
internal crystalline structure. In accord with the latter
requirement, an amorphous compound such as opal would be
considered to be mineraloid.

mineral The crust of the earth contains only eight elements (oxygen,
composition of silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, and
rocks magnesium) with concentrations greater than l% by weight.
Minerals are compounds of these elements. each mineral having
a specified crystalline structure. The most abundant minerals
represent only five types of chemical compounds: silicates,
carbonates, sulfates, halides, and oxides. Of these minerals, the
silicates are more abundant than all the rest combined,
comprising 95% of the rest.

Minerals The Minerals Management Service, an agency of the Department

Management of the Interior, was created January 19, 1982. It is responsible for
Service (MMS) the Nation's Federal Offshore leasing program as well as
and Royalty collection and management of all Federal and Indian mineral
Management revenues.
Operations
(RMO) The Minerals Management Service is headquartered in
Washington D.C.

Offshore leasing activities are conducted largely through the

MMS's four Outer Continental Shelf Regional Offices located in
Anchorage, Alaska; Los Angeles, California; Metairie,
Louisiana; and Vienna, Virginia.

All onshore leasing is the responsibility of the Bureau of Land

Management.

Royalty and Accounting activities are conducted in Lakewood, a

suburb of Denver, Colorado. Satellite offices, near principal
energy development areas, augment the program.

Responsibility for overseeing mineral revenue activities on

Indian lands is shared by the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the
MMS. Indian mineral revenues, like Federal mineral revenues,
are administered under the Royal Management Program but are
given priority attention.
minute-mark Tattle tale. A mark or grid line interruption which is placed on
the film every 60 seconds during the survey. Usually found near
the outside edge of track 1. Used in documenting logging speed.

miscible drive A method of enhanced recovery in which various hydrocarbon

solvents or gases (as propane, LPG, natural gas, carbon dioxide,
or a mixture thereof) are injected into the reservoir to reduce
interfacial forces between oil and water in the pore channels and
thus displace oil from the reservoir rock.

mist flow A producing flow condition in a well bore in which gas and oil
flow at very high velocities. The oil film on the pipe wall
becomes very thin and most of the oil is transported in the form
of very small droplets nearly homogeneously dispersed in the
gas. Therefore, the two phases move at essentiallv the same
velocity.

MKS Meter, kilogram, solar second system of fundamental standards.

mmho Millimho. A unit of electric conductance equal to 1/1000 of a

mho, the reciprical of ohm.

MMS See Minerals Management Service.

MN spacing The distance between the two potential-measuring electrodes in

the electrode configuration of an electrical resistivity-measuring
device. See normal and lateral devices.

mobility Of a fluid, a measure of the ease with which a fluid can be

moved in a specific medium i.e., rock). Equal to the ratio
 between the effective permeability to the fluid and the viscosity
of the fluid.

modified Schmidt A plot of dipmeter information on polar chart paper where 0° dip
diagram is represented on the circumference and 90° at the center. Dips
close to structural form a group near the circumference. The
center of this group represents the structural dip. Compare
Schmidt diagram.

mol Abbreviation of mole. See mole.

mold See moldic porosity.

moldic porosity Porosity formed by the preferential dissolution of a former

constituent of sedimentary rock. Once the constituent (such as a
shell. other detrital material, or oölith) has dissolved, a void or
empty mold remains which bears the shape of the former
material.

mole The quantity of a substance whose unit weight is numerically

equal to the molecular weight of the substance. For example, one
mole of water (H2O) is 18 weight units (pounds, grams, tons,
 etc.) because the molecular weight of water is 18 (two atoms of
hydrogen. each of which is 1 unit; one atom of oxygen, the
weight of which is l6 units).

molecule The smallest part of a substance that can exist on its own. It
usually consists of a group of atoms that are either different (e.g.,
water, H2O, consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one of
oxygen) or that are alike (e.g., hydrogen, H2 in which each
molecule is made up of two atoms of hydrogen).

molecular weight The sum of the atomic weights in a molecule. For example, the
molecular weight of water, H2O, is l8 because the atomic weight
of each of the hydrogen atoms is 1 and the atomic weight of
oxygen is 16.

mole percent The ratio of the number of moles of one substance to the total
number of moles in a mixture of substances, all multiplied by l00
(to put the number on a percentage basis).

monitor curve A curve recorded on a well log which is a measure of some

aspect of tool performance or stability. An indicator to the
quality of measurements being made by the instrument.

monocable An armored single conductor cable for surveying or perforating.

monoelectrode A single electrode for measuring formation resistance in

electrically-conductive, liquid-filled boreholes. See single-point
resistance log.

montmorillonite It is a hydrous aluminum silicate capable of reacting with such

substances as magnesium and calcium. A clay mineral often used
as an additive to a drilling mud. See bentonite.
MOP Movable oil plot.

movable oil plot MOP. A computed log, based on several logging operations.
prepared for the purpose of determining the presence and
quantity of movable hydrocarbon (usually oil) at difterent parts
of a formation. For example:

(1) The first curve of the log will be said to represent the pore
volume of the rock framework. It must be determined by a
technique in which derived porosity is least influenced by the
type of fluid occupying pore volume (sometimes a single
porosity curve; i.e., sonic; sometimes computed from several
porosity curves).

(2) The second curve will represent the pore volume occupied by
the water in the flushed zone (i.e., the product of water saturation
in the flushed zone and porosity from the first curve). Focused
microresistivity tools are usually used to determine flushed-zone
water saturation (e.g., microlaterolog, FoRxo, etc.).

(3) The third curve represents the pore volume occupied by

water in the uninvaded zone (i.e., the product of water saturation
beyond the depth of invasion and porosity from the first curve).
Deep resistivity measuring tools are usually used, such as deep
induction tools or deep laterolog tools.

The first curve represents void volume or pore volume. The

difference between the first and second curves is related to the
volume occupied by immovable hydrocarbon. The difference
between the second and third curves represents the bulk volume
of movable hydrocarbon. And the third curve represents the bulk
volume of water present (including adsorbed water, if part of the
original porosity measurement).

mud Drilling mud. A drilling mixture consisting of one or two liquid

phases and dissolved and undissolved solids with properties
tailored to a particular problem. It cools and lubricates the
drilling bit, conditions the formation wall. removes cut tings
from the borehole, brings traces of formation fluids to the
surface, and, when it possesses certain characteristics, it provides
a wellbore medium suitable for some electrical, acoustic, and
nuclear well-logging measurements. See also oil emulsion, invert
 oil emulsion, oil-base mud, and water-base mud.

mud ball An accumulation of mud solids that sometimes builds up on the

drilling bit during circulation prior to logging. It can present a
problem to logging if the ball should become dislodged in the
borehole or scrape off on the face of porous and permeable
reservoir rock.

mud cake Filter cake. The residue deposited on the borehole wall as the
mud loses filtrate into porous, permeable formations. The mud
cake generally has very low permeability and hence tends to
retard further loss of fluid to the formation. See invaded zone.

mud cup (1) A cup-like device containing electrodes which is used to

measure mud resistivity. A common item on logging trucks.

(2) A receptacle for drilling-mud samples.

mud density The density of the drilling mud usually measured in pounds per
U.S. gallon or pounds per cubic foot.

mud filtrate The effluent of the continuous (external) phase liquid of drilling
mud which penetrates porous and permeable rock, leaving a mud
cake on the drilled face of the rock.

mud hose See kelly hose.

mud log (1) See mud resistivity log.

(2) A record of information derived from examination of drilling

fluid and cuttings from the formation.
mud logging Hydrocarbon well logging. The analysis of samples of the
circulated drilling fluid (or mud) and formation cuttings to detect
signs of fluids which have entered the mud from the formations.
Hydrocarbons may be detected by fluorescence, by
chromatographic analysis, gas, and other ways. Also, the mud
may be monitored for salinity and viscosity. Plots of such data
often include a sample log and a drill time curve.

mud pit Excavation or tank near the rig into which drilling mud is
circulated. Mud pumps withdraw the mud from one end of the
pit as the circulated mud (bearing rock chips from the borehole)
flows in at the other end. As the mud moves to the suction line,
the cuttings drop out leaving the mud "clean" and ready for
another trip to the bottom of the borehole.

mud resistivity A log made with a microlog- or microlaterolog-type sonde with

log the arms collapsed so that the measuring pad loses contact with
the formation wall. Used to record the mud resistivity at
downhole conditions.

mud pump A large, reciprocating pump used to circulate the mud on a

drilling rig. A typical mud pump is a double- or triple-acting,
two- or three-cylinder piston pump whose pistons travel in
replaceable liners and are driven by a crankshaft actuated by an
engine. A mud pump also is called a slush pump.

mud viscosity Viscosity of drilling mud. See viscosity.

mud weight A misnomer, see mud density.

multiphase flow A flow regime in which gas, oil, and water are all flowing.
multiple An arrangement for producing a well in which one wellbore
completion penetrates two or more petroleum-bearing reservoirs that lie one
over the other. The tubing strings are suspended side by side in
the production casing string. each a different length and each
packed off to prevent the commingling of different reservoir
fluids. Each reservoir is then produced through its own tubing
string.

multishot survey See directional survey.

MWD See measurements-while-drilling.

N Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without
permission from SPWLA

natural gamma See gamma ray log.

ray log

natural gamma The natural gamma spectrometry (NGS) tool uses five-window
ray spectrometry spectroscopy to resolve total natural gamma ray spectra into the
log three most common components of naturally occurring
radiation – potassium, thorium, and uranium. NGS is a mark of
Schlumberger.

natural gas A highly compressible, highly expansible mixture ot

hydrocarbons having a low specific gravity and occurring
naturally in a gaseous form. The principal component gases of
natural gas, with typical percentages, are –

methane 80.0%
ethane 7.0%
propane 6.0%
isobutane 1.5%
 butane 2.5%
pentane plus 3.0%

In addition to these gases, natural gas may contain appreciable

quantities of nitrogen, helium, carbon dioxide, and contaminants
(as hydrogen sulfide and water vapor). Although gaseous at
normal temperatures and pressures, certain of the gases
comprising the mixture that is natural gas are variable in form
and may be found either as gases or as liquids under suitable
conditions of temperature and pressure.

negative A term usually used in reference to microlog curves to describe

separation the condition where the longer spaced resistivity curve reads a
lower value than the shorter spaced curve. Compare positive
separation.

N electrode The potential-measuring electrode most distant from the current

A electrode in the electrode configuration of electrical
resistivity-measuring devices. See also normal and lateral
devices.

net hydrocarbon Hydrocarbon porosity feet after applying appropriate cutoffs. See
porosity feet hydrocarbon porosity feet.

net overburden That part of the overburden (geostatic load) which is supported
by grain to-grain contact of the rock. Net overburden usually is
less than (total) overburden because of two reasons:

(1) Pore pressure within the bed of interest supports the weight
of the column of formation fluid above it. If the pore pressure is
higher than normal, then it supports part of the lithostatic load.

(2) The stress on the rock concentrated at the grain-to-grain

contact may be less than that caused by the weight of overlying
dry rock, because of the buoyant effect on the porous rock
column produced by the liquid in the pore volumes.
net overburden Effective stress exerted by porous rock. That support by the
pressure grain-to-grain contact of the rock which when combined with the
formation pressure is assumed to equal the stress due to
overburden.

net pay Within the limitations of given cutoffs for porosity, water
saturation, etc., it is that portion of reservoir rock which will
produce commercial quantities of hydrocarbon.

net sand thickness The accumulated thickness of sandstone of a specified quality

which is found within a specific interval of formation.

neutron An electrically neutral, elementary nuclear particle having a rest

mass of 1.674×10–24 gram or an atomic mass of 1.00898. (i.e.,
very nearly the same as that of a proton), which exists in all
nuclei except that of hydrogen.

Neutrons exhibit a broad variation of kinetic energies ranging

from as little as 0.025 eV to as much as 50 MeV. Neutrons are
used in logging as a means of measuring the quantity of
hydrogen important in the moderation process (energy transfer)
or as a means to induce radiation in stable isotopes.

neutron activation All stable isotopes are capable of capturing thermal neutrons. In
well logging, neutron bombardment of a formation and the
subsequent capture of thermal neutrons causes excitation of
certain elements. Following the capture of a thermal neutron by a
stable isotope, the compound nucleus de-excites by the prompt
emission of one or more gamma-ray protons. If the resulting
product nucleus is a radioisotope its later decay to a stable state
can be detected and the energy level of emitted gamma rays is
characteristic of the specific element. The analysis of the
energies of the decay gamma rays is neutron activation analysis.

neutron capture See capture cross section.

cross section
neutron detector See scintillation counter and proportional counter.

neutron generator An electromechanical device operating at high voltage (125-

l30,000 volts DC) which focuses a beam of high-energy
deuterons on a target surface containing tritium. Nuclear fusion
of the deuteron ions and target atoms produces high-energy (14-
MeV) neutrons. The neutron radiation can be controlled in
precise cyclic bursts or pulses, with time in between pulses for
the measurement of induced-radioactivity and decay-time
schemes.

neutron The three possible processes are elastic scattering, inelastic

interactions with scattering, and absorption. The latter includes all processes in
matter which the neutron becomes part of the absorbing nucleus. Also
see neutron activation.

Neutron Lifetime NLL. The Neutron Lifetime logging technique employs a pulsed
Log neutron source which is periodically actuated to produce short
bursts of neutrons and is quiescent between bursts. During the
interval between bursts, the neutrons (as well as the various
types of radiation which always result from neutron interactions)
die away. Their average lifetime can be measured by measuring
the length of time required for the neutron population at a
particular instant to die away to half value. The radiation
intensity is measured in each of two preselected intervals and, by
intercomparing these measurements, determine thc rate of
neutron die-away. This measured rate has been shown both by
theory and experiment to be a measure of the thermal-neutron
capture cross section of the medium in which the neutrons are
captured. The thermal-neutron capture cross section per unit of
volume of formation material is referred to as Σ. It is related to
L, termed the lifetime of neutrons in a material, by the equation

Thermal neutrons are captured mainly by the chlorine present.

Hence the tool responds to the amount of salt in formation
waters. Hydrocarbons result in longer lifetimes than salt water.
 Tool measurements are porosity-dependent and sensitive to clay
content. Can be used in cased holes where resistivity logs cannot
be run or to monitor reservoir changes to opt-imize production.
Resembles a resistivity log with which it is generally
correlatable. Neutron Lifetime Log is a Dresser Atlas registered
trademark.

neutron log A log of a response primarily related to hydrogen concentration

but also affected by mineralogy and borehole effects. The
neutron log does not distinguish between the hydrogen in the
pore fluids (i.e., water, oil, gas), in water of crystallization, or
water bound to solid surfaces. In clean oil-filled or water-filled
formations the apparent porosity reading ot the neutron log
reflects the amount of liquid-filled pore volume. Used with other
porosity information. the neutron log is useful to ascertain the
presence of gas and determine mineralogy and shaliness.
 The tool contains a continuously emitting neutron source and
either a neutron- (n-n tool) or a gamma-ray detector (n-γ tool).
High energy neutrons from the source are slowed down by
collisions with atomic nuclei. The hydrogen atoms are by far the
most effective in the slowing down process because their mass is
nearly equal to that of the neutron. Thus, the distribution of the
neutrons at the time of detection is primarily determined by the
hydrogen concentration. Depending on the tool type, detection is
made of either (1) thermal neutrons; (2) gamma rays, generated
when thermal neutrons are captured by thermal-neutron
absorbers in the formation (primarily chlorine); or (3) epithermal
neutrons (neutrons having energies higher than thermal).

Neutron curves are scaled in API units or in terms of apparent

porosity. The neutron log can be recorded in open or cased
liquid-filled well bores. There is a maximum hole size limitation
in empty holes for running tools in which the detector does not
contact the formation wall. See also sidewall neutron log and
compensated neutron log.

neutron source (1) An encapsulated radioactive material which produces

neutrons for neutron logging. The neutrons usually are produced
in alpha-berillium reactions. The alpha particle producing
element may be americium, plutonium, or sometimes radium.
Californium-252. which is sometimes used in special
applications, is an intense source of 2.3-MeV neutrons but has a
short half life of 2.65 years.

(2) A neutron generator. An electromechanical device which

emits high-energy (14-MeV) neutrons in controlled cyclic
pulses. Pulsed neutron radiation is required in Thermal Decay
Time Logging, Neutron Lifetime Logging, carbon-oxygen
logging, and activation logging instruments.
noise (1) Sudden spurious readings on a curve. These may be random
events or caused by instrumentation problems.

(2) A sound. In well logglng, a sound related to some source in

the wellbore environment, e.g., fluid flow, the production of
formation fluids through perforations, leakage of fluid through
apertures, etc.

noise logging Audio logging. A logging process for measuring the amplitude
of background noise in the wellbore environment, for specific
frequencies in the audible range, at selected stations in the hole.
Moving fluids, liquids or gases, generate characteristic sounds
having frequency spectra and amplitudes which can be
interpreted. The signal amplitude is proportional to the amount
of work performed by the fluids in motion and to the location of
the tool with respect to the level from which noise emanates. Can
be useful in ascertaining fluid-movements behind tubing or
casing.

nonconformity Where the older rocks were metamorphosed and exposed by

profound erosion before the strata were laid down on them, there
is a major unconformity, representing a hiatus of great duration.
To distinguish unconformities of this significance, the term
"nonconformity" is used.
normal curve A symmetrical resistivity curve recorded by a normal device.

normal device A resistivity-measuring system using a "normal" electrode

configuration. A constant current is passed between a current
electrode on the sonde (A electrode) and one at the surface (B
electrode) while the potential difference is measured between
another on the sonde (M electrode) and a reference electrode (N
electrode). The "spacing" is the diference between the A and M
electrodes. Usually spacing of about 16 inches is used for a the
short normal and 64 inches for the medium or long normal. The
measure point is midway between the A and M electrodes.
A normal device has a depth of investigation said to be about
twice the AM spacing. The normal is an unfocused device which
produces a symmetrical curve which has been particularly useful
in correlation and indetermination of lithology. Formation detail
can be increased by decreasing the AM spacing, but depth of
investigation suffers.
normal formation See normal pore pressure.
pressure

normalize (1) To adjust two log curves (or any other pairs of data) for
environmental differences in order that one value may be
compared with others.

(2) To adjust two log curves or similar data to the same, or

equivalent, units so that the data values can be compared.

normal pore In a reservoir rock it is the hydrostatic pressure resulting from

pressure the head of water solution (formation water) filling the pores of
the rock in communication with the mean water table or sea
surface.
normal (pore) The amount of change in pore pressure per unit change in depth
pressure gradient when the pores of the rock exhibit normal pore pressure. In parts
of the Gulf Coast. the normal pressure gradient has been found to
correspond to 0.465 psi/ft change in depth (equivalent to weight
of water containing about 100,000 ppm total solids in solution).

nuclear Of or pertaining to the reactions involving atomic nuclei and

their transformations, and to the well-logging operations
dependent on such reactions. See nuclear log and radioactivity
log.
nuclear cement A well log of scattered gamma rays, differing from the density
log log in that the gamma-ray source and detector are so spaced as to
be sensitive to the density of material in the annulus between
casing and formation. Used for distinguishing between cement
and fluids behind casing. Can be run in liquid-filled or empty
holes.

nuclear cross See capture cross section.

section

nuclear flow log A record of borehole-fluid flow rate. See radioactive tracer log
and fluid travel log. Compare flowmeter.

nuclear log A well log of some parameter in the well bore environment
derived from techniques utilizing nuclear reactions taking place
in the downhole logging tool and/or in the formation. Nuclear
logs usually are well logs obtained by using radiation sources in
the logging tool.

nuclear magnetic A phenomenon exhibited by atomic nuclei which is based on the

resonance existence of nuclear magnetic moments associated with
quantized nuclear spins. In well logging, it pertains to the
measurement of properties related to the nuclear spin states of
hydrogen nuclei. See nuclear magnetism log.

nuclear magnetic See nuclear magnetism log.

resonance log

nuclear A free fluid log. A well log that is dependent on the alignment of
magnetism log the magnetic moment of protons (hydrogen nuclei) with an
impressed magnetic field. Protons tend to align themselves with
the magnetic field; and when it is removed, they precess in the
earth's magnetic field and gradually return to their original state.
Proton precession in free fluid produces a radio frequency signal.
The amplitude of this radio frequency signal is measured in the
 nuclear magnetism log as the free fluid index. The rate of decay
of the precession signal depends on interactions with
neighboring atoms and hence on the nature of the molecule of
which the proton is a part. The signal from the borehole fluid
decays very rapidly when disseminated iron is present
(artificially introduced, or from steel worn from drill pipe and
bits). By slightly delaying the time of measuring, the hole signal
is minimized. Fluids bound to surfaces (as water adsorbed to
clays and silts) and dead oil do not give appreciable response.
Thus, the free fluid index indicates the free fluid (the hydrogen
in free-fluid hydrocarbons and water). Gas gives a low signal
because of its low hydrogen content.

nucleus The central, dense, positively-charged core of an atom. The

nucleus makes up practically the entire mass of an atom. The
nucleus of an atom is composed of one or more protons and one
or more neutrons; except in the case of the hydrogen atom,
which has only one proton as its nucleus (in its most common
isotope).

nuclide A species of atom characterized by the number of neutrons and

protons in its nucleus. An isotope. The atom must be capable of
existing for a measurable lifetime, generally greater than 10–10
second.
O Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without
permission from SPWLA

Occupational OSHA. A U.S. government agency that establishes and enforces

Safety and Health safety standards for industry employees.
Administration

OCS Outer Continental Shelf.

offset well (1) A well drilled on the next location to the original well. The
distance from the first well to the offset well depends upon
spacing regulations and whether the original well produces oil or
gas.

(2) A well drilled on one tract of land to prevent the drainage of

oil or gas to an adjoining tract where a well is being drilled or is
already producing.

offshore drilling Drilling for oil in an ocean or large lake. A drilling unit for
offshore operations may be a mobile floating vessel with a ship
or barge hull, a semisubmersible or submersible base, a self-
propelled or towed structure with jacking legs (jack-up drilling
rig), or a permanent structure used as a production platform
when drilling is completed. In general, wildcat wells are drilled
from mobile floating vessels (as semisubmersible rigs and drill
ships) or from jack-ups. while development wells are drilled
from platforms.

ohm A unit of electrical resistance. The resistance of a conductive

material in which a potential difference of one volt produces a
current of one ampere.

ohmic A term which describes a material or substance which has

electrical resistance.
ohm-meter A unit of electrical resistivity, also written ohm meter2/meter The
resistivity of a cubic meter of material which offers a resistance
of one ohm to the flow of electrical current between two
opposite faces. The reciprocal is mho per meter.

Ohm's law E = IR, where E is the potential in volts produced by the flow of
current (I) in amperes through a length of material exhibiting
resistance (R) in ohms.

oil-base mud An emulsified drilling mud in which the continuous phase is oil
and the discontinuous aqueous phase occupies less than ten
percent of the volume. Electrically nonconductive. Compare
invert oil emulsion, oil emulsion, and water-base mud.

oil-cut Containing less than measurable amounts of oil (describes a

liquid; as oil-cut mud recovered in a drill-stem test).

oil emulsion Refers to a fluid mixture, usually drilling mud, in which the
continuous phase (external phase) is water and the discontinuous
phase (internal phase) is oil. Electrically conductive. Compare
oil-base mud and invert oil emulsion.

oil field The surface area overlying an oil reservoir or reservoirs.

Commonly, the term includes not only the surface area but may
include the reservoir, the wells, and production equipment as
well.

oil in place The amount of crude oil that is estimated to exist in a reservoir
and which has not been produced.
oil mud A drilling mud in which oil is the continuous phase.

oil patch A term referring broadly to the oil field and the activities of oil
and gas exploration and production.

oil shale The term applied to several kinds of organic and bituminous
shales, most of which consist of varying mixtures of organic
matter with marlstones, shale, and clay. The organic matter is
chiefly in the form of a mineraloid, called kerogen. Oil shales are
widely distributed throughout the world and become of
economic interest because of the large amounts of oil which can
be obtained from them. See kerogen.

oil stain Visible oil seen on surfaces of grains or fragments of rock

samples.

oil-water contact The highest depth (shallowest depth in a well) opposite a

formation at which virtually l00% water can be produced. This
depth is at the bottom of the oil-water transition zone.

oil-water interface See oil-water contact.

oil wet Oleophilic. A condition in which oil wets the rock surfaces.
Often described by the angle of contact of an oil droplet on the
solid surface. The lower the angle (measured inside the oil
phase) the greater the adhesion and the greater the degree of
wettability for oil. If the nonwetting aqueous phase should be
forced to move, it would advance over the adhesive layer of the
oil.

oleophilic Having a strong affinity for oils. Preferentially oil wet.

open hole Uncased hole, or uncased portion of the hole.

openhole A method of preparing a well for production in which no

completion production casing or liner is set opposite the producing
formation. Reservoir fluids flow unrestricted into the open well
bore.

operator The person or company, either proprietor or lessee, actually

operating an oil well or lease. Compare unit operator.

OSHA Abbreviation of the Occupational Safety and Health

Administration.

osmosis The spontaneous flow of molecules of the solvent of a more

dilute solution into a more concentrated solution when separated
from one another by a suitable semipermeable membrane.
Compare diffusion.

outcrop (1) The exposed portion of a buried layer of rock.

(2) To appear on the earth's surface (as a rock).

overburden Geostatic load. The aggregate of overlying rock column

including the fluids contained within the pores of the rock.

overlay (1) To place one recorded curve over another. See also
normalize.

(2) A well log in which one curve has been drafted or recorded
over another and the relationship between the curves can be
 observed. The position of one curve with respect to the other and
the amount of separation between the two curves provides
specific information with regard to rock properties, lithology,
mineralogy, and fluid saturations.

overpressure Is an expression which has been used commonly to refer to high

pressure found in some formations; super-normal pressure or
surpressure. Technically, it should be said that overpressure is
that amount of pore pressure which is in excess of normal pore
pressure in overpressured formations.

Any pore pressure greater than normal pore pressure can result
from a number of conditions, some of which are listed below:

(1) Abnormally high pore pressure related to geostatic load. As

geostatic load increases. porous clay rock compresses with the
resulting expulsion of associated water. Fractures and porous and
permeable reservoir beds serve as conduits to carry off the
expelled water. If the water in the pore spaces of the reservoir
rock cannot be expelled, the water will be trapped. Under these
conditions, as overburden is increased, the clay rock is prevented
from further compaction and the compressive stress is
transmitted to the interstitial water. Pore pressure in isolated
reservoir beds will increase along with the pore pressures in the
overlying clay rock (shale).

(2) Abnormally high pore pressure related to the density contrast

between reservoir fluid (if oil or gas) and interstitial water. Some
reservoirs (which when filled with water, exhibit normal pore
pressures) exhibit abnormal pressure at the crest of the structure
when containing a column of oil or gas. For example. in a gas-
filled reservoir, the normal pore pressure at the level of the gas-
water contact may be transmitted through the gas column to the
crest of the structure with only a small reduction (since the
pressure exerted by the weight of a substantial column of gas is
low compared to that of the same height of interstitial water).
This results in higher than normal pore pressure at the crest of
the structure.

(3) Abnormally high pore pressure related to causes other than

those found in (1) or (2). For example, high pressure may result
from the charging of one bed in communication with another at
higher pressure.
overshot Cable-guided overshot used in wireline fishing operations. A
device mounted on an appropriate adapter which can be attached
to the bottom end of the drill pipe or tubing. The overshot is
open-ended, hollow, and contains a spiral grapple. When used in
fishing for stuck logging tools, for example, it is guided into
position by the unbroken cable. The grapple engages the fishing
bell housing when rotated slowly to the right. See also cut-and-
thread fishing technique.

oxidation- Redox potential. Eh. A quantitative measure of the energy of

reduction oxidation. Oxidation is equivalent to a net loss of electrons by
potential the substance being oxidized, and reduction is equivalent to a net
gain of electrons by the substance being reduced. The oxidation-
reduction reaction involves a transfer of electrons. The
oxidation-reduction potential may be expressed as the ability to
give or receive electrons and is expressed in terms of millivolts.
 P Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without
permission from SPWLA

packer A downhole, expanding plug-like device which is used to seal

off certain parts of tubing, casing, or open hole when cementing,
acidizing, or isolating specific zones of a formation for
production or testing. Packers can be run on logging cables,
tubing, drill pipe, or casing and when in position can be
expanded to form a seal to confine fluid flow to the inside bore
of the packer.

packer flowmeter A spinner-type velocimeter which utilizes an inflatable packer

bag. After the proper-size bag is pumped up to fill the annulus
between tool and casing, all the fluid is diverted through the
spinner assembly which measures the velocity of the fluid,
which, in turn, is related to the volumetric flow rate. A profile in
bbl/day for either "up or down" flow is recorded; also flow
direction. The profiles are determined by fixed point recordings.
The tool operates at lower rates than the minimum required for a
continuous flowmeter.
pad See sidewall pad.

pair production The conversion of a photon (gamma ray), which has more than
twice the rest mass energy of an electron (about 0.51 MeV per
electron), into an electron and a positron when the incident
photon passes through the strong electric field surrounding an
atomic nucleus and vanishes. This is an example of creation of
 matter (the electron pair, one negative and one positive) from
energy (the photon) according to Einstein's law: E = mc2.
Relatively unimportant in density logging because of the high
threshold energy (greater than 1.02 MeV) required for the
incident gamma ray. Important in the detection of gamma rays in
the ionization chamber and Geiger-Mueller counter. One of the
three interactions of gamma rays with matter. Compare
photoelectric effect and Compton scattering.

paraffin A hydrocarbon having the formula CnH2n+2 (methane, CH4;

ethane, C2H6, etc.). Heavier paraffin hydrocarbons (i.e., those of
C18H38 and heavier) form a waxlike substance that is called
paraffin. Heavier paraffins often accumulate on the walls of
tubing and other production equipment, restricting or stopping
the flow of desirable lighter paraffins.

paraffinic Pertains to an oil of the methane series having the formula

CnH2n+2. Such compounds are chain-like molecules. Compare
aromatic.

partition gas A device for quantitative analysis of hydrocarbon constituents. A

chromatograph fixed quantity of sample is carried with a stream of sweep gas
through a partition column packed with an inert solid coated with
a nonvolatile organic liquid. The lighter fractions traverse the
column faster than the heavier fractions so that the components
appear separately at the column exit, where their amounts can he
measured.

parts per million ppm. Refers to concentration by weight for both solute and
 solution. Parts per million (wt./wt.) differs from mg/liter
(wt./vol.) when the specific gravity of the solution differs from
that of pure water at standard conditions.

Many salinities that have been measured in units of mg/liters are

reported routinely in ppm without proper conversion to ppm.

patch panel A surface panel which serves as a junction board between the
survey panels and various survey lines. The patch panel allows
easy access to all cable and ground line conductors. Conductor
functions can be interchanged or checked rapidly for continuity,
insulation, or quality of signal brought to the surface. Also,
provides easy access to output of surface panels.

pay The part of a formation which produces or is capable of

producing oil or gas, or other economic product.

pendular See description and illustration under saturation.

saturation

perforating See gun perforating.

perforation A log sometimes run after a perforating operation in order to

record record perforations at actual depths. Usually performed with a
casing collar locator.

permafrost Perenially frozen ground.

permeability Absolute permeability. A measure of the ability of a rock to

conduct a fluid through its interconnected pores when that fluid
is at 100% saturation. Measured in darcies or millidarcies. See
also effective permeability.
petroleum Oil or gas obtained from the rocks of the earth.

petroliferous Containing petroleum (of rocks).

pH An expression representing the negative logarithm of the

effective hydrogen-ion concentration or hydrogen-ion activity (in
gram equivalents per liter). The pH value is a unit of measure of
the acid or alkaline condition of a substance. A neutral solution
(as pure water) has a pH of 7; acid solutions are less than 7;
basic, or alkaline solutions are above 7. The pH scale is a
logarithmic scale; a substance with a pH of 4 is more than twice
as acid as a substance with a pH of 5. Similarly, a substance with
a pH of 9 is much more than twice as alkaline as a substance
with a pH of 8.

phase (1) Any portion of a nonhomogeneous system that is bounded by

a surface. is homogeneous throughout, and may be mechanically
separated from the other phases. The three phases of H2O, for
example, are ice (solid) water (liquid), and steam (gas).

(2) In physics, the stage or point in a cycle to which a rotation,

oscillation, or variation has advanced.

photoclinometer A well-logging device which photographically records the

borehole azimuth and deviation from the vertical.

In the cartridge of the downhole instrument. a compass needle

indicates magnetic north and a steel ball rolling freely on a
graduated concave glass indicates the hole deviation. A lens
focuses these images on photographic film which is exposed,
frame by frame, when the tool is held motionless, centered in the
borehole at preselected stations. Compare poteclinometer.

photoelectric When a photon (gamma ray) collides with an atom, it may be

absorption completely absorbed and its total energy used to eject one of the
 orbital electrons from those surrounding the nucleus. Part of the
photon's energy is used to overcome the binding energy holding
the electron in the atom; the remainder serves to impart a
velocity to the recoiling electron. In general, this photoelectric
effect is greater for low energy incident gamma rays (below
about 100 keV), and occurs at higher energies for atoms of
higher atomic number. The rate of absorption varies only with
the energy of the incident gamma ray and the nature of the atom.

Photoelectric absorption is the process which produces the high-

speed ionizing particle (i.e., electron) which causes the
scintillation to appear in the phosphors of scintillation detectors.
Produces an effect in the formation which influences some
density logging measurements.

photoelectric Pe. A downhole measurement recorded with the Litho-Density

absorption cross and Compensated Spectral Density tools that is related to the
section index atomic number of the formation and therefore the lithology. See
photoelectric absorption also.

photoelectric Changes in the electrical characteristics of substances due to

effect radiation, generally in the form of light. The photoelectric
absorption of photons (gamma rays) in the photoelectric effect is
one of the interactions between gamma rays and matter. See
further explanation under photoelectric absorption, and compare
pair production and Compton scattering.

photomultiplier Used with a scintillation crystal to make up a scintillation

counter. The flash of light produced in the phosphor of a
radiation detector strikes the sensitive surface of a photocathode
 in the photomultiplier, causing the emission of a number of
primary electrons. These electrons are drawn to an anode
maintained at a higher potential, and a number of secondary
electrons are emitted for each impinging electron. The secondary
electrons are drawn to a second anode maintained at a higher
potential than the first. whereupon additional multiplication
occurs. This process is repeated in about ten stages until the
initial current has been multiplied about a millionfold. The
amplitude of the output of the photomultiplier is proportional to
the intensity of the scintillation in the phosphor. See also
scintillation counter.

photon A quantity of energy emitted in the form of electromagnetic

radiation; e.g., radio waves, light, x-rays, and gamma rays.

photon log A well log of scattered gamma rays differing from a density log
in that the tool is not pressed against the borehole wall and hence
is especially sensitive to changes in hole diameter or density of
the fluid in the borehole. It has been used for determining
changes in the density of fluids in the well bore and location of
cement in the casing-formation annulus.

pick-up (1) On a well log, it is the recorded point on a curve at which the
curve begins to vary in response to variations in the wellbore
environment.

(2) During the survey operation, it is the depth at which the

logging tool lifts off the bottom of the borehole. Signified by
 curve movement and increase in cable tension as shown on the
weight indicator.

piercement dome A mass of material usually salt, that rises and penetrates rock
formations. See dome and salt dome.

pinch out The progressive thinning of a stratum to its point of

disappearance.

Pipe Analysis Log PAL. A well log which combines magnetic-flux-leakage and
eddy-current measurements in such a manner as to locate defects
or flaws on the inner or outer wall of a casing, as well as to
provide a measurement which is indicative of the extent of such
defects.

Magnetic-flux-leakage testing relies upon the detection of

perturbations in a magnetic field caused by defects anywhere on
the inside or outside casing wall. For the eddy-current test, the
frequency of the eddy current is chosen so that the depth of
investigation will be limited to the inner casing wall. The
electromagnetic thickness log is frequently run in conjunction
with the Pipe Analysis Log where concentric casing strings are
set in order to provide information helpful in the analysis of the
outer casing string. PAL is a mark of Schlumberger.

pipe inspection See casing inspection log and Pipe Analysis Log.
log

plastic shale Shale in a state of plasticity which is capable of squeezing or

extruding into the well bore. Plastic shale contains a large
amount of water and lacks rigidity. Plastic shale flows as a result
of the geostatic load it is bearing. Compare heaving shale.

platform A platform is an immobile structure which provides a base for

drilling and producing hydrocarbons in offshore areas. A fixed
 platform, which is made of steel or concrete, extends above the
water surface and is supported by the sea bed by means of piling
or spread footings. Other platforms are jack up platforms used in
shallow waters and tension-leg platforms used in deep waters.

plug (1) See plug and abandon.

(2) A sample. See sidewall core and core. See also core analysis.

(3) A large underground feature such as a salt plug or salt dome.

Not a popular usage of the term. See diapir, pluton, and salt
dome.

plug and abandon P&A. To place a cement plug into a dry hole or noneconomic
well and abandon the well.

plug back To place cement in or near the bottom of a well to exclude

bottom water, sidetrack, or produce from a formation already
drilled through. Plugging back also can be accomplished by a
mechanical plug set by wireline, tubing, or drill pipe.

plugged back PBTD. A depth above the original total depth, to which the well
total depth bore has been cemented or plugged .

pluton In the strictest sense, a body of igneous rock which has formed
beneath the surface of the earth by consolidation from magma.

poise p. The viscosity of a liquid in which a force of 1 dyne (a unit of

measurement of small amounts of force) exerted tangentially on
a surface of 1 cm2 of either of two parallel planes 1 cm apart will
move one plane at the rate of 1 cm per second in reference to the
other plane with the space between the two planes filled with the
liquid.
Poisson's ratio See elastic properties of rocks.

polar compound A compound (as water) with a molecule that behaves as a small
bar magnet with a positive charge on one end and a negative
charge on the other.

polar plot Plots on polar coordinate paper usually used to aid dipmeter
interpretation. Polar plots may take different forms; e.g.,
modified Schmidt plot, azimuth frequency diagrams, etc.

pool A reservoir or group of reservoirs. The term is a misnomer in

that hydrocarbons seldom exist in pools but rather in the pores of
rock.

pore An opening or void within a rock or mass of rock, usually small

and filled with fluid (water oil, gas, or all three). See porosity.
Compare vug.

pore pressure Pressure exerted by fluids contained within the pores of rock.
See formation pressure.

porosity The ratio of void space to the bulk volume of rock containing
that void space. Porosity can be expressed as a fraction or
percentage of pore volume in a volume of rock.

(1) Primary porosity refers to the porosity remaining after the

sediments have been compacted but without considering changes
resulting from subsequent chemical action or flow of waters
through the sediments. See primary porosity.

(2) Secondary porosity is the additional porosity created by

chemical changes, dissolution, dolomitization, fissures, and
 fractures. See secondary porosity.

(3) Effective porosity is the interconnected pore volume

available to free fluids, excluding isolated pores and pore volume
occupied by adsorbed water. In petroleum engineering practices,
the term porosity usually means effective porosity.

(4) Total porosity is all void space in a rock and matrix whether
effective or noneffective. Total porosity includes that porosity in
isolated pores, adsorbed water on grain or particle surfaces, and
associated with clays. It does not include water of crystallization
wherein the water molecule becomes part of the crystal structure.

porosity exponent The exponent (m) of the porosity term in formation resistivity
factor-porosity relationship. (See Archie's formulas.) The
porosity exponent is influenced by those properties of the rigid
rock which influence the shape of the electrically conductive
solution occupying the pore volumes. Sometimes referred to as
cementation factor and shape factor.

porosity overlay A log of porosity values computed from different logs plotted on
top of each other.

positive A term usually used in reference to microlog curves to describe

separation the condition where the micronormal (deeper) resistivity curve
reads a higher value than the microinverse (shallower) curve.
This condition usually denotes the presence of mud cake on the
face of the drilled formation. Compare negative separation.

poteclinometer A device for making a continuous measurement of the angle and

direction of borehole deviation during a survey. A pendulum
moves the wiper arm of a potentiometer so that a simple
resistance measurement corresponds with the position of the
pendulum and therefore the angle between the tool axis and
verticle. A compass moves the wiper arm of another
potentiometer so that another resistance measurement
corresponds to a measure of azimuth. Another pendulum moves
the wiper of a third potentiometer to make a measurement of
relative bearing. See deviation, azimuth, and relative bearing.
 Used in dipmeter surveys. Compare photoclinometer.

potential (1) Voltage level with respect to a reference level.

(2) emf. electromotive force.

(3) Potential drop = IR drop. See IR drop and Ohm's law.

pour point In the case of an oil (or any other liquid), it is a temperature 5°F
above that temperature at which the oil is solid. The lowest
temperature at which an oil will flow.

ppm Parts per million.

precession A comparatively slow gyration of the rotational axis of a

spinning body about another (intersecting) axis so as to describe
a cone. Caused by the application of a torque tending to change
the direction of a rotational axis. See nuclear magnetism log.

pressure The force per unit area that is exerted on a surface (as that
exerted against the inner wall of a container or piping system by
 a fluid or that exerted on a wellhead by a column of gas in the
well). In the U.S., pressure is usually expressed in pounds per
square inch (psi).

pressure case See housing.

pressure drop A loss of pressure resulting from friction as a fluid passes

through a porous medium from one area to another.

pressure gauge An instrument for measuring fluid pressure that usually registers
the difference between atmospheric pressure and the pressure of
the fluid by indicating the effect of such pressures on a
measuring element (as a column of liquid, a Bourdon tube, a
weighted piston, a diaphragm, or other pressure-sensitive
device).

pressure gradient A scale of pressure differences in which there is a uniform

variation of pressure from point to point. For example, the
pressure gradient of a column of pure water is about 0.433 psi/ft
of vertical elevation (9.79 kPa/m).

pressure A method for increasing ultimate oil recovery by injecting gas,

maintenance water, or other fluids into the reservoir before reservoir pressure
has dropped appreciably, usually early in the life of the field, to
reduce or prevent a decline in pressure.

pressure transient A pressure transient test is a test during which the flow rate of a
testing and well is carefully controlled in order to obtain pressure transient
analysis data. Pressure transient analysis is the careful evaluation of
pressure variation as a function of time in order to determine
qualitatively those parameters which control fluid flow.
pressure, volume, An examination of reservoir fluids in a laboratory under various
and temperature pressures, volumes, and temperatures to determine the
(PVT) analysis characteristics and behavior of the fluid.

Primacord A trade name for a cord containing a core of high explosive

material which is used to detonate high explosives or a series of
explosive charges; e.g., shaped charges. The cord detonates at
the velocity of the detonative wave of the explosive material.
Sometimes liquid-proof and pressure-proof for exposed
applications.

primary porosity Porosity which is present in sediment at the time of deposition or

formed during sedimentation. Compare secondary porosity.

primary recovery Recovery of petroleum oil from underground reservoirs by

taking advantage of the natural energy (pressures) in these
reservoirs. The most common types of these sources of reservoir
pressures are solution-gas drive, gas-cap-expansion drive, and
water (aquifer) drive. More than one of these natural drives may
occur in a single reservoir. See also secondary recovery and
tertiary recovery.

probe In well logging, a probe is a downhole logging instrument. A

sonde. A tool.

producibility A computed well log showing a comparison of various

index log parameters important to the producibility of a formation (e.g.,
effective porosity, clayiness. permeability index. etc.).

production (1) The amount of oil or gas produced in a given period.

(2) That phase of an energy related industry which deals with

bringing the formation fluids to the surface and preparing the
product for pipeline or other transportation.
production casing Long string. The last string of casing set in a well prior to
production.

production log A well log run in a production or injection well. Small diameter
tools are used so that they can be lowered through tubing.
Services and devices include continuous flowmeter, packer
flowmeter, gradiomanometer, manometer, densimeter,
watercutmeter, thermometer, radioactive-tracer logs, temperature
logs, calipers, casing collar locator, fluid sampler, water entry
survey, etc.

Prolog A computed log analysis system. Prolog computer-processed

interpretations are designed to be performed at the well site.
Prolog is a mark of Dresser Atlas.

prompt gamma Gamma radiation given off "promptly" following a nuclear

ray reaction: ie., fission, or by the interaction of a neutron and a
stable nucleus. For example, a nucleus excited by capturing a
neutron, or by the inelastic scattering of a very fast neutron.
sheds excess energy by the emission of one or more prompt
gamma-ray photons. See also delayed gamma ray.

propagation effect See skin effect.

proportional Similar in construction and operation to an ionization chamber.

counter Usually the proportional counter is a metal chamber. filled with
gas, with a central electrode maintained at a positive voltage
with respect to the shell. The voltage level of the central
electrode is related to the critical voltage value where gas
amplification begins. The proportional counter is operated in that
limited voltage range where the charge flow across the counter is
proportional to the primary ionization.

In well logging, it is designed for the detection of neutrons. A

gas is used which is suitable for the production of ionizing
 particles upon reaction with incident neutrons. The gas
commonly used is He3 but may be BF3. The BF3 gas, maintained
at about 1 atmosphere, requires a voltage level of 2400-2500
volts and produces a larger pulse than that in He3; but, the He3
maintained at higher pressure and operating at about 1300 volts
is more efficient in the detection of neutrons. Compare ionization
chamber, Geiger-Mueller counter, and scintillation counter.

proration A system enforced by a state or federal agency or by agreement

between participants that limits the amount of petroleum that can
be produced from a well or field within a given period.

protection casing A string of casing set to protect a section of the hole and to
permit drilling to continue to a greater depth. Intermediate
casing.

proton An elemental particle which is identical to the nucleus of the

lightest hydrogen atom. Both proton(s) and neutron(s) are
constituents of nuclei of elements heavier than hydrogen. A
proton carries a positive charge numerically equal to the charge
of an electron and has a mass of 1.6724 × 10–24 gram or
1.0075 atomic mass unit.

proximity log A microresistivity log, similar to the microlaterolog, made from

a tool which focuses survey current issuing from a sidewall pad.
The electrodes are mounted on a wider pad than that used by the
microlaterolog, and survey current is focused deeper into the
formation. These design features result in measurements which
have less sensistivity to the mud cake. A caliper curve usually is
recorded simultaneously. Compare microlaterolog and
microspherically focused log.

pseudo- A weighting factor used for estimating uninvaded formation

geometrical factor resistivity from the response (Ra) recorded on a laterolog (or
guard log). True resistivity can be estimated from the
relationship
Ra = RxoJ + Rt(1 - J)
 where Rxo = flushed zone resistivity, Rt = uncontaminated zone
resistivity, and J = pseudo-geometrical factor, a function of
invasion depth. It must be emphasized that a pseudogeometrical
factor relating to an electrode-type resistivity device is applicable
in only one set of conditions, and therefore charts of this type are
not valid as general-purpose invaded-zone correction charts. The
most useful feature of such a chart is the graphic comparison it
allows of the relative contrihution of invaded zones to the
responses of the various tools. Compare geometrical factor.

pseudo-static SP PSP. Similar to static spontaneous potential (SSP), but applies to

measurement or calculation in dirty rock, whereas SSP refers to
that in clean rock. Compare SSP.

PSP See pseudo-static SP.

p.u. Porosity unit: one percent pore volume.

pulsator A device used in early electrical-resistivity well logging

instrumentation to pulsate (or alternate) the survey current and
measured signals.

pulsed neutron Neutron Lifetime Log, Thermal Decay Time Log, or Thermal
capture log Multigate Decay Log.

pulsed neutron A term with broad application. Includes all logs made while
log using neutron bursts or pulses. This term quite often is used in
referring to neutron decay time logs such as the Thermal Decay
Time Log, Neutron Lifetime Log, and Thermal Multigate Decay
Log. A neutron generator, which emits neutrons in controlled
cyclic pulses, is the source of radiation. The term also applies to
other nuclear logs where cyclic neutron pulses must be used;
e.g., some induced spectral gamma-ray logs.
pulse-height An instrument used to indicate the number of occurrences of
analyzer counter-output pulses falling within each of one or more
specified amplitude (i.e., energy) ranges; used to obtain the
energy spectrum of gamma radiations. It is possible to separate
and count the pulses corresponding to one or more specific
energy ranges which serve as an indicator of some specific
radioactive isotope in the formation. See also spectral gamma-
ray logging, induced spectral gamma-ray logging, and channel.

PVT analysis Abbreviation of pressure, volume, and temperature analysis.

P-wave compression wave.

pyrobitumen A dark-colored, hard, nonvolatile, native, asphaltic substance

which is infusible, is relatively insoluble in carbon disulfide, and
destructively decomposes with pyrolysis.
 Q Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form
without permission from SPWLA

q A term representing the fraction of clay occupying pore

space.Sometimes calculated by

where: φz represents the porosity of the framework ot the rock

and φe represents effective porosity.

quartz A hard mineral composed of silicon dioxide. A common

component in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.

quartzite A metamorphic rock composed of quartz which has been formed

by the metamorphism of sandstone.

quebracho (1) A tree in South America from which tannin is extracted.

(2) A thinning agent, tannin, used in drilling muds.

quick look, A preliminary, well site, computed well-log analysis.

quicklook
 R Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form
without permission from SPWLA

rack pipe To stand pipe on the derrick floor when coming out of the hole.

radial flow The flow of fluids into a wellbore from the surrounding drainage
area. Also, could be descriptive of the flow from an injection
well to the surrounding area.

radiation The emission and propagation of energy through space or matter,

distinguished by the fact that the speed of propagation equals
that of light and requires no intervening medium for its
transmission. Any form of energy propagated as rays, waves, or
streams of particles; especially light and other electromagnetic
waves, sound waves, and the emissions from radioactive
substances. See alpha particle, beta particle, gamma ray, neutron
generator, gamma ray source, and neutron source.

radioactive tracer A radioactive material put into a well to allow observation of

fluid or gas movements by means of a radioactive-tracer survey.

radioactive-tracer A form of radioactivity log used in production logging for the

log study of tracer movements and, therefore, fluid movements in
the immediate vicinity of the well bore (e.g., in casing. tubing,
annulus, open hole). Usually one or more slugs of radioactive
material are ejected into the fluid phase to be studied, and the
direction and velocity of the introduced slug is monitored over
different parts of the well bore. Tracer logs are helpful in
estimating fluid flowrates, points of fluid exit or entry into the
well bore, crossflow, leaks, etc.

radioactivity A property of unstable isotopes. which undergo spontaneous

atomic readjustment with the liberation of particles and/or
energy (e.g., alpha or beta particles, neutrons, and gamma rays).
Alpha and beta enmission change the chemical nature of the
 element involved. The loss of energy will result in the decay or
transformation of the unstable isotope into a stable isotope; or
transmutation into an isotope of another element, sometimes
giving rise to emission of neutrons.

The process of radioactive decay is one of conversion of mass to

energy in accordance with Einstein's relationship, E = mc2.
Nearly all of the energy of emitted particles and photons is
converted to heat in the near vicinity of the radioactive parent.
This is one means by which the temperature of the earth is
maintained.

radioactivity log A well log of natural or induced radiation. Usually refers to a

gamma-ray log; but, sometimes the expression radioactivity log
is used to refer to a density log, neutron log. or other nuclear
logs.

radioisotope A nuclide. A radioactive isotope (unstable isotope) which

spontaneously emits particulate (alpha beta) or electromagnetic
(gamma) radiation as it decays to a stable state.

radiometric grade Grade ore determined by radioactivity measurement in the

borehole
(Σgrade × thickness/ Σthickness). It is the weighted mean of the
grades, with the thickness of each grade taken as the weight.

rams (1) Heavy rubber seals in a blowout preventer which can be

closed to provide pressure control. One of three types – blind,
pipe, or shear – may be installed in several preventers mounted
in a stack on top of the wellbore.
(a) Blind rams, when closed, form a seal on a hole which
has no part of equipment extending through the blowout
preventer.
(b) Pipe rams, when closed, seal around any pipe
standing in the hole.
(c) Shear rams, cut through drill pipe and then form a
seal.

(2) Well-logging companies furnish blowout preventers with

 modified rams which can be closed down over logging cable to
provide pressure control. Will not damage cable.

Rankine A temperature scale with the degree interval of the Fahrenheit

temperature scale scale and the zero point at absolute zero. On the Rankine scale,
water freezes at 491.60° and boils at 671.69°. See absolute
temperature scale.

rate of ROP. The measured distance that the drill bit or other drilling
penetration tool penetrates subsurface formations in a unit length of time.

rathole (1) A hole in the rig floor 30 to 35 feet deep. Lined with casing
that projects above the floor into which the kelly is placed when
hoisting operations are in progress.

(2) A hole of a diameter smaller than the main hole. It is drilled

in the bottom of the main hole.

ratio (1) A mathematical relationship between two values, where one

value is divided by the other, commonly expressed as a fraction.

(2) In Thermal Decay Time Logging. A measurement recorded

with the Dual-Spacing Thermal Decay Time tool which is
derived from the counting rates of the two detectors. The ratio
measurement has characteristics similar to those of a neutron log
and for specific cases can be calibrated to serve as such. Used
with the measurement of the Thermal Decay Time tool, it
provides an apparent porosity and an apparent formation water
salinity, useful for cased-hole formation evaluation.

(3) With other dual-spaced radiation detector systems, it is the

count-rate ratio (of near to far detector) sometimes recorded with
two-detector tools such as the compensated neutron log.

Rayleigh wave A surface acoustic wave (propagated along a flat surface; e.g., a
ground surface) in which the particle motion is elliptical and
retrograde with respect to the direction of propagation. Rayleigh
 waves probably are induced by shear wave components and
result from differential velocities between the surface layer and
deeper layers within the medium.

RDB Rotary drill bushing.

reaction value See water analysis.

reading A value taken from a recorded curve for a specific depth in the
well.

ream To enlarge the wellbore by drilling it again with a special bit.

Often a rathole is reamed or opened to the same size as the main
wellhore.

reamer A tool used in drilling to smooth the wall of the borehole,

enlarge the hole to the specified size, stabilize the bit, straighten
the wellbore if kinks or doglegs are encountered, and drill
directionally. See ream.

receiver A transducer used to receive a form of energy which has been

propagated through the formation or induced in the formation.
Used in the acoustic logging, induction logging, induced
polarization methods, etc. Compare transmitter.

reciprocal sonde A sonde (and associated equipment) in which the current and
measure electrodes are interchanged according to a specific rule;
i.e., A electrode for M electrode and B electrode for N electrode
with no resulting change in logging measurements. An
unexplained exception may be the lateral curve in thick salt
sections.
reciprocator An electronic module designed for the reciprocation of
conductivity measurements into resistivity (e.g., induction
conductivity signals to resistivity).

record (1) A print of a well log.

(2) A sequence of data on magnetic tape.

recorder A device which records well-log data on film, chart, or tape. See
camera.

recovery (1) The amount of core recovered compared to the amount cut.

(2) The height of fluid in the drill pipe on a drill-stem test which
did not produce enough fluid to rise to tlme surface.

(3) The total volume of hydrocarbons that has been or is

anticipated to be produced from a well or field.

recovery factor The percentage of oil or gas in place in a reservoir that ultimately
can be withdrawn by primary and/or secondary techniques. The
percentage of the oil or gas in place (expressed in stock tank
barrels or in cubic feet) that will ultimately be recovered.

rectify An obsolete term meaning to adjust records on a borehole log for

true vertical depth. Logs in slant holes are usually recorded in
distance measured along the well bore, which makes them
difficult to correlate with other logs from other wells which
intersect the formations differently. This adjustment is necessary
in order to observe the true structural relationships between
corresponding strata in different wells. See true vertical depth.

redox logging The continuous measurement of the oxidation-reduction

 potential of formation penetrated by the well bore. Chemical
reactions depending on the transfer of protons and electrons
depend on the pH and Eh of the systems in which the reactions
cccur. A measurement of the oxidation-reduction potential is a
measurement of the tendency for such reactions to occur.

redox potential See oxidation-reduction potential.

red pattern A convention used in dipmeter interpretation to denote

increasing formation dip with increasing depth with a constant
average azimuth. The red color is sometimes drafted on the
tadpole plot of the computed dipmeter log. Compare blue pattern
and green pattern, See dip for illustration.

reef A type of reservoir composed of rock (usually limestone) formed

from the skeletal remains of marine plants and animals.

reference point (1) measure point. A mark or position on a tool to which all
measurements are related. A tool zero. See measure point.

(2) A depth datum.

reflection peak An increase in the value of resistivity recorded on a lateral curve

as the A electrode passes a thin highly resistive bed (of thickness
less than AO spacing). The recorded location of the reflection
peak is one AO spacing removed from the actual depth of the
thin resistive bed. See illustration under blind zone or lateral
curve.

reinjection The process of pumping produced water back into a porous and
permeable formation by means of an injection well.
relative bearing In dipmeter interpretation. Looking down the hole, it is the
clockwise azimuthal angle from the upper side of the tool to the
reference electrode number 1.

relative The ratio between the effective permeability to a given fluid at a

permeability partial saturation and the permeability at 100% saturation. The
ratio of the amount of a specific fluid that will flow at a given
saturation, in the presence of other fluids, to the amount that
would flow at a saturation of 100%, other factors remaining the
same. It ranges in value from zero at low saturation to 1.0 at
100% saturation of the specific fluid. Since different fluid phases
inhibit the flow of each other, the sum of the relative
permeabilities of all phases is always less than unity.

relief well A well drilled near and deflected into a well that is out of
control, making it possible to bring the wild well under control.

reluctance The characteristic of a magnetic circuit which determines the

total magnetic flux in the circuit when a given magnetomotive
force is applied.
repeat formation The repeat formation tester (RFT) is operated by an electrically
tester driven hydraulic system so that it can be set and retracted as
often as necessary to pressure test all zones of interest on one trip
in the well. Two separate fluid tests can also be taken on one
trip. Formation pressures are recorded at the surface in both
digital and analog form. See formation tester. RFT is a mark of
Schlumberger.

repeat section A log rerun over a short section of hole, generally 200 feet, to
enable comparison of similarity with the main survey to show
instrument stability and repeatability.

reserves The unproduced but recoverable oil or gas in place, in a

formation, that has been proved by production.
reservoir A subsurface, porous, permeable rock body in which oil or gas
or both can be stored. Most reservoir rocks are limestones,
dolomites, sandstones, or a combination of these. The three basic
types of hydrocarbon reservoirs are oil, gas, and condensate. An
oil reservoir generally contains three fluids: gas, oil, and water,
with oil the dominant product. In the typical oil reservoir, these
fluids occur in different phases as a result of the variation in their
gravities. Gas, the lightest, occupies the upper part of the
reservoir rocks; water, the lower part; and oil, the intermediate
section. In addition to occurring as a cap or in solution, gas may
accumulate independently of the oil. If so, the reservoir is called
a gas reservoir. Associated with the gas, in most instances, are
salt water and some oil. In a condensate reservoir, the
hydrocarbons may exist as a gas, but, when brought to the
surface, some of the heavier gases condense to a liquid or
condensate. At the surface, the hydrocarbons from a condensate
reservoir consist of gas and a high-gravity crude (i.e., the
condensate). Condensate wells are sometimes called gas-
condensate reservoirs.

reservoir-drive The natural energy by which reservoir fluids are caused to flow
mechanism out of the reservoir rock and into a wellbore. Solution-gas drives
depend on the fact that, as the reservoir is produced, pressure is
reduced, allowing the gas to expand and provide the driving
energy. Water-drive reservoirs depend on water pressure to force
the hydrocarbons out of the reservoir and into the wellbore.

reservoir pressure Formation pressure. The pressure found within a reservoir at a

specific point in time. Sometimes reservoir pressure is thought of
as original pressure or geopressure (prior to disturbance) but at
other times is thought of as pressure existing after disturbance.
Reservoir or formation pressure should be qualified as to time,
condition, and place.

reservoir The field average temperature encountered in the particular

temperature phase being investigated. In a liquid analysis of a reservoir
containing an extensive gas cap, it would be the average
temperature of the oil zone.
residual That which remains after a removal or displacement process.

residual oil Oil remaining in the reservoir rock after the flushing or invasion
process, or at the end of a specific recovery process or escape
process.

resistance (1) The opposition to the flow of direct current. Equal to the
voltage drop (E) across the material in which the current is
flowing divided by the current (I) flowing through the material.
See Ohm's law and IR drop. Also, see impedance.

(2) In fluid flow, see viscosity.

resistivity Specific resistance. The property of a material which resists the

flow of electrical current. The reciprocal of resistivity is
conductivity. See ohm meter. See also apparent resistivity.

resistivity index Rt/Ro. The ratio of the resistivity of a formation bearing

hydrocarbons to the resistivity it would have if 100% saturated
with formation water. See also Archie's formulas.

resistivity logs Any of a number of basic logs on which some aspect of

formation resistivity has been recorded.

(1) Most resistivity logs derive their readings from 10 to 100 ft3
of material about the sonde. See electrical survey, laterolog, and
induction log.

(2) microresistivity logs, on the other hand, derive their readings

from a few cubic inches of material near the borehole wall.

returns The drilling fluid, cuttings, etc. which circulate up the hole to the
surface.
reversal An interval of characteristic distortion on a normal curve across
a resistive bed which has a thickness less than the AM spacing.
The distortion is in the form of a depression of resistivity
opposite the bed and two small symmetrical peaks located to
either side of the depression outside the bed boundaries. The two
peaks are separated by a distance equal to the AM spacing plus
the bed thickness. The resistivity value of the depression is lower
than the actual bed resistivity and, therefore, is deceptive.

rig The derrick, drawworks, and attendant surface equipment of a

drilling or workover unit. See also rotary rig and platform.

rig down To dismantle equipment after the completion of an operation.

rig floor The area immediately around the rotary table and extending to
each corner of the derrick or mast. The area immediately above
the substructure on which the drawworks, rotary table, etc. rest.
rig up To prepare equipment for an operation.

riser Length(s) of pipe mounted between the wireline blowout

preventer and the stuffing box (or hydraulic packing head).
Sometimes long enough to enclose the entire downhole
instrument. Usually between 2 and 3 feet long. Should be
equipped with 2 in. outlet through which the well can be killed
or flowed if necessary. Under pressure, when broken cable
strands bunch up under glands in the stuffing box, the blowout
preventer can be closed and wires removed. If the downhole tool
assembly is too long to fit inside a short (2-3 ft riser), the
blowout preventer can be closed, the cable can be cut at a
specific distance measured from the blowout preventer and a
long riser with stuffing box installed. See illustration at
lubricator. Also compare marine drilling riser.

riser pipe See riser. Also see marine drilling riser.

roentgen The basic unit of gamma ray exposure. One roentgen is the
exposure resulting from the generation of one electrostatic unit
(esu) of charge per 0.001293 g (1 cm3 at STP) of dry air. A fixed
exposure rate exists at every point in space surrounding a source
of fixed intensity.

roller-cone bit A drilling bit made of three cones, or cutters, that are mounted
on extremely rugged bearings. They are also called rock bits.
The surface of each cone is made up of rows of steel teeth or
rows of tungsten carbide inserts.

ROP Abbreviation of rate of penetration.

rope socket A metal component that clamps some of the cable armor strands
at the tool end of the cable. It seats inside of the cable connector
or fishing neck to support the weight of the tool. By the number
of armor strands used, it can be made the weak point or pull-out
 point of the cable-to-tool mechanical connection. Sometimes
called cable clamp. See weak point.

rose diagram A polar plot or diagram in which radial distance indicates the
relative frequency of an observation at a certain azimuth. Used in
dipmeter interpretation. Compare azimuth frequency diagram.

rotary bushing See master bushing, also kelly bushing.

rotary drill RDB. See kelly bushing.

bushing

rotary drilling A drilling method in which a hole is drilled by a rotating bit to

which a downward force is applied. The bit is fastened to and
rotated by the drill stem, which also provides a passageway
through which the drilling fluid is circulated. Additional joints of
drill pipe are added as drilling progresses.

rotary rig A derrick equipped with rotary drilling equipment; ie., drilling
engines, draw works, rotary table, mud pumps, and auxiliary
equipment. A modern drilling unit capable of drilling a borehole
with a bit attached to a rotating column of steel pipe.

rotary table The rotating steel platform on the derrick floor with an opening
in the center through which the drill pipe and casing must pass.
The table is rotated by power transmitted from the drilling
engines. In drilling, the kelly bushing fits into the master bushing
of the table. As the table rotates, the kelly is turned, rotating the
drill column and the drill bit.

roughneck Roustabout, floorhand. Members of the drilling crew. The

driller's assistants who work on the derrick floor, in the derrick
 to rack pipe, tend the drilling engines and mud pumps, and
operate the pipe tongs.

roundtrip The action of pulling the drill pipe out of the hole and
subsequently running the pipe back into the hole to the same
depth. Roundtrips are made each time the drill bit is changed, for
example.

rugosity The quality of roughness or irregularity of a solid surface such as

the borehole wall. The measurements of logging tools which
must be held in close contact with the formation face (e.g.,
density and microresistivity logs) can be affected by rugosity.

run pipe To lower a string of casing into the hole.

S Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without
permission from SPWLA

salinity The concentration of ions in solution (sodium, potassium,

chloride, sulfate, etc.) See total dissolved solids and water
analysis.

salt base mud (1) In well logging, an aqueous drilling mud which is more
saline than the formation water.

(2) Salts are quite often used in drilling fluids in order to reduce
formation damage. These salts usually are sodium chloride or
potassium chloride. In which case, to prevent formation damage,
the salinity of the salt base mud may equal or may exceed
formation water salinity.

salt dome A dome that is formed by the intrusion of salt into overlying
sediments. A piercement salt dome is one that has pushed up so
that it penetrates the overlying sediments, leaving them
truncated. Formations above the salt plug are usually arched so
that they dip in all directions away from the center of the dome.
See also diapir.
salt water A water that contains a large quantity of salt. Brine.

saltwater disposal The method and system for the disposal of salt water produced
with crude oil. A typical system comprises the following:

• Collection centers (in which salt water from several wells

is gathered).
• Central treating plant (in which salt water is conditioned
to remove scale or corrosion forming substances).
• Disposal wells (in which treated salt waste is injected
into a suitable formation).

saltwater mud A drilling mud in which the water has appreciable amounts of
salt (usually sodium chloride) dissolved in it.
sample log A record of rock cuttings descriptions which is made as the
samples are brought to the surface by the drilling mud. This
record shows the characteristics of the rock strata which have
been penetrated by the bit.

sample taker See sidewall coring tool. Not to be confused with fluid sampler
or formation tester.

sand A detrital sediment composed of individual grains of sand

(commonly quartz) whether or not the sediment is consolidated.

sand control Any method by which large amounts of sand in a sandy

formation are prevented from entering the wellbore. Sand in the
wellbore can cause plugging and rapid wear of well equipment.
See gravel pack.

sand count (1) The total effective thickness of a permeable section

excluding shale streaks or other impermeable zones. Often
determined from electrical logs (SP curves and microlog).

(2) The number of separate permeable sands separated by

impermeable zones.

sand line (1) A wire line on a drilling rig often used to run or recover tools
inside the drill pipe.

(2) A line that can be drafted through the maximum deflections

on the SP curve for thick clean sands in a section where the
formation water has constant salinity.

sandstone A detrital, sedimentary rock composed of individual grains of

sand (commonly quartz) which have been bound together by
natural cementing materials precipitating in the interstices.
Common cements are silica, carbonates, and iron oxides.
saturated (1) Containing as much as it can contain under given conditions
of temperature and pressure, as in:

a. solid dissolved in liquid.

b. gas dissolved in liquid.
c. liquid dissolved in gas

(2) Filled to capacity, as fluid (liquid or gas) in formation.

(3) Reached the limit of its measuring capacity, as in electrical

instruments. The capability of an instrument to detect variations
is decreased as the measuring instrument nears saturation.

saturation (1) The fraction or percentage of the pore volume occupied by a

specific fluid (e.g., oil, gas, water, etc.). The fluids in the pore
spaces may be wetting or nonwetting. In most reservoirs, water
is the wetting phase, but a few reservoirs are known to be oil
wet. The wetting phase exists as an adhesive film on the solid
surfaces. At irreducible saturation of the wetting phase, the
nonwetting phase is usually continuous and is producible under a
pressure gradient to the well bore.

(2) The occupation of fluids in a pore may take different forms:

a. Funicular saturation. A form of saturation in which the

nonwetting phase exists as a continuous web throughout
the interstices. The nonwetting phase is mobile under the
influence of a hydrodynamic pressure gradient. The
wetting phase might or might not be at irreducible
saturation. In the illustration, the oil in the "A" figure is
funicular
b. Pendular saturation. The wetting phase exists in a
pendular form of saturation. An adhesive fluid film of the
wetting phase coats solid surfaces, grain-to-grain
contacts, and bridges fine interstices or pore throats. The
wetting phase might or might not be at irreducible
saturation. In the illustration, water in the "A" and "B"
figures is pendular.
c. Insular saturation. A form of saturation in which the
nonwetting phase exists as isolated insular globules
within the continuous wetting phase. A drop in pressure
might or might not cause the insular globules to collect
into a continuous phase. In the illustration oil in the "B"
 and "C" figures is insular.

saturation The exponent (n) of the saturation term in Archie's saturation

exponent equation (see Archie's formulas). The saturation exponent is
related to the influence of insulating fluids on the shape and
continuity of the electrically conductive solutions occupying
pore volume.

sawtooth SP When a very permeable salt-water sand containing shaly streaks

is invaded by fresh mud filtrate, the filtrate and saline interstitial
solutions tend to separate because of the difference between their
specific gravities. As a result, the filtrate tends to accumulate just
below the shaly streaks setting up an electrochemical cell which
causes the SP to develop a sawtooth appearance.
SBR (1) Side-bed resistivity or shoulder-bed resistivity.

(2) Often refers to the deconvolver setting on the surface panel

of some induction logging gear. Setting usually corresponds to
the shoulder-bed resistivity.

scale (1) Depth scale. Depth scales vary with locale and requirements.
Most single logs are recorded on two different films at once, and
the two films may optionally be on different depth scales. One
film may be for correlation and the other tor detailed
interpretation, or one may be for normal use and the other for
quick-look interpretation by the overlay technique.

In North America the depth scales for correlation use are: 1 or

2 in. of film per 100 ft. of hole (i.e., on a scale of 1:1200 or
1:600 in terms of feet of film per feet of hole). The usual scale
for detail use is: 5 in. of film per 100 ft. of hole (i.e., 1:240). An
expanded scale of 25 in. per l00 ft. (l:48) is available for close
scrutiny of short sections, and a special 60 in. per 100 ft. scale
(1:20) is used for dipmeter logs.

Most of the rest of the world uses decimal scaling (1:1000,

1:500, 1:200, 1:40, 1:20) based either on the foot or the meter.
Metric logs are easily identified by the fact that depth numbers
 appear at each 50-m. level, while logs scaled in feet have depth
numbers at each 100-ft. level.

(2) Grid scale type. Usualy linear, logarithmic, or split. Observe

illustration. The hybrid scale, which is not shown, was used
before the logarithmic scale for use with laterolog type surveys.

(3) Grid scale sensitivity. The scale on which the magnitude of

the measured signal is recorded. It corresponds to the value
given to the full-scale deflection of the galvanometer or pen, or
the width of one track (100 small divisions) on linear scales;
center or midscale (one-half width of one track = 50 small
divisions) on hybrid scales

(4) Chemical scale. A deposit that accumulates on solid surfaces

(e.g., casing. tubing, rock. etc.) or in perforations and other
apertures. It reduces fluid production from the formation.

scanning electron SEM. A type of electron microscope in which a fine beam of

microscope electrons systematically sweeps over the specimen to be
examined. The intensity of the secondary electrons generated at
the point of impact of the beam on the specimen is measured,
and the resulting signal is fed into a cathode-ray-tube display
which is scanned in synchronism with the scanning of the
specimen.

scattered gamma-
See density log.
ray log

Schmidt diagram A polar plot where the azimuth indicates dip or drift direction
and the distance from the origin indicates the dip or drift
magnitude. In the modified Schmidt diagram, used for plotting
low dips, zero dip is on the outside and dips become larger
toward the center of the diagram .

scintillation A flash of light produced in a phosphor by an ionization event.

See photoelectric absorption.
scintillation Used in the detection of gamma or neutron radiation. Consists of
counter both a detector of incident radiation and a photomultiplier to
produce countable pulses. The type of phosphor used as the
detector is dependent on the type of radiation (i.e., gamma ray or
neutron) to be detected. Gamma radiation produces scintillations
in the phosphor as a result of photoelectric absorption, Compton
scattering, or pair production, depending on the energy of the
incident gamma. The intensity of the scintillation and the
amplitude of the resulting pulse are proportional to the energy of
the incident neutron or gamma ray. Scintillation detectors are
efficient and can be made in small sizes. This results in high
vertical resolution. Scintillation detectors are used in
radioactivity logging, neutron logging, and pulsed neutron
logging. See also photomultiplier.

screen (1) A view screen on the camera or recorder. Part of the light
trace beamed from each galvanometer is reflected onto the
screen on a simulated grid. The curve responses of each log can
be observed on the screen during the survey operations.

(2) Filter screen.

screen analysis A means of quantifying the size and amount of particles by

passing the particles through screens whose openings gradually
decrease in size and measuring the amount remaining on each
screen.

sealed reservoir A reservoir of limited size. One from which the formation fluids
cannot escape because of a permeability barrier.

search interval Search angle. In dipmeter interpretation, a depth interval along

the borehole corresponding to anticipated maximum dips; e.g., if
dips are expected to be 45° or less, in an 8-in.-diameter hole
(radius equal to 4 inches) the search interval could be specified
as 4 in.
sea water The dissolved mineral matter in sea water is in the order of
magnitude of 35,000 ppm (3.5%). Has a specific gravlty of about
1.025 g/cm3.

secondary Post depositional porosity. Such porosity results from fractures,

porosity vugs, solution channels, diagenesis, dolomitization, etc. Three
common types of secondary porosity are: fracture porosity,
shrinkage porosity, and dissolution porosity. Compare primary
porosity.

secondary SPI. An estimate of the secondary porosity, calculated from

porosity index sonic log values in conjunction with either density or neutron log
values, or porosity resulting from a crossplot of density and
neutron porosities. If φD is the porosity calculated from a density
(or neutron) log and φS is the porosity calculated from a sonic
log, SPI is sometimes defined as (φD – φS) or (φcrossplot – φS)

secondary Recovery of petroleum oil from underground reservoirs by using

recovery secondary sources of energy, such as injected natural gas or
water to increase producing rates and to improve ultimate oil
recovery. Water injection, commonly known as water flooding,
usually affords higher recovery than gas injection. Gas injection
is generally limited to those reservoirs which have a gas cap and
in which gas cap expansion is expected to be an efficient natural
drive mechanism.

Although the terms "primary" and "secondary" imply a sequence

of use, both mechanisms might work concurrently once
secondary recovery is implemented. See also primary recovery
and tertiary recovery.

second curve A name given to the shallow investigation resistivity curve

appearing on electrical surveys in the 1930s and 1940s. See
discussion of this curve under electrical survey.

section gauge A caliper logging tool now obsolete.

sediment (1) Solid matter which has been transported from its source by
wind or water and then deposited.

(2) Solid matter which has been precipitated from solutions or

formed from skeletal remains or secretions of organisms.

sedimentary Descriptive term for rock formed of sediment, especially:

a. clastic rocks such as conglomerate, sandstone, and shales

formed of fragments of other rock transported from their
sources and deposited in water;
b. rocks formed by precipitation from solution, such as rock
salt and gypsum, or from secretions of organisms, such as
most limestone.

sedimentary basin A geologically depressed area with thick sediments in the

interior and thinner sediments at the outer boundaries.

seismic Pertaining to an earthquake or earth vibration, including those

which are artificially induced.

seismic That portion of the decrease in seismic signal strength with

attenuation distance not dependent on geometrical spreading. The decrease
depends on the physical characteristics of the transmitting media,
involving reflection, scattering, and absorption.

seismic Physical discontinuity within the earth separating materials in

discontinuity which seismic waves travel at significantly different velocities

seismograph A device which records vibrations in the earth, detected by

geophones, used in prospecting for probable oilbearing
 structures. Vibrations are created by discharging explosives in
shallow boreholes or by striking the ground surface with a heavy
blow. The type and velocity of the vibrations (as recorded by the
seismograph) indicate the general characteristics of the section of
earth through which the vibrations pass.

selective SP A technique, now obsolete, for determining the presence of a

thin permeable bed enclosed in a thick highly resistive
formation. The technique also permits the recording of an
approximation to the static SP. The method involves the
measurement of two curves by a sonde with a special electrode
arrangement. An SP measuring electrode is placed between two
potential-monitoring electrodes and two current electrodes in
symmetrical array. One curve is recorded with the SP electrode
while the potential-monitoring electrodes are maintained (by
current electrodes) at the static SP of shales, and the other curve
is recorded while the potentialmonitoring electrodes are
maintained at the static SP of permeable beds. A comparison of
the curves will reveal SP anomalies at the permeable beds, and
means to derive static SP. See SP and SSP.

self absorption See mass absorption.

self potential Spontaneous potential. See SP.

SEM See scanning electron microscope.

SEM A photograph of the image produced on the cathode-ray tube of

photomicrograph a scanning electron microscope. See scanning electron
microscope.

sensitivity The magnitude of the deflection of a curve in response to a

standard signal. The amplitude of the deflection is proportional
to the sensitivity.
separation (1) The difference observed between two different well-logging
measurements of the same or related parameters recorded or
plotted on the same log (e.g., porosities, formation factor curves,
etc.)

(2) The differences observed between two similar well logging

measurements, made at different depths of investigation,
recorded or plotted on the same log (e.g., resistivities, movable
oil plot, etc.).

set casing To run and cement casing at a specific depth in a well bore.

set pipe See set casing.

shadow zone See blind zone.

shale A fine grained, thinly laminated or fissile, detrital sedimentary

rock formed by the compaction and consolidation of clay, silt, or
mud. The composition is characterized by an appreciable content
of clay minerals, or derivatives from clay minerals, and a high
content of detrital quartz.

shale base line (1) A line drawn through the deflections characteristic of shale
on an SP curve, which is used as the reference in making
measurements to determine the characteristics of permeable
rocks and their formation waters.

(2) The characteristic of thick shale on the gamma-ray log or

other well logs.
shale-membrane
Shale potential. See electrochemical potential.
potential

shale oil See oil shale and kerogen.

shale potential Shale-membrane potential. See electrochemical potential.

shale shaker A vibrating screen for sifting out rock cuttings from drilling
mud. Drilling mud returning from downhole, carrying rock chips
in suspension. Flows over and through the mesh of the shale
 shaker leaving small fragments of rocks which can be collected
and examined for information about the formations being drilled.

shaly Pertaining to, composed of, containing, or having the properties

of shale, particularly the property to readily split along close-
spaced bedding planes.

shaped charge A high explosive with a lined cavity often used in gun
perforating operations. The jet produced by the detonation has a
very high velocity of about 30,000 feet/second. The jet can be
shaped by the controlled collapse designed into the shape of the
cavity and liner. The high energy of the jet is due to its high
velocity and the mass of the liner which becomes vaporized.

shape factor See porosity exponent.

shear modulus See elastic properties of rocks.

shear wave S-wave. In acoustics, a transverse wave. Direction of

propagation is perpendicular to direction of particle
displacement. For transmission of a shear wave, particles in
lateral motion must drag neighboring particles in similar lateral
motion. Substances which tend to oppose shear can support
propagation of a shear wave (i.e., rigid substances, solids).
Compare compression wave. See also acoustic wave.

shielded electrode See guarded electrode.

short (1) Short in dimension.

(2) Electrical short, short circuit.

short normal A resistivity curve made with a normal electrode configuration
curve in which the spacing between the A and M electrodes is short.
Usually the AM spacing is 16 inches. See normal device.

shoulder-bed Adjacent bed effect. Effect of adjacent beds on a well logging

effect measurement. The amount of the effect is related to the vertical
resolution of the measuring tool.

shut in To close the valves at the top of a well bore. To stop flow out of,
or injection into, a well bore.

shut-in Being in a static fluid flow state at the surface. All valves at the
wellhead having been closed.

shut-in bottom- The downhole pressure opposite a formation of interest when the
hole pressure valves at the surface (or downhole) are completely closed. The
pressure is transmitted by fluids which exist in a formation and
are in communication with the well bore.

shut-in pressure Pressure as recorded at the wellhead when the valve is closed
and the well is shut in.

shut-in-time The length of time elapsed since the fluid in the well bore was in
dynamic condition (as in production or injection).

side bed Shoulder bed. Adjacent bed.

side-door Similar to cable-guided overshot. Also cable guided, but has a

overshot side door through which cable passes. Cable runs alongside
fishing tools and drill pipe.

sidetrack To drill around broken drill pipe or casing, which has become
lodged permanently in the hole, by the use of a whipstock or
turbodrill. See also directional drilling.

sidewall acoustic A well log of the acoustic properties of rock made by a contact
log pad device which presses the acoustic transducers against the
formation wall. The span of the acoustic receivers is 6.0 inches,
producing a transit time curve with much sharper interface
resolution which aids recognition of thin, interbedded strata and
finding of lowangle fractures. The Sidewall Acoustic Log
(SWA) is a Dresser Atlas trademark.

sidewall core A formation sample obtained with a wireline tool from which a
hollow cylindrical bullet is fired into the formation and retrieved
by cables attached to the bullet. See sidewall coring tool.

sidewall coring A percussion-type device (i.e., gun) which can be attached to the
tool well-logging cable, provided with a means of accurately depth-
positioning the tool (SP or gamma-ray curve), which is used to
obtain formation samples. Hollow. cylindrical core barrels (i.e.,
bullets) can be shot in sequence, from the gun into the formation.
After each core barrel has been fired into the formation wall, it is
pulled free and retrieved by wires connecting the barrel to the
gun. Core barrels are available for penetrating formations of
different hardness. The type of barrel and size of charge are
varied to optimize recovery in different formations.
sidewall
epithermal See sidewall neutron log.
neutron log

sidewall neutron An epithermal neutron log made with the neutron source and
(porosity) log detector mounted in a skid which is pressed against the borehole
wall and may cut into the mud cake to minimize borehole
effects.

sidewall pad A wall contact pad. A measuring device mounted on the end of
an arm which proiects from the sonde body during the survey.
 Usually contains electrical measuring or detection equipment.
Eliminates much of the effects of the borehole by placing
measuring equipment in direct contact with the drilled face of the
formation. Compare skid.

sidewall sample A sidewall core.

siliceous Of or pertaining to silica, containing silica, or partaking of its

nature. Containing, abundant quartz.

sigma log See Thermal Multigate Decay Log.

sigma unit s.u., capture unit. See capture cross section.

signal (1) A meaningful response to a well-logging instrument which

can be detected or measured.

(2) A measurement by a well-logging instrument which conveys

the desired information as opposed to unwanted noise.

signature log A display of the acoustic wave train in the amplitude-time mode
wherein the amplitudes of the different acoustic wave forms are
shown as a function of time. See full wave train. Compare
intensity modulated-time.

single-point A resistance log (units = ohms) made from a monoelectrode or a

resistance log single downhole electrode. One electrode serves as both the A
and M electrodes. Since the electrode is short, thin beds and
laminations can be sharply delineated; but investigation depth is
very shallow. Usual application is in minerals exploration.
single-receiver Δt Single-receiver travel-time curve. A continuous record of the
curve travel time for acoustic energy to pass from a transmitter to a
single receiver separated by a specific distance (i.e., spacing).

sinker bar A specialized heavy weight, or series of weights, which can be

attached to some downhole logging-tool assemblies in order to
add the extra weight necessary for the tool(s) to descend properly
through heavy borehole fluids (muds).

skid (1) Usually, the projecting portion of the body of a sonde,

containing detection and measuring devices, which is pressed
firmly against the face of the formation with enough force to cut
into mud cake. This minimizes the effects of the borehole when
using shallow investigative svstems (i.e., density, sidewall
neutron techniques, etc.)

(2) Sometimes referred to as pad.

skid unit A self-contained instrument laboratory designed for well-loging

services. primarily on offshore rigs or barges.

skin A zone of reduced permeability around the well bore, resulting

from damage due to the drilling. completion, and/or production
practices. See also skin effect part (2).

skin depth As originally defined for the case of a metallic wire carrying an
alternating current, the skin depth is the distance into the wire at
which the current density is reduced to 1/e (or 37%) of its value
at the surface of the wire.

The term is retained in induction logging as a qualitative

indicator of how deeply the magnetic field penetrates into the
formation. However, because of the different geometry, the
magnetic field penetrates much deeper into the formation in
terms of skin depths than for the wire geometry. For the
frequency used by some induction logging sondes, one skin
depth in a formation of 1 ohm-m resistivity is 140 inches. Skin
 depth varies in direct proportion to the square root of the
resistivity. See skin effect part (1).

skin effect (1) In well logging. Sometimes called propagation effect. As

applied to induction logging, a reduction in the conductivity
reading (increase in the resistivity reading) observed in very
conductive media. A thick-bed correction for the effect is usually
provided in the instrument. Residual corrections. when needed in
thin beds, may be made by means of charts.

Simply stated, skin effect results from the interactions between

adjacent ground loops when, because of their high conductivity.
they carry induced currents of appreciable magnitudes. The
magnetic fields of the ground-loop currents induce additional
eddy currents in adjacent ground loops which are superimposed
on those induced by the transmitter coil field. The net result is to
nullify somewhat the magnetic field of the transmitter coil, and
the resultant field may be shifted in phase. The conductivity
signal seen at the receiver coils and the depth of investigation are
thereby decreased.

The term "skin effect" originated from the tendency in metallic

conductors for high-frequency alternating-current flow to be
concentrated near the surface or "in the skin" of the conductor.

(2) In pressure transient testing and analysis. Skin effect is the

additional resistance to fluid flow which causes an additional
pressure drop at the well bore and/or in the formation near the
well bore. The additional pressure drop is the result of some
form of damage occurring during the drilling, completion. and/or
production operations. Some factors which can cause this
alteration are: invasion by mud filtrate or whole mud; cement;
partially plugged perforations; movable fines; introduced
contaminants such as rust, pipe dope, etc. The zone where
permeability has been reduced by these factors creates an
additional pressure drop during production or injection and is
referred to as skin. The resulting effect is skin effect. The skin
factor reflects the effects of the additional pressure drop. A
positive value of the skin factor denotes formation damage. or
damage at the well bore. A negative value of skin effect can
result from man-made fractures or any form of stimulation which
increases the ease with which fluid can flow in the region
immediately surrounding the well bore.
skin factor The dimensionless van Everdingen Hurst skin factor which
accounts for the additional pressure drop assumed to occur at the
wellbore face as a result of wellbore damage, formation damage,
or stimulation. The skin factor can be positive when the pressure
drop has been increased by damage; or negative, when
improvement in fluid flow results from stimulation. See also skin
effect part (2).

skip See cycle skip.

Slant-hole A tradename for a method and system developed for obtaining a

Express number of well logs in highly deviated and bad boreholes. Drill
pipe is lowered to a predetermined well depth. The survey cable
is then threaded into a side-entry sub and attached to the cable
head. which in turn is attached to the subsurface instruments that
are to be lowered into the well through the drill pipe. The side-
entry sub is attached to the drill pipe.

Once all connections are made, the logging instruments, drill

pipe, and sub can be lowered to a predetermined depth by ad
ding nmore drill pipe above the sub. After the drill pipe has been
lowered to the desired depth, the logging instruments are
lowered or pumped out of the drill pipe to perfornm logging
operations.

The survey cable is now outside the drill pipe and extending
from the side-entry sub to the derrick floor. Mud circulation
through the drill pipe can be accomplished at any time during
operations.

Once the openhole logging is completed. the subsurface in

struments reenter the drill pipe and retrieval can be started.
Presently, the Induction Electrolog, compensated neutron log,
Compensated Densilog/caliper, BHC Acoustilog, gamma-ray
log, and Neutron Lifetime Log can be run on this system. Slant-
hole Express is a tradename of Dresser Atlas. See illustration at
high-angle borehole logging system.

slim-hole drilling A means of reducing the cost of a well by drilling a smaller-

diameter hole than is customary for the depth and the types of
formations to be drilled. A slim hole permits the scaling down of
all phases of the drilling and completion operations; i.e., smaller
 bits, less powerful and smaller rigs (engines pumps, draw
works), smaller pipe, and less drilling mud.

slippage velocity In a producing well, slippage velocity is the difference between

the upward velocities of the light and heavy fluid phases in two
phase flow.

slug (1) A quantity of radioactive material injected into the borehole

during radioactive tracer surveys.

(2) A solid mass of metal debris which results from the collapse
of the metallic liner during detonation of a shaped charge. The
slug follows the jet at about one-tenth the velocity of the jet.
Sometimes sufficient debris exists to partially plug perforations.

slug flow A fluid-flow condition in producing wells in which large bubbles

of the lighter fluid move upward faster than small ones and
aggregate to form larger bubbles or slugs which reach pipe
diameter.

small slam A log combination and computation procedure for calculating

the resistivity of the invaded zone, the true resistivity, the
diameter of invasion, and the water saturation based on a dual
induction-laterolog and a porosity log.

snorkel A hollow cylinder at the center of a wireline formation tester

pad, serving as the fluid sample intake device. It penetrates
unconsolidated formation during operation to avoid undermining
of the pad seal by the flowing sand (which is filtered out of the
sample intake by a filter in the snorkel).

Society of
Petroleum SPE. Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME. See AIME.
Engineers
Society of SPWLA. A society of 3800 persons (as of 1984) in over 60
Professional Well countries which was organized to advance the science of
Log Analysts formation evaluation through well-logging techniques. It was
organized on January 29, 1959 at Tulsa, Oklahoma; incorporated
December 14, 1959 in the State of Oklahoma; and has its
business office in Houston, Texas. The SPWLA conducts annual
symposia and publishes "The Log Analyst."

soft formation A friable, unconsolidated, or poorly consolidated sedimentary

rock.

soft rock See soft formation.

soft rock Used to distinguish between mining (hard rock) discipline and
discipline petroleum (soft rock) discipline.

software The programs and routines used to extend the capabilities of

computers.

solution A uniform mixture of two or more substances. The dissolved

substance is the solute. The substance in which the solute is
dissolved is the solvent.

solution gas Lighter hydrocarbons that exist as a liquid under reservoir

conditions, but become a gas when pressure is reduced as the
reservoir is produced. See solution-gas drive.

solution-gas drive A source of natural reservoir energy, in which the solution gas
coming out of the oil expands to force the oil into the wellbore.
solution gas-oil
See gas-oil ratio.
ratio

sonar A technique involving the measurement of the time interval

between the emission of a focused acoustic signal and detection
of the signal reflected from a distant surface. The time interval is
related to the distance to the reflecting surface. Used in liquids.

sonar caliper A logging tool used in solution caverns to determine cavern size.
Using the sonar principle, one or more rotating sound emitting
and receiving devices are used to record a 360° profile of the
cavern walls.

sonde A detachable probe or downhole tool. A downhole instrument

connected to a well-logging cable. Used in making
measurements of parameters related to the borehole or its
environment. A general term used for any subsurface logging
tool that carries electrodes, detectors, etc. into the borehole. The
cartridge, which consists of the electronics, might or might not
be an integral part of the sonde. The term "sonde" has been
modernized through use by some users to include the entire
downhole, detachable tool.

sonde error An unwanted portion of the total conductivity signal sent to the
surface by the downhole induction-logging instrument. The
sonde error is generated by imperfections in the coils in the
sonde. It is isolated and measured during the calibration
operation when the sonde is placed in a zero signal medium (air).
Once evaluated, it is cancelled during the survey operation. See
also diode error.

sonic log An acoustic log. A well-logging record of the travel time

(interval transit time) of the compression wave over a unit
distance: and hence, a record of the reciprocal of the
compressional wave velocity. The time for acoustic energy to
travel a distance through the formation equal to the distance
spanned by two receivers is the desired measurement. The units
of such measurement are usually expressed in microseconds per
foot. The interval transit time can be integrated to give the total
travel time over the logged interval. For the borehole
compensated sonic log, two transmitters (one above the receivers
and one below) are pulsed alternately to produce an improved
log; averaging the measurements tends to cancel errors due to
sonde tilt or changes in hole size.

The sonic log is used in combination with other logs (e.g.,

density and neutron) for porosity, shaliness, and lithology
interpretation. Integrated transit time is helpful in interpreting
seismic records. See acoustic log.
sonic t stretch, See interval transit-time stretch.
sonic Δt stretch
sour Containing hydrogen sulfide. or caused by hydrogen sulfide or
other sulfur compounds. Compare sweet.

source In well logging, the source of radiation used in the operation of

radioactivity logging or nuclear logging tools. A distinction
should be made between the encapsulated radiation sources of
gamma rays or neutrons and the neutron generator, also a
producer of radiation. Compare test pill.

SP Spontaneous potential, self potential. The difference of potential

(DC voltage) between a movable electrode in the borehole and a
distant reference electrode usually at the surface. The SP results
from the IR drop measurable in the borehole produced by the
flow of SP currents in the hole. These currents are generated by
the electrochemical and electrokinetic potentials.

In impermeable shales, the SP tends to follow a fairly constant

shale base line. In permeable formations, the deflection depends
on the contrast between the ion content of the formation water
and that of the following: drilling mud filtrate, the clay content,
the bed thickness and resistivity, hole size, invasion, and bed
boundary effects, etc. In thick, permeable, clean, nonshale
formations, the SP value approaches the fairly constant static SP
value which will change if the formation water salinity changes.
In dirty reservoir rocks, the SP will not reach the same value, and
a pseudo-static SP value will be recorded.

The SP is most useful when the mud is fresher than the

formation water, a good contrast exists between mud filtrate and
formation water resistivities, and formation resistivity is low to
moderate. In these cases, it indicates permeable beds by large
negative deflections, permits easy sand-shale discrimination, is
useful for correlations, and under favorable conditions, can be
used for the estimation of formation water resistivity.

The curve still remains useful in some saline muds. If the

formation water is less saline than the mud filtrate, the SP
deflection will be positive. However, when the mud column
becomes so conductive it will not support a demonstrable IR
drop, the SP curve becomes featureless. See electrochemical
potential, electrokinetic potential, SSP, activity, and differential
SP.
spacing The distance between certain electrodes or sensors on logging
tools. In nuclear devices, usually the distance from the source to
the detector. In acoustic devices, the spacing is the distance
between the transmitter and the nearest receiver in use. See also
span.

span The distance separating certain sensors on logging sondes. On

the acoustic sonde, the span is the distance between two
receivers of a pair, whereas spacing is the distance from
transmitter to the nearest receiver of interest.
SPE Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME. See AIME.

specific acoustic
See interval transit time.
time

specific activity The total radioactivity of a gram of a given isotope, expressed in

curies per gram.

specific gravity (1) Of solids or liquids, it is the ratio of the density of the
material at standard conditions of temperature and pressure to
the density of pure water under standard conditions.

(2) Of a gas, it is the ratio of the density of the specific gas at

standard conditions of temperature and pressure to the density of
dry air standard conditions.

specific heat The amount of heat required to cause a unit increase in

temperature in a unit mass of a substance, expressed as
numerically equal to the number of calories needed to raise the
temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1 degree C.

spectral gamma- Natural gamma-ray spectral log. Unstable isotopes emit

ray log particulate (alpha, beta) and electromagnetic (gamma) radiation.
Penetrating gamma rays are suitable for borehole detection.
Isotopes of specific elements radiate gamma rays exhibiting
specific energy levels within the energy spectrum. Identification
of the specific energy level(s) and the amount of gamma
radiation (at the specific level) provides a means of identifying
the isotope and the quantity of the element. Compare induced
spectral gamma-ray log.

spherically SFL. A log of formation resistivity measured by a tool developed

focused log for the limited investigation of the invaded zone.

Focusing is used to enforce an approximately spherical shape on

 the equipotential surfaces within the formation in spite of the
presence of the borehole. Borehole effect is virtually eliminated
for hole diameters up to 10 in., yet investigation of the tool is
kept shallow enough that its response is, in the majority of cases,
mostly from the invaded zone. SFL is a mark of Schlumberger.

spike Noise: A spurious, unwanted event recorded on a curve of a well

log.

spine-and-ribs A plot used in the computation of the compensation to be added

plot to the measured value of bulk density from the dual-spacing
formation density log; i.e., compensated formation density log.
The spine-and-ribs plot is a crossplot of the long-spacing
detector counting rate versus the short-spacing detector counting
rate. For small thicknesses of mud cake and other borehole
irregularities of small dimension, the slope of the line, passing
through the value for correct bulk density and the measured
values of density (from each detector), is virtually the same for
 the usual densities and thicknesses of intervening materials
separating the detectors and the formation wall. The importance
of this finding with dual-spacing density measuring systems is
that it provides a means for estimating the amount of correction
to be added to or subtracted from the measured response from
the long-spacing detector. Both the compensated density
measurement and the amount of compensation, Δρ, are then
recorded on the log. See compensated formation density log.

spinner A flowmeter. The downhole instrument consists of an impeller,

inside a protective cage, which is caused to rotate by the motion
of borehole fluid past the blades. An alternating current, or the
frequency of pulses, constitutes the signal sent to the surface and
is related to the rate of fluid flow pass the impeller. A survey is
made by moving the tool against the flow of fluid, with the flow,
or maintained stationary in the hole. Its primary use is in
monophasic flow streams.
spinner survey A well log of the fluid flow rate over parts of the well bore as
determined from responses of a spinner-type device placed in the
fluid flow stream (i.e., in casing or tubing, etc.)

spontaneous
See SP.
potential
SP reduction The ratio of PSP to SSP. Sometimes called alpha. See PSP and
factor SSP.

spud (1) With a well-logging tool, to raise the tool a short distance and
drop it repeatedly against minor obstructions in the hole in order
to reach greater depths in the borehole. An operation which
should be carried out only with care.

(2) With well-drilling equipment, to move the drill stem up and

down in the hole over a short distance without rotation in order
to clear ohstructions in the hole.

spud in To start actual drilling of the borehole.

spurt loss That quantity of mud filtrate which invades porous and
permeable rock, immediately following bit penetration of the
rock, while the effective permeability to the infiltrating phase
controls the fluid loss. Once an appreciable mud cake has
formed, the permeability of the mud cake is the fluid-loss
controlling factor.

SPWLA See Society of Professional Well Log Analysts.

squeeze The forcing of cement slurry by pressure to specified points in a

cementing well to cause seals at the points of squeeze. It is a secondary-
cementing method, used to isolate a producing formation, seal
off water, repair casing leaks, etc.

SSP Static spontaneous potential. The maximum SP that would be

recorded when the SP electrode passes from a position well
inside a very thick, porous, permeable clean sand (or other
reservoir rock) to a point well within a thick shale. The static
 spontaneous potential given by the sum of the components of the
electrochemical potential is:

SSP = –K log10(aw / amf) ,

where

and aw and amf are the activities of the formation water and mud
filtrate, respectively. Because of the inverse relationship between
activity and equivalent resistivity in dilute solutions, this
equation is approximated by

SSP = –K log10 (Rmfe / Rwe)

where Rmfe and Rwe are the equivalent resistivities of mud filtrate
and formation water, respectively. For NaCI solutions which are
not too saline, Rmfe = Rmf and Rwe = Rw; for more concentrated
solutions, an activity correction should be made. Since the static
SP in a sandstone is equal to the potential causing current (I) to
flow in a mud column of resistance (Rm), shale of resistance
(Rsh), and a sandstone of resistance (Rss), then

SSP = IRm + IRsh + IRss

where the measured SP is IRm.

standard STP. Standard conditions of temperature and pressure.

conditions According to American Gas Association, 60°F and 1 atmosphere
pressure (14.7 psia).

standard See standard conditions.

conditions of
temperature and
pressure

standard cubic
One cubic foot of gas at 60°F and l 4.7 psia.
foot of gas
standard In statistics. The positive square root of the expected value of the
deviation square of the difference between a random variable and its mean.
With a normal distribution of data, 68.3% of the data fall within
one standard deviation from the mean.

standoff (1) The distance separating a sonde from the wall of the
borehole.

(2) A device for producing the separation in (1). Compare

centralizer.

(3) In perforating, the distance a jet or bullet must travel in the

wellbore before encountering the wall of the formation.

stand of pipe A section of drill pipe or tubing (one, two, or three – sometimes
four joints) unscrewed from the string as a unit and racked in the
derrick. The height of the derrick determines the number of
joints that can be unscrewed in one "stand of pipe."

static (1) at rest, immobile.

(2) Noise sometimes appearing on well log curves.

static fluid level A misnomer; it means the level to which liquid rises in a well
when the well is shut in.

static mud Hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of the mud column.
column pressure

static spontaneous
Static SP. See SSP.
potential
static well The environmental conditions at any given level in the hole
conditions when the well is shut-in and crossflow does not exist.

statistical check A recording of the measured variable at a given depth in the hole
to determine the effect of statistical variations on the
measurement with time.

statistical
See statistical variations.
fluctuations

statistical Nuclear emissions are random in nature. Variations in the

variations number of specific nuclear emissions observed over a period of
time are referred to as statistical variations. Because of the
statistical nature of these emissions, radioactivity measurements
must be averaged over a length of time in order to determine the
representative level of radioactivity for the formation.

step Step distance in dipmeter computation process. Usually

expressed as a percentage of the correlation length. When the
computer has finished correlating the microresistivity data for a
given position of the "window," then the window is moved
uphole a specified distance and the entire process is repeated. A
customary step value is 50 percent. Thus, a 4-foot window would
be moved 2 feet, providing a 2-foot overlap.

step-out well A well drilled adjacent to a proven well, but located in an

unproven area, in order to determine the extent and boundaries
of a producing formation.

step profile An idealized invasion profile which assumes an abrupt transition

from the flushed zone to the uninvaded zone. Used as a
convenience in some interpretation processes where the diameter
of invasion is calculated in order to provide weighting factors for
responses from the flushed zone and uninvaded zone. Compare
transition profile.
stick plot A presentation of dipmeter results where the well bore is
represented by a line according to the projection of the well onto
a vertical plane, and the components of dip in this plane are
indicated by shore line segments.
stimulation Any process undertaken to improve production from a
subsurface formation. Stimulation may involve acid stimulation,
hydraulic fracturing, perforating, or simply cleaning out the well
and controlling sand production.

stock tank barrel STB. A 42-gallon barrel of crude oil at standard conditions of
temperature and pressure.

Stoneley wave A boundary acoustic wave as a liquid-solid interface (i.e.,

formation wall at the borehole) resulting from the interaction of
the compressional wave in the liquid and the shear wave in the
 solid. By definition, the Stoneley wave must have a wavelength
smaller than the borehole diameter. Particle motion in the solid
wall will be elliptical and retrograde similar to a Rayleigh wave.
The velocity of the Stoneley wave will be less than that of the
compressional wave in fluid or the shear wave in the solid. See
also tube wave.

STP See standard conditions.

strata Plural of stratum. See stratum.

Stratalogs Computer-processed interpretations produced at the well site.

Stratalogs is a Birdwell trademark. See computed log analysis.

stratification Refers to the vertical succession of unlike strata (layering of the

beds) penetrated by the well bore. The layers of strata can be
differentiated from one another by the difference in their well
log-derived properties caused by differences in composition,
porosity, resistivity, etc.

stratigraphic trap A type of reservoir capable of trapping oil or gas due to changes
in porosity and permeability or to the termination of the reservoir
bed.

stratigraphy A branch of geology concerned with the study of the origin,

composition, distribution, and succession of rock strata.

stratum A section of a formation that consists throughout of

approximately the same kind of rock material. A single
sedimentary bed or layer regardless of thickness.
streaming
See electrokinetic potential.
potential

stretch (1) See interval transit-time stretch.

(2) Survey cable stretch.

strike The direction or bearing of a horizontal line drawn on the plane

of a structural surface; e.g., inclined stratum, fault plane, etc. The
strike is perpendicular to the direction of dip. The bearing can be
referred to south or north; e.g., N 30° E or S 30° W.

strip log A record (often in colors and symbols) of the lithology

penetrated by a borehole, also indicating shows and tests of oil,
gas, etc.

strip over See cut-and-thread fishing technique.

stripper A line wiper for the removal of excess mud or oil from the
survey cable.
stripper well A well nearing depletion, producing a very small amount of oil.

structural (1) In the microscopic sense, it pertains to the framework of

rock. It refers to that rock material (called matrix by some log
analysts) which creates the load-bearing structure. The interstices
and other voids in the structure constitute porosity.

(2) In the megascopic sense, it pertains to large visible features

of rock.

structural trap A trap in reservoir rock which has been tormed by the
deformation (folding or faulting) of the rock layer. Anticlines,
salt domes, and faults of different kinds result in barriers which
form traps. See fault and fold.

stuck pipe Drill pipe, drill collars, casing, or tubing that has inadvertently
become lodged immovably in the hole. It may occur when
drilling is in progress, when casing is being run in the hole, or
when the drill pipe is being hoisted.

stuck point The depth in the hole at which the drill stem, tubing, or casing is
stuck.

stuffing box A pressure-control fitting which attaches to the top of riser

equipment. Contains rubber glands which can be closed down
around survey cable to form a fit capable of withstanding low
pressures at the wellhead. Cable can be moved when glands are
closed down on the cable. When glands cut out under pressure,
the blowout preventer can be closed on the line and the glands
replaced. Compare hydraulic packing head.

sub An adapter. A short device, usually threaded, which is used to

connect two pieces of equipment when their respective threads
(or other connectors) do not match.
substructure The sturdy structure upon which the derrick or mast is erected.
Substructures commonly are l0 to 30 feet high and provide space
beneath the derrick floor for blowout preventing equipment and
handling of circulated drilling fluid.

suction line The line that carries a product out of a tank to the suction side of
the pumps.

suction pit The mud pit from which mud is picked up by the suction of the
mud pumps. Also called a sump pit.

super-saturated A solution which contains more of the solute than is normally

present when equilibrium is established between the saturated
solution and undissolved solute.

surface casing The first string of casing set in a well after the conductor pipe,
varying in length from a few hundred to several thousand feet.
Some states require a minimum length to protect aquifiers
containing fresh water.

surface Electrical conductance occurring at the surfaces of some solid

conductance crystalline materials when they are exposed to aqueous solutions.

Ion exchange provides a mechanism of electrical conduction in

wet clay-like materials whereby the (usually positively charged)
ions move under the influence of an impressed electrical field
between "exchange sites" on the surfaces of the particles. See ion
exchange.

surface pipe See surface casing.

surface pressure The pressure in the well bore measured at the wellhead.

survey (1) To take and record borehole geophysical measurements; i.e.,

the act or performance of a well-logging operation. To a well log

(2) The result of a well-logging operation, a well log.

survey cable Logging cable, hoist cable. Contains one or more insulated
electrical conductors (often seven) enclosed in a tightly wrapped
sheath of steel wires (armor).

swab (1) A hollow, rubber-faced cylinder mounted on a hollow

mandrel with a pin joint on the upper end to connect to the swab
line. A check valve that opens upward on the lower end provides
a way to remove the fluid from the well when pressure is
insufficient to support flow.

(2) To operate a swab on a wireline to bring well fluids to the

surface when the well does not flow naturally. Swabbing is a
temporary means to produce a well in order to determine
whether or not the well can be made to flow. If the well does not
flow after being swabbed, a pump is installed as a permanent
lifting device to bring the oil to the surface.

S-wave See shear wave.

sweet Containing little or no hydrogen sulfide or sulfur compounds.

symbols Short forms or abbreviations used for identifying well-logging

parameters.

syncline A downwarped, trough-shaped configuration of folded, stratified

 rocks. The reverse of an anticline. See illustration in fold.

Synergetic Synergistic. Coined from the word synergism. Webster's

definition of synergism: cooperative action of discrete agencies
such that the total effect is greater than the sum of two or more
effects taken independently. A Synergetic log analysis is a
computed log analysis performed at a computer center.
Synergetic is a mark of Schlumberger.

synthetic A one-dimensional seismic trace constructed from contrasts in

seismogram velocity or acoustic impedance derived from acoustic transit time
logs and/or density logs from a well. The reflection coefficients
calculated (at equal intervals of reflection times) from these
values are convolved with a typical seismic wavelet to produce
the synthetic seismic trace, which may include time-varying
filtering, amplitude, and multiple content. It is an excellent
medium to correlate well logs to the seismic field record. Errors
in integrated transit time must be corrected by using data from a
check shot survey or by correlation to the field seismic record
section.
T Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without
permission from SPWLA

tadpole plot An arrow plot. A plot of dipmeter or drift results where the dip angle
is plotted versus depth as the displacement of a dot. A line segment
points from the dot in the direction of dip using the usual map
convention of north being at the top. Sometimes called a vector plot.

tail (1) Log tail. A short form appended to the well log, containing vital
information to identify the well and curve scales.
(2) Calibration tail. An appendage to the well log which contains all
recorded calibration information for the survey.
(3) Any other appended information or record (e.g., repeat section).

tar A naturally occurring black, viscous, residual crude oil containing a

large quantity of polar compounds and asphaltines.

tar sand Native asphalt, solid and semi-solid bitumen, including tar-
impregnated rock or sands from which oil is recoverable by special
treatment.

tattle-tale See minute-mark.

TC See time constant.

TD Total depth.

TDS Total dissolved solids. Reported in either ppm or mg/liter. See parts
per million.

tectonic Of, pertaining to, or designating the rock structure and external
forms resulting from the deformation of the earth's crust.

televiewer See borehole televiewer.

telluric currents Earth currents. The term usually refers to natural earth currents
originating as a result of variations in the earth's magnetic field.
Sometimes the term is applied also to earth currents resulting from
artificial electric or magnetic fields.

As applied to well logging, a component of telluric current along the

borehole may produce an undesired variable voltage between
measure and ground electrodes which is superimposed on the SP.
Such interference is easily detected by holding the sonde stationary
in the hole and observing whether the SP voltage continues to vary.
The greatest interference is likely to occur in regions of high
magnetic activity and for large formation-resistivity to mud-
resistivity ratios. In some instances, moving the ground electrode
improves the situation. When interference is severe, it may be
necessary to forego recording the usual SP curve and record, instead,
a differential SP between two electrodes on the downhole
configuration.

Telluric currents may create problems on resistivity measurements

with large spacings and at very low frequencies (e.g., the ultra-long-
spaced electrical log).
temperature A manifestation of the average translational kinetic energy of the
molecules of a substance caused by ther mal agitation. See absolute
temperature scale, centigrade scale, and Fahrenheit scale.

temperature Thermal gradient. Compare geothermal gradient.

gradient

temperature log A well log of temperatures recorded within the borehole, utilizing a
temperature-sensitive element exposed to wellbore fluid. The
temperature survey is often used to locate permeable gas producing
zones in empty holes, and to locate producing or injection intervals,
acid treatment in tervals, and casing leaks, crossflows, etc. in cased
holes. The differential temperature survey, recorded with either one
or two temperature sensors, records the rate of change in temperature
with respect to depth. It is very sensitive to small changes in
temperature resulting from small thermal events.

terrain correction A correction to borehole gravity data required because the

surroundings are not all at the same elevation as the wellhead. Relief
in the immediate vicinity of the well may require special surveying.
Corrections for relief more remote from the well often are made
from a topographic map.

tertiary recovery Recovery methods which increase ultimate oil production beyond
that achievable with primary and secondary methods. These methods
are usually employed in the latter stages of conventional secondary
flooding applications, but may be implemented early in the
secondary application or in combination with the secondary method.
These oil recovery methods enhance the production of oil by
increasing the proportion of the reservoir affected, reducing the
amount of residual oil in the swept zones and reducing the viscosity
of thick oils.

The tertiary methods usually are divided into three broad groups:
thermal, miscible and chemical. See also primary and secondary
recovery.
test film A short film documenting the calibration procedure. See calibration
tail.

test loop Calibration loop. A device used to calibrate induction logging tools.
A test loop is an artificial ground loop which consists of a
continuous loop (i.e., ring) of electrically conductive material
containing a series connected precision resistor. The purpose of the
loop is to provide a precise, calibrated, repeatable signal in the
induction receiver coils when it is placed over the measure point of
the activated tool in a zero signal medium (i.e., air). See induction
log.

test pill Calibration source. An encapsulated radioactive material which

serves as a portable source of gamma radiation for the calibration of
some radioactivity logging tools.

test set A volt-ohmmeter used by all logging crews for troubleshooting and
checking insulation and continuity of the conductors in the survey
cable and for making simple electrical checks on other equipment.

thermal A measure of the ability of a material to conduct heat. The time-rate-

conductivity of-transfer of heat by conduction, through unit thickness, across unit
area for unit difference in temperature.

thermal decay time The time for the neutron population to fall to 1/e (37%) of its
original value. When the macroscopic capture cross section, Σ, is in
capture units (1 c.u. = 10–3 cm–1) and τ is in microseconds, Σ and τ
are related by Σ = 4,550/τ.

Thermal (Neutron) TDT. The Thermal Decay Time Log is a record of the rate of capture
Decay Time Log of thermal neutrons in a portion of formation after it is bombarded
with a burst of 14-MeV neutrons. An electronic neutron generator in
the tool produces pulses of neutrons which spread into the borehole
and formation.

The neutrons are quickly slowed down to thermal energies by

successive collisions with atomic nuclei of elements in the
surrounding media. The thermalized neutrons are gradually captured
by elements within the neutron cloud, and, with each capture,
gamma rays are emitted. The rate at which these neutrons are
captured depends on the nuclear capture cross sections which are
characteristic of the elements making up the formation and
occupying its pore volume. The gamma rays of capture which are
emitted are counted at one or more detectors in the sonde during
different time gates following the burst, and from these counts the
rate of neutron decay is automatically computed. One of the results
displayed is the thermal decay time, τ, which is related to the
macroscopic capture cross section of the formation, Σ, which is also
displayed.

Because chlorine is by far the strongest neutron absorber of the

common earth elements, the response of the tool is determined
primarily by the chlorine present (as sodium chloride) in the
formation water. Like the resistivity log, therefore, the measured
response is sensitive to the salinity and amount of formation water
present in the pore volume. The response is relatively unaffected by
the usual borehole and casing sizes encountered over pay zones.
Consequently, when formation water salinity permits, Thermal
Decay Time logging provides a means to recognize the presence of
hydrocarbons in formations which have been cased, and to detect
changes in water saturation during the production life of the well.
The TDT log is useful for the evaluation of oil wells, for diagnosing
production problems, and for monitoring reservoir performance.

The TDT-K system utilizes two detectors and two variable time
gates (plus a background gate) to sample the capture gamma
radiation decay following the neutron burst. The width and positions
of the time gates. as well as the neutron burst width and burst
repetition rate, are varied in response to signals that are related to Σ
(or more precisely, related to the formation decay rate, τ, where
τ = 4550/Σ).

The TDT-M system utilizes sixteen time gates and one of four
possible neutron burst widths and burst repetition rates. Counts from
the sixteen gates are combined to form two "sum" gates (plus a
background gate) from which Σ is computed. As in the TDT-K
system, the combination of gates used to form the "sum" gates, as
well as the burst width and repetition rate, are selected according to
Σ (or τ) of the formation.

The ratio of counts (R) in the near-spaced to far-spaced detector is

recorded and used as an estimate of formation porosity. TDT is a
 mark of Schlumberger.

thermal diffusivity Coefficient of thermal diffusion. A thermal property of matter, with

the dimensions of area per unit time.

thermal expansion The volumetric change in a unit volume of material when the
temperature is increased. Thermal expansion and thermal contraction
have different bases and are not numerically equal.

thermal gradient The rate of increase or decrease in temperature with distance in a

given direction. Compare geothermal gradient.

Thermal Multigate TMD. A record of the macroscopic thermal neutron cross sections of
Decay Log the formation (ΣF) and the borehole (ΣB).
B

An electronic neutron generator produces bursts of pulses of 14-

 MeV neutrons which spread into the formation and borehole.
Following each burst, the neutrons are quickly slowed to thermal
energies by successive collisions with nuclei in the surrounding
media. The thermalized neutrons are then captured by elements
within the formation and borehole, producing gamma radiation.
Gamma radiation intensity is sampled in two detectors at six time
intervals (time gates) following each burst. These data are used to
compute ΣF and ΣB Also, the ratio (R) of counts in the near-spaced to
B

far-spaced detector is recorded and used to estimate formation

porosity.

Of the common earth elements, chlorine is by far the strongest

neutron absorber and is found mainly in the formation water (as
sodium chloride) rather than in the formation matrix. ΣF primarily a
function of the salinity and amounts of water present in the pore
volume. Therefore, ΣF is used with porosity from R to compute
formation hydrocarbon saturation if the formation water is saline.
The ΣF curve is relatively unaffected by casing and tubing. ΣB is used
B

with ΣF to obtain a very accurate true (intrinsic) formation cross

section and an improved porosity estimate. In addition, ΣB can
B

indicate a variety of well bore conditions such as gas between the

tubing and casing, and oil-water contacts. Thermal Multigate Decay
Log (TMD) is a Welex trademark.

thermal neutron A neutron which has the kinetic energy of about 0.025 eV. The
thermal neutron is in thermal equilibrium with the substance in
which it exists and will neither gain nor lose energy statistically until
it is captured by a neutron absorber. See neutron and capture cross
section. Compare epithermal neutron.

thermal relaxation In nuclear magnetism logging. The rate of polarization buildup as a

time function of polarizing time.

thermistor A resistor (usually a composite semiconductor) with a large

temperature coefficient of resistance that is useful for measuring
temperature.

thermocouple An electrical circuit consisting of dissimilar metals joined or welded

at two junctions. A potential difference is developed between the
 junctions if they are at different temperatures.

thief zone Thief formation. A part of a formation which takes drilling mud after
it has been penetrated by the borehole. This loss of mud into the
formation constitutes lost returns and could result in lost circulation.

third curve A name given to the medium resistivity investigation curve

appearing on electrical surveys in the 1930s and 1940s. See further
discussion of this curve under electrical survey.

thixotropy The property exhibited by various gels which allows them to become
fluid when agitated, and of setting again to a gel when allowed to
stand. Drilling muds are often thixotropic.

thumper A hydraulically operated hammer used in obtaining a seismograph in

oil exploration. It is mounted on a vehicle and, when dropped,
creates shock waves in subsurface formations, which are recorded
and interpreted to reveal geophysical information.

tic-mark A mark on a well log indicating equal cumulative values of hole

volume, travel time, etc.

tidal correction Tidal corrections to gravity observations are required because of

variations resulting from the attraction of the moon and sun and the
distortion of the earth so produced. Corrections are determined from
tables or computer programs.

tight Having very low permeability.

tight hole (1) A well about which information is restricted and passed only to
 those authorized, for security and competitive reasons.

(2) A small-diameter part of the borehole which causes downhole

logging tools to hang up.

time-average An empirical expression used for calculating porosity from interval

relationship transit time determined from acoustic logs:

where t = observed interval transit time, tf = transit time in the pore

fluid, and tma = transit time in the rock matrix. This relation works
well in clean consolidated formations with uniformly distributed
pores. In vuggy formations, the sonic log may not reflect the
secondary porosity; and in unconsolidated formations, this
relationship may overestimate porosity. In such cases, the formula
may be empirically modified to give better values.

time constant (1) The time in seconds for a measuring instrument to register a 63%
change from a former level of response toward a new level of
response.
(2) In nuclear logging, because of the random nature of nuclear
emissions, the detector output is averaged over a selected time
interval in order to record the representative radiation level of the
environment. Instrument response will thus adjust gradually to
environmental changes depending on the length of the averaging
time (i.e., time constant). See also lag.

time-depth TDI. See transit-time integration.

integration

time-since- The length of time elapsed after circulation has ceased until the
circulation logging tool reaches total depth in the well. Maximum temperature
in the well is presumed to be registered on the maximum-reading
thermometer at the deepest depth.
tool Downhole tool or downhole instrument package. A complete
subsurface service device. A number of tools can be run
simultaneously as a combination service. The combination of tools
will also be a tool. When sonde and cartridge designations are used,
the term tool includes the combined sonde and cartridge.

tool error See sonde error.

toolpusher A contractor representative in the field. The toolpusher supervises

the driller and the drilling crew.

Toolpusher A specially designed system for use in highly deviated and bad holes
which will mechanically position a stack of conventional-type
logging devices opposite the zones or formations of interest. The
Toolpusher uses drill pipe to push the logging devices to the desired
depths in the well.

Once the tools have been assembled, they are lowered into the well
on drill pipe until the top of the zone of interest is reached. At this
point, a side entry sub is made up into the drill string through which
the wireline is inserted and lowered to the latch assembly at the top
of the tool stack. Its positive connection is ensured by applying
tension to the wireline. The side entry sub is sealed. the hook and
rotary table locked, (to minimize pipe rotation) and the drill string
lowered until the tools are positioned at the bottom of the zone of
interest. The wireline can be pumped down if necessary. Once in
logging position. the compensated density tool is positioned with the
rotary table such that an extendable pad on the tool contacts the high
or low side of the hole.

The zone of interest is logged as the pipe is pulled out of the hole in
single or multiple joints. Log data is multiplexed through a single
conductor to the surface. When the zone of interest has been logged,
tension is removed from the wireline releasing it from the latch. The
wireline is recovered leaving the drilling crew a conventional trip out
of the hole.

The logging devices available for use with the Toolpusher are: dual
induction laterolog, compensated density, gamma ray, compensated
neutron, and directional survey package. The Toolpusher is a
Gearhart Industries trademark.
torpedo A quick-connecting and quick-disconnecting device, mounted near
the head end of the survey cable. which provides strength and the
means to manually connect electrical survey conductors to the bridle
and head.

tortuosity The crookedness of the pore pattern. The ratio of the distance
between two points by way of the connected pores to the straight-
line distance.

total depth TD. (1) The total depth reached by drilling tools.

(2) The total depth in the well reached by a specific logging tool.

total dissolved TDS. The total dissolved mineral matter in water (e.g., formation
solids water). Usually measured in mg/liter and often reported in parts per
million, sometimes in grains per gallon. May vary from a few
hundred ppm to 300,000 ppm in oil field brines. Has been reported
as high as 642,798 ppm (sp. gr. 1.458) in brine from the Salina
dolomite (Silurian) in Michigan. Sea water usually has about
35,000 ppm. See also water analysis.

total porosity The total pore volume occupied by fluid in a rock. Includes isolated
nonconnecting pores and volume occupied by adsorbed, immobile
fluid. See porosity. Compare effective porosity.

trace (1) A curve on a well log.

(2) To follow, locate, and monitor the behavior of a slug of

radioactive material. See radioactive-tracer log.

tracer A substance added to reservoir fluid and/or injected fluid to permit

the movements of the fluid to be followed or traced. Dyes and
 radioactive substances are used as tracers in underground water
flows, and sometimes helium is used in gas. When samples of the
water or gas taken some distance from the point of injection reveal
signs of the tracer, the route of the fluids can be mapped.
Radioactive tracers are used in injection fluids to follow the
movement of the injected fluids in the well bore.

tracer log Tracer survey. A well log used for the purpose of following,
locating, or monitoring the behavior of a traceable material (e.g.,
radioactive isotope, boron, etc.). See also radioactive-tracer log.

track (1) Well log track on the API log grid. Holding the well log
vertically so that the top of the well appears at the top of the log,

Track = Log track on the left side of the log. Left of the depth
1 column.
Track = Log track to the immediate right of the depth column
2 and in the middle of the log.
Track = Log track on the far right side of the log.
3

See scale for illustration.

(2) Follow parallel or nearly parallel.

transducer Any device or element which converts an input signal into an output
signal of a different form. For example, an electrical device which
receives and transforms electrical energy into another form, such as
magnetostrictive material and winding used in acoustic transmitters
and receivers.

transition profile A realistic profile in which the distribution of fluids in the invaded
section beyond the flushed zone varies with increasing distance from
the borehole. Compare step profile.
transition zone A zone of transitional saturations between water and gas, water and
oil, or gas and oil. The transitional zone between oil and water in a
water wet rock, for example, will be that length of formation where
water will be at its lowest saturation at the top and oil will be at its
lowest saturation at the bottom. In this example, virtually l00% oil
wouldbe produced at the top of the transition zone, and virtually
l00% water would be produced at the bottom.

transit time See interval transit time.

transit-time TTI. Sonic interval transit time, t, is integrated over depth to yield
integration total travel time. Tic-marks are placed on the acoustic log at depth
intervals corresponding to total travel time increments of 1000 µs, or
1 ms each. These tic-marks may be used to determine acoustic travel
time.

transmitter A transducer. A device which emits energy into the environment of

the logging instrument. Used in acoustic logs, induction logs, etc.
Compare receiver.

transmutation The process which results in the change ot an isotope of one element
into an isotope of a different element by the emission of energy
during spontaneous radioactive decay or the absorption of energy
during activation.

transverse wave Shear wave.

trap Any feature or characteristic of a formation which will allow the

accumulation, but not the escape, of oil or gas. See structural trap
and stratigraphic trap.

traveling block The large, heavy-duty block hanging in the mast or derrick and to
 which the hook is attached. The traveling block supports the drill
column and "travels" up and down as it hoists the pipe out of the
hole and lowers it in. The traveling block may contain from three to
six sheaves depending upon the loads to be handled and the
mechanical advantage necessary. The cable from the hoisting drum
on the drawworks runs to the derrick's crown block and down to the
traveling block's sheaves.

travel time Acoustic travel time over a specific distance. For example, travel
time may refer to interval transit time or to integrated transit time.

treat To subject a substance to a process or to a chemical reagent to

improve its quality or remove a contaminant.

trip See roundtrip.

true bed thickness See bed thickness, and illustration at true vertical depth.

true resistivity The resistivity of fluid-filled rock where the fluid distributions and
saturations are representative of those in the uninvaded, undisturbed
part of the rock

true vertical depth TVD. The vertical distance between a specific location in a borehole
and a horizontal plane passing through the depth datum. It is
determined from directional surveys.

true vertical depth A log computed from well logs obtained in deviated holes, in which
log measured depths have been converted to true vertical depths.
trumpet log A microlaterolog, in which the bucking electrodes are concentric
about the current electrode so that the current flow is concentrated in
a tube shape which gradually flares out.

tube wave A Stoneley-type acoustic wave which has a wavelength in excess of

five times the diameter of the borehole. The velocity of tube waves,
or Stoneley waves, is less than that of the compressional wave in
fluid or the shear wave in the solid. See Stoneley wave.

tubing A small-diameter pipe that is run into a well to serve as a conduit for
the passage of oil and gas to the surface.

tubing head A flanged fitting that supports the tubing string, seals off pressure
between the casing and the outside of the tubing, and provides a
connection that supports the Christmas tree.

tubing pressure The pressure inside the tubing in a well measured at the wellhead.

tuff Unconsolidated pyroclastic rock. Rock formed of compacted

volcanic fragments, generally smaller than 4 mm in diameter.

turbidite A sediment deposited by a turbidity current. See turbidity current.

turbidity current A highly turbid, sediment-rich. dense current which moves rapidly
along the bottom of standing water until it loses its energy.

turbodrill A drilling tool that rotates a bit attached to it by the action of the
drilling mud on the turbine blades built into the tool. When a
turbodrill is used, rotary motion is imparted only at the bit; thus it is
unnecessary to rotate the drill stem. Although straight holes can be
 drilled with the tool, it is used most often in directional drilling.

turbulent flow The high-velocity flow of fluids in which the fluid elements are
heterogeneously mixed and confused, and local velocities and
pressures fluctuate irregularly. Compare laminar flow.

turnkey contract A drilling contract which calls for the payment of a stipulated
amount to the drilling contractor on completion of the well. In a
turnkey contract, the contractor furnishes all material and labor and
controls the entire drilling operation. independent of supervision by
the operator.

TVD See true vertical depth.

U Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without
permission from SPWLA

ULSEL Ultra-long-spaced electric log.

ultra-long-spaced ULSEL. A well log recorded with the use of a modified long
electric log normal electrode configuration mounted on a 5,000-foot bridle.
The AM spacing can be made 75, 150, 600, or 1,000 feet.
Differences between the measured resistivities and anticipated
resistivities calculated from conventional resistivity logs indicate
nearby resistivity anomalies. Used to define the distance to a salt
dome flank. May have important application in locating salt
overhangs or casing in nearby well bores.

unconformity A surface of erosion which separates older sediment from

younger sediment. Compare nonconformity.

unconsolidated Pertains to a rock framework which lacks rigidity. Cohesiveness

is lacking because of the absence of cement or other binding
means. Compare consolidated.

underpressure : An expression which has been used commonly to refer to low

pressure found in some formations, subnormal pressure.
Technically, it should be said that underpressure is that amount
of pressure by which normal pore pressure exceeds the pore
pressure of an underpressured formation. Pore pressure lower
than normal pore pressure can occur in a bed of interest when the
water solution filling the pores of the body are in communication
with an outcrop at an elevation lower than the water table at the
well site. More commonly, underpressure results from prior
production from a zone.

unit The producing venture, covered by several leases owned by

different companies, which is operated by one company. See
also unit operator.
unit operator The producing company which is in charge of development and
production of an oil or gas field in which several companies have
joined together to produce.

up time See lag time.

U.S. Geological USGS. The U.S. Geological Survey, an arm of the U.S.
Survey Department of the Interior, is the principal federal agency
concerned with preparing accurate maps of the physical features
of the country and providing scientific information essential to
the development of the nation's land, mineral, and water
resources. It is recognized as one of the world's foremost
research organizations in the earth sciences.

1. It makes maps:
o Topographic maps, showing accurately the shape
of the land surface and the location of natural and
man made features – hills, valleys, streams, lakes,
highways, trails, buildings, etc.
o Hydrologic maps, showing the availability and
quality of water.
o Geologic maps, showing the types, ages, and
configurations of rock formations that lie at and
beneath the earth's surface.
o A variety of outline maps, mineral-resource maps,
geophysical maps, state base maps, and many
others.
2. It studies the earth's processes that may be hazardous to
man and his works, such as earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, and floods, in an attempt to understand how
these processes operate, and hence how their destructive
effects may be reduced or prevented.
3. It develops new prospecting techniques that can be used
by industry in its continuing search for mineral resources.
4. It studies the natural processes that form deposits of
valuable minerals. because knowing why certain kinds of
mineral resources are formed in certain locations or in
certain kinds of rocks may provide clues that will help to
find new mineral resources now hidden beneath the
earth's surface.
5. It takes a continuing inventory of the nation's water
resources and studies areas that have special water
 problems.
6. It classifies federally owned lands for mineral and water
power potential.
7. It does fundamental research in topography, geology,
hydrology, geochemistry, geophysics, and related
sciences.
8. It publishes maps and reports to make the results of these
investigations available to the public.

USGS See U.S. Geological Survey.

 V Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form
without permission from SPWLA

vapor dominated A geothermal system in which pressures are controlled by vapor

rather than by liquids.

vaporization The process by which a liquid is converted into vapor.

vapor pressure The pressure at which a liquid and its vapor are in equilibrium at
a given temperature.

variable density Variable intensity. Intensity modulated-time presentation of the

acoustic wave train in which the amplitude of the wave form
produces a variable photographic density which is displayed
versus time. The variations in darkness or density represent
relative amplitude. See intensity modulated-time and acoustic
log. Compare amplitude-time. See illustration at wave train
display.

variable density An acoustic log in which the acoustic wave train is recorded in
log the variable photographic density or intensity modulated-time
mode. See illustration at wave train display.

variable intensity Variable density. An intensity modulated-time mode of acoustic

wave train display .

vector plot Arrowplot. See tadpole plot.

velocimeter A device which measures fluid flow; a flowmeter.

vertical (1) an imaginary line perpendicular (at an angle of 90°) to the
plane of the horizon.

(2) Said of a borehole which is straight. Not deviated.

vertical resolution The capability to resolve thin beds. Often expressed as the
minimum thickness of formation that can be distinguished by a
tool under operating conditions.

vertical seismic VSP. A collection of seismic traces made from one-, two-, or
profile three-dimensional geophones mounted in the same downhole
tool which is anchored to the borehole wall. These traces are
taken at sequential depths in a well and record the energy over a
period of several seconds received from one or more sources
located at the surface. The resulting profile displays the direct,
reflected, refracted, and diffracted waves in both compressional
and shear modes from all interfaces in the sedimentary column.
It is the most accurate correlation tool for relating the well logs
and lithologic logs to the field seismograms.

viscometer A device for measuring viscosity Also called viscosimeter.

viscosity Resistance of a fluid to flow. Internal friction caused by

molecular cohesion in fluids. The internal properties of a fluid
that offers resistance to flow. Viscosity of drilling muds may be
reported in different ways:

(1) Marsh funnel seconds. The time it takes for 1000 cm3 of
drilling mud to flow through the funnel. The longer the time in
seconds, the more viscous is the mud.

(2) Yield point and plastic viscosity in centipoises. Using the

combination of plastic viscosity and yield point, the plastic
viscosity indicates the flow characteristics of the mud when it is
moving rapidly, and the yield point indicates the flow
characteristics when it is moving very slowly or at rest. In both
cases, higher values indicate a more viscous mud.
volcanic Of, pertaining to, like, or characteristic of a volcano;
characterized by or composed of volcanoes; produced,
influenced, or changed by a volcano or by volcanic agencies;
made of materials derived from volcanoes.

voltmeter An instrument used to measure, in volts, the potential difference

in an electrical circuit.

vug Solution cavity. See vugular porosity.

vugular porosity A form of secondary porosity resulting from the dissolution of

more soluble portions of rock or solution enlargement of pores or
fractures. Common in carbonates. See also porosity.
 W Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form
without permission from SPWLA

wall sticking See differential-pressure sticking.

washout Excessive borehole enlargement caused by solvent and erosional

action by the drilling fluid.

washover Pertaining to part of the fishing operation to free stuck drill pipe
or tubing.

wash over To release pipe that is stuck in the hole by running washover
pipe. The washover pipe must have an outside diameter small
enough to fit into the borehole but an inside diameter large
enough to fit over the outside diameter of the stuck pipe. A
rotary shoe, which cuts away the formation, mud, or whatever is
sticking the pipe, is made up on the bottom joint of the washover
pipe, and the assembly is lowered into the hole. Rotation of the
assembly frees the stuck pipe. Several washovers may have to be
made if the stuck portion is very long.

water analysis (1) A chemical analysis of water in which the quantity of ions in
solution is determined for the common cations and anions (e.g.,
Na+, K+, Ca++, Mg++, S04--, Cl-, CO3--, HCO3-). The character of
the solution can be described in terms of the ion concentrations
in parts per million, milligrams per liter, or its reaction value.

The unit of concentration, parts per million, is related to the

weights of positive and negative ions in solution, and the
combined weight of the positive ions does not balance the
combined weight of the negative ions.

The reaction value relates the weight of each ion to its valence
and atomic (or radical) weight. For example,
 The reaction values of positive and negative ions are exactly
equal when all ions have been considered.

(2) An electrical resistivity analysis of water. Resistivity values

of water solutions of interest, as determined by actual
measurement of each sample in a conductivity or resistivity cell,
are important in the analysis of resistivity well logs.

water-base mud A drilling mud in which the continuous phase is water. Compare
oil-base mud.

water block A reduction in the relative permeability to oil or gas due to the
increase in water saturation near the borehole caused by the
invasion of water from a water-base mud.

water cone See cone and coning.

water cut The volume fraction of water in the total volume of liquid
produced from a well.

watercutmeter An annular capacitor. Water holdup is determined indirectly by

measuring a frequency which depends on the dielectric constant
of the fluid flowing through the annular gap of the instrument.

water-drive The reservoir-drive mechanism in which oil is produced by the

expansion of the volume of the underlying water, which forces
the oil into the wellbore. In general, there are two types of water
drive: bottom-water drive, in which the oil is totally underlain by
water, and edgewater drive, in which only the edge of the oil is
in contact with the water. Bottom-water drive is more efficient.
watered-out Of a well, having gone to water.

water The movement of water into a producing formation as the

encroachment formation is depleted of oil and gas by production.

water entry A survey technique used to determine points of water entry in a

survey producing well. One such survey involves three different types
of operations. Under dynamic well conditions, the three surveys
are run as follows:

(1) Temperature log. A continuous temperature profile is

recorded over the interval of interest.

(2) Radioactive-tracer log: Ejected slugs of radioactive tracer

material are monitored in order to determine the flow rate and
direction.

(3) A conditioning survey is performed. To run a conditioning

survey, a tool with a gamma-ray detector and an isotope ejector
is run into the borehole. The isotope ejector is turned on, and the
tool is lowered through the production interval at constant speed.
A gamma-ray log is run during the "conditioning" run in order to
provide a base log to which subsequent gamma-ray logs can be
compared. Several subsequent gamma-ray logging runs are then
made through the conditioned interval. Water from the formation
entering theborehole will produce dilution of the isotope-treated
fluid in the borehole, and an upward displacement of the treated
water column will occur. The combination of surveys is then
interpreted.

water flooding A method of secondary recovery in which water is injected into a

reservoir in order to move additional quantities of oil toward
producing wells.

water loss A mud property. The measure of filtrate loss in a water base
(water external phase) drilling mud.
water saturation The fraction or percentage of the pore volume of a rock occupied
by water. The occupation may take different forms; i.e.,
funicular, insular, or pendular saturation See saturation.

water table The undistorted upper surface of the saturated zone. The pressure
everywhere on this surface is at atmospheric pressure.

water wet hydrophilic. A solid surface is water wet when the adhesive
attraction of water molecules for the solid substance is greater
than the attraction between water molecules. The angle of
contact of a water droplet on a water-wet solid surface will be
less than 90° (measured inside the water phase). A mobile
nonwetting oil phase would advance over the adhesive layer of
water.

wavelength The distance between two points having the same phase in two
consecutive cycles of a periodic wave, along a line in the
direction of propagation.

wavelet See wave train.

wave train The response of an elastic system to an acoustic energy impulse

describes a wavelet of several cycles of sinusoidal character. At
the onset, the wavelet will be rich in all frequencies but the high
frequency components are attenuated rapidly by transit through
earth materials because of inelastic absorption and conversion to
heat.

Wavelets are generated for each energy mode and the composite
particle motion resulting from the compressional, shear, fluid,
and boundary waves becomes the wave train with characteristics
of the transmitting source, coupling, and the transmission media.
See acoustic wave and wave train display, also Stoneley wave
and tube wave.
wave train display The acoustic wave train can be displayed in different modes on
some acoustic well logs. For example:

(1)The intensity modulated-time mode in which the wave train is

shown in the variable photographic density form. See Micro-
Seismogram.

(2) The amplitude-time mode in which the wave train is shown

as a full wave form.
wave train log An acoustic log in which the acoustic wave train is displayed in
either the intensity modulated-time mode or the amplitude-time
mode.

weak point A machined connector or calibrated cable designed to break

under specific tensile stress. It is connected to the cable inside
the neck of the fishing bell. The weak point will part well below
the breaking tension required for new or wellworn logging
cables. When the weak point is broken intentionally (or
accidentally), it leaves the fishing bell pointed up for fishing
purposes, unobstructed by coils of broken cable and wire. See
also fishing bell and rope socket.

weight indicator A surface panel on which the total weight or tension on the cable
is metered and can be monitored during the survey.
well bore A borehole. The bore of a well, whether cased or uncased. Often
modernized to one word, wellbore, particularly when the term is
used as an adjective.

wellbore storage Afterflow or afterinjection, continuing for a short time after the
effect well bore is shut in at the surface, in the form of wellbore
loading or unloading due to the compressibility of fluids inside
the well bore. The well bore has storage capacity equal to the
volume within the well bore in direct communication with the
porous and permeable formation. When the well bore is shut in
at the wellhead, fluid will continue to flow into or out of the well
bore until pressure is equalized between the well bore and
formation. No wellbore storage effect can occur if the well bore
is shut in at the bottom of the well at the face of the formation.

well completion The activities and methods necessary to prepare a well for the
production of oil and gas; the method by which a flow line for
hydrocarbons is established between the reservoir and the
surface. The method of well completion used by the operator
depends on the individual characteristics of the producing
formation of formations. These techniques include open-hole
completions. conventional perforated completions, sand-
exclusion conmpletions, tubingless comple tions, multiple
completions, and miniaturized completions.

wellhead Of or pertaining to the equipment at the top of the well bore

which is used to maintain surface control of the well. Includes
casinghead, tubing head, Christmas tree, etc.

well log wireline log, borehole log. The product of a survey operation,
also called a survey, consisting of one or more curves. Provides a
permanent record of one or more physical measurements as a
function of depth in a well bore.

Well logs are used to identify and correlate underground rocks,

and to determine the mineralogy and physical properties of
 potential reservoir rocks and the nature of the fluids they contain.

(1) A well log is recorded during a survey operation in which a

sonde is lowered into the well bore by a survey cable. The
measurement made by the downhole instrument will be of a
physical nature (i.e., electrical, acoustical, nuclear, thermal,
dimensional, etc.) pertaining to some part of the wellbore
environment or the well bore itself.

(2) Other types of well logs are made of data collected at the
surface; examples are core logs, drilling-time logs, mud sample
logs, hydrocarbon well logs, etc.

(3) Still other logs show quantities calculated from other

measurements; examples are movable oil plots, computed logs.
etc.

well logging cable See logging cable.

well seismic The well seismic recording is a checkshot service which

recording provides a depth-vs.-time calibration for the seismic reflection
technique. Seismic velocities are measured at the well by
recording the time required for a wavelet generated by a surface
energy source to reach the geophones in a tool anchored in the
well. The recorded travel times of the direct arrival are used to
calibrate the sonic log, which then becomes the basic seismic
reference and allows a surface seismic cross section to be scaled
to depth.

well spacing The regulation of the number and location of wells over a
reservoir as a conservation measure.

wettability The ability of any solid surface to be wetted when in contact

with a liquid; that is, the surface tension of the liquid is reduced
so that the liquid spreads over the surface. See water wet and oil
wet.
whipstock A long, steel casing that uses an inclined plane to cause the bit to
deflect from the original borehole at a slight angle. Whipstocks
are commonly used in controlled directional drilling, to
straighten crooked boreholes, or to sidetrack to avoid unretrieved
fish.

wiggle trace Obsolete term, see full waveform recording.

wildcat A well drilled in an area where no oil or gas production exists.

wild well A well which has blown out of control and from which oil,
water, or gas is escaping with great force. Also called a gusher.

winch A machine that pulls or hoists by winding a cable around a

spool.

wireline log See well log.

work over To perform one or more of a variety of remedial operations on a

producing oil well to try to increase production. Examples of
workover operations are deepening, plugging back, pulling and
resetting liner, squeeze cementing, etc.
 X Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form
without permission from SPWLA

x-ray A nonnuclear electromagnetic radiation of very short

wavelength, in the interval of 0.1-100 angstroms: i.e., between
that of gamma rays and ultraviolet radiation. A penetrating
electromagnetic radiation similar to gamma radiation. Originates
from the extranuclear part of an atom.

x-ray diffraction Analysis of the crystal structure of materials by passing x-rays

analysis through them and registering the diffraction (scattering) image of
the x-rays.

X-Y plane A plane described by the X and Y axes. A convention used to

describe an acoustic wave train recording in which the amplitude
of the signal voltage is shown on the Y axis, and time in
microseconds is shown on the X axis. See amplitude-time.

X-Z plane A plane described by the X and Z axes. A convention used to

describe an acoustic wave train display in which the amplitude of
the signal voltage is used to modulate the intensity of a
photographic beam of light to produce varying photographic
density on the Z axis, and time in microseconds on the X axis.
See intensity modulated-time and Micro-Seismogram.
Y Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without
permission from SPWLA

yield point The maximum stress that a solid can withstand without
undergoing permanent deformation either by plastic flow or by
rupture.

Young's modulus See elastic properties of rocks.

Z Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without
permission from SPWLA

Z/A The ratio of atomic number (Z) to atomic weight (A). Nuclei of
the same Z but different A are different forms of the same
element and are called isotopes.

Z/A effect In density logging. Common rock elements of usual interest in

oil exploration, C, O, Si, and Ca all have a Z/A = 1/2, to a very
high degree of approximation. For these elements and their
molecules, the electron population is closely related to the unit
mass or density of the material. In rocks containing elements in
which Z/A differs from the Z/A value selected as a standard, the
measured response will be different from the expected value.
The amount that the measured bulk density will differ from the
true bulk density of the rock material in question is related to the
amount that Z/A differs from the standard. This influence on the
interpretation of the density logging response is referred to as the
Z/A effect. See also density log and compensated density log.

Z-axis (1) A third dimension added to a crossplot of two parameters in

an X-Y plane. The z-axis is perpendicular to both x- and y-axes.

(2) In well logging, variation of the intensity of the recording

spot is called z-axis variation, as in Micro-Seismogram.

zero (1) mechanical zero or electrical zero.

(2) To place the measure point on a downhole logging tool at the

depth datum and adjust the depth-meter to read zero depth.

zonal isolation Refers to the state or quality with which the fluids in one
permeable zone can be kept separate from those fluids of
another. Zonal isolation is created and maintained in the well
bore by cementing the production string in place and by
appropriate use of casing plugs and packers. Beyond the well
bore radius and inside the formations, zonal isolation is a
function of the existance of permeable barriers such as
 impermeable shale members, dense sediments, or cap rock. The
quality of zonal isolation is directly related to the quality of the
cement and bonding which is found between casing, cement
sheath, and formation; and to the degree of or lack of
permeability of the members which can serve as permeability
barriers.

zone A rock stratum which is singled out for reference because of its
different character or fluid content from other strata.

zone of aeration (1) A subsurface zone containing water under pressure less than
that of the atmosphere, including water held by capillarity; and
containing air or gases generally at atmospheric pressure.
Extends from the ground surface to the water table.

(2) Also refers to zones shallow enough that they are oxidizing,
since they are replenished by rain water.