Cable Calculation and Selection Worksheet

As the final article on voltage drop and cable selection series, I am now providing a complete worksheet for
cable selection based on the IEC standards 60228 and 60364-5-54. I created the worksheet in such a way that
it could be printed with your company name, logo, your project, your name, cable number, load description and
many more.

The cable data reference sheet is contains data from a particular cable manufacturer, consult your cable
manufacturer for project specific values.

Some notes on the use of the cable calculation worksheet.

 Cable data provided in here are based on a manufacturer's datasheet. Refer to your cable manufacturer for
project specific values.
 Cable calculation is based on IEC standards.
 Load data is based on motor load and 3 phase. Modify accordingly depending on the type of load supplied by
the cable.
 This calculation is just a sample. It is always a good practice to verify the results.
 I"k should be based on the short circuit calculation result. It is not part of this worksheet.
 Please read the Disclaimer Statement before using this calculation worksheet.

The cable calculation worksheet could be found at the download section.

Voltage Drop Calculation - Part 3

I n our example in Voltage Calculation - Part 2, we have only considered a single cable and checked only
the voltage drop at starting. In actual practice, we shall be comparing several cable sizes, selecting the cable
that provides optimum design consideration.

In this example, we shall be using several cables from 35 mm2 up to 120 mm2. Likewise, we shall be
considering, not only the starting condition but the running condition of the motor as well. You might be asking,
why we selected a motor in our example. The reason, a motor is a dynamic load. A motor circuit load varies
from the starting to the normal running condition, thus there will be multiple considerations when selecting the
cable for a motor circuit.

In Table 2 Cable Selection, we have considered 5 cables sizes, all cables except one satisfy our design
consideration which are the following:
Voltage drop during starting < 15%
Voltage drop during running < 5%

Again we will be using values from our previous example which are the following:
Voltagesending end = 400 volts
Motor Running:
Irunning = 180 A
PFrunning = cos Ørunning = 0.87
sin Ørunning = 0.493

Motor Starting Istarting = 6 * 180 = 1080 A

PFstarting = cos Østarting = 0.25
sin Østarting = 0.968

Using the formula

Table 2. Cable Selection

Size r50 x50 R X %Vdrunning %Vdstarting
35 0.674 0.0867 0.0809 0.0104 5.9% 14.2%
50 0.499 0.0858 0.0599 0.0103 4.5% 11.7%
70 0.344 0.0850 0.0413 0.0102 3.2% 9.4%
95 0.271 0.0825 0.0325 0.0099 2.6% 8.3%
120 0.214 0.0808 0.0257 0.0097 2.1% 7.4%

In Table 2. Cable Selection, the 35 mm2 cable passes the motor starting voltage drop but fails the motor
running voltage drop which makes this cable to be eliminated from our selection list.

The 70 mm2, 90 mm2 and 120 mm2 cables satisfy all our design conditions, however, selecting any of these
cables will make the installation more expensive than required. The 50 mm2 cable satisfy all conditions and
cost of the project.

Cable selection considerations does not stop here, there are more that need to be considered such as
operating temperature and short-circuit withstand. In our next article, we shall be discussing about cable
operating temperatures.

Earth Fault-Loop Impedance Part 3

In Part 2, we did a simple calculation for the maximum length of the cable. We have not considered the internal
impedance of the source, i.e. the transformer impedance. Likewise, we just consider the current rating of the
circuit breaker without the current multiplier for instantaneous tripping. The primary reason for that is to make
the calculation much simpler. If I will tell everything all at once, understanding the concept may be difficult.

Circuit breakers are classified into three (3) according to their mean tripping current. We are dealing with IEC
standards here and its derivative standards, ie BS, AS, etc.and not the IEEE.

Ia (typical values) for circuit breakers are as follows:

Type B = 4 x rated current
Range : 3In - 5In
Type C = 7.5 x rated current
Range : 5In - 10In
Type D = 12.5 x rated current
Range : 10In - 20In

From above formula, a Type B, 6A circuit breaker will have an instantaneous tripping current of 24A. The
question may be raised, what is the circuit breaker type I need to use for my application / design. The answer
is, it all depends on the application or design. for lighting and other domestic application, Type B is preferred.
In normal application, Type C is normally used. For motor loads particularly where the motor starts loaded,
then Type D is being used.
Where:
Lmax = maximum route length
UO = nominal phase voltage (230V for a 400V system)
ρ = resistivity at normal working temperature
22.5 x 10-3 ohm-mm2 / m (Copper)
36.0 x 10-3 ohm-mm2 / m (Aluminium)
Ia = trip-current seting for the instaneous
Sph = active conductor size, mm2
Spe = protective earth conductor size, mm2

The 0.8 factor is an assumed value if the internal impedance of the circuit is not available which means that
only 80% of the phase voltage is available at the terminal of the protective device.

For cables where the active conductor and protective earth have the same size, S ph = Spe, the formula will be
simplified to

If the cable impedance is known which we could find from manufacturer's datasheets, the formula will become

When the size of the active conductor and protective conductor are the same
Where:
Zph = active conductor impedance, ohms
Zpe = protective earth conductor impedance, ohms
Note:
Please be reminded that this is the cable conductor impedance, and not the per unit (ie ohms per km)
impedance of the cable.

To provide an example, we will recalculate our first example using different types of circuit breaker.

6A CB, 400V, 2.5 mm2 cable

Type B Circuit Breaker
Instantaneous trip = 4 x 6 = 24 A
Maximum Length = 406 m
Type C Circuit Breaker
Instantaneous trip = 7.5 x 6 = 45 A
Maximum Length = 216 m
Type D Circuit Breaker
Instantaneous trip = 12.5 x 6 = 75 A
Maximum Length = 129 m

The task is not finished here, we need to compare it with the allowable maximum fault loop imedance and also
do not forget the ampacity of the cable.

Please note that the above is just a hypothetical example and need not be used for your design. Every
manufacturer has specific values of cable impedances, always consult your vendor about it.

Cable Operating Temperature

E lectrical design requires selecting the cable with the correct temperature rating. Designers tend to select
the cable with the highest temperature rating, this is not acceptable as the first cost of the project will be
affected considerably.

A cable temperature rating is based on the type of material used for its insulation. In this article, we shall be
discussing how to correctly select the cable temperature rating for certain installation requirements based on
the environmetal condition.

North American standards have a different cable insulation designation from IEC. It is always recommended to
refer to manufacturers' datasheets for cable parameters. Most commonly used cable insulations are PVC
(Polyvinyl chloride), XLPE (cross-linked polyethylene), and EPR (Ethylene propylene rubber).

In critical installations, selecting the proper cable insulation type plays an important part in personnel safety.
While PVC is the cheapest among the thermoplastic insulations, in a fire, PVC-insulated cables can form HCl
fumes; the chlorine serves to scavenge free radicals and is the source of the material's fire retardance, HCl
fumes can pose as a health hazard. Frequently in applications where smoke is a major hazard, PVC-free
LSOH (low-smoke, zero-halogen) cable insulation are used. The applicable building code should be consulted
to determine the type of electrical wires approved for the intended use.

To determine the cable operating temperature when the load current is known, this formula could be used.

To = ( Io/Ir )2 x ( Tc - Ta ) + Ta
where:
Io = load current, A
Ir = derated cable ampacity, A
Note: Derating factors shall include temperature and grouping factor.
To = cable operating temperature, oC
Ta = ambient temperature, oC
Tc = cable design temperature, oC

Using our example from the previous article.

Load current : Io = 180 A

Cable parameters:
Insulation type = XLPE
Derating factor = 0.85 (combined derating factor)
Ambient temperature = 35oC
Cable temperature rating = 90oC (this value varies with manufacturer)

Though we have selected a 50 mm2, it does not necessarily mean that it has enough ampacity for our load.
Checking it with a typical cable ampacity for XLPE cables.
50 mm2 = 125 A
70 mm2 = 160 A
95 mm2 = 195 A
120 mm2 = 225 A

considering the cable ampacity, our logical choice will be a size 95 mm 2 or larger cable.

Since a 50 mm2 cable has an ampacity lesser than the load current, it is not possible. We could prove that
using our operating temperature formula.

Substituting these values into the formula

Let's try the 50 mm2 values first.>br /> To = ( Io/Ir )2 x ( Tc - Ta )+ Ta
To = ( 185/(125 x 0.85) )2 x ( 90 - 45 ) + 45
To = 116oC (116oC > 90oC, thus a 50 mm2 is not suitable.)

Let's try the 95 mm2 values first.>br /> To = ( Io/Ir )2 x ( Tc - Ta ) + Ta

To = ( 185/(195 x 0.85) )2 x ( 90 - 45 ) + 45
To = 74oC (74oC < 90oC, thus a 95 mm2 is the right cable.)

Power Factor Correction - Tutorial

Note: This is the first part of the PF Correction tutorial series.

In industrial plants, induction motors comprises majority of the load. Without power factor correction, the
nominal industrial plant overall power factor ranges from about 0.70 to 0.80 lagging.

A low power factor means that the I2R losses is high. Some electrical utility companies also penalize plant with
low power factors as this leads to a high system loss. On the hand, plant with high power factor are given
incentive discounts on the billing which will make any investment on a power factor correction equipment
viable.

To illustrate this better, let us provide a real world example.

Plant A Monthly average

Monthly energy consumption : 125 000 kwhs

Power Factor : 0.75 Lagging
Utilization Voltage : 400V, 3 phase

What is the size of capacitor bank needed to raise the power factor to 0.95 lagging?

Solution:
Number of hours per month : 720 h

The formula of KVAR in terms or the kwh and PF is

KVAR = [kwh/720] * [ (1/PF)2 - 1 ]0.5

Let us calculate the reactive power of the plant at 0.75 PF and at 0.95 PF. The difference of the two KVARs
shall be the size of the capacitor bank.

At 0.75 PF

KVAR0.75 = [125 000/720] * [ (1/0.75)2 - 1 ]0.5

KVAR0.75 = 153.10 kVAR

At 0.95 PF

KVAR0.95 = [125 000/720] * [ (1/0.95)2 - 1 ]0.5

KVAR0.95 = 57.06 kVAR

KVAR = KVAR0.75 - KVAR0.95

KVAR = 153.10 - 57.06
KVAR = 96.04 kVAR say 100 kVAR

The best combination for the capacitor bank may be

4 x 25kVAR or
5 x 20kVAR

The higher the number of steps the better the PF regulation will be when it is used with a PF controller. This
however has a cost implication as the latter will be most costly than the former. A 20kVAR unit does not cost
much less than a 25VAR unit. Proper selection of combination is desirable when designing PF correction
system.

Next time - we shall be calculating the savings for using power factor correction. Will it pay for itself? Will find
that out on the next tutorial.

Voltage Drop Calculation - Part 2

T his article is the second part on the discussion about voltage drop calculation. We shall be providing real
world example for you to be able to appreciate it better as it may have already been a part of what you have
already done or currently doing in your design.

We shall be presenting an IEC standard equipment in our sample calculation.

A 120 mm2 3core XLPE insulated cable 120m in length supplies a 110 kW induction motor that has a starting
current of 6 times the full-load current of 180 amps. The starting power factor is 0.25 lagging.

If the sending end line-to-line voltage is 400 volts, the specific resistance r and reactance x for the cable are
0.197 and 0.072 ohm/km respectively at 90OC and 50 Hz.
Find the percentage volt-drop on starting the motor.

Solution
For the 120 mm2 cable
the series impedance is:
R = rl = 0.214 x 120 / 1000 = 0.02568 ohms/phase
X = xl = 0.0808 x 120 / 1000 = 0.009696 ohms/phase

For the 110kW motor

the starting current is:
I = 6 × 180.0 = 1080.0 A
The power factor is:
cosØ = 0.2500, therefore sinØ = 0.9682

Let us assume the sending voltage remains constant at 400 volts,

AB = 1080.0 x 0.02568 x 0.2500 = 6.9336 volts/phase

BE = 1080.0 x 0.02568 x 0.9682 = 26.6805 volts/phase
EF = 1080.0 x 0.009696 x 0.9682 = 10.1386 volts/phase
DF = 1080.0 x 0.009696 x 0.2500 = 2.6179 volts/phase

%Vd = ( 1.732 / 400 ) x 1080.0 x ( 0.02568 x 0.25 + 0.009696 x 0.9682 ) x 100%

%Vd = 4.6764 x ( 0.00642 + 0.006738 ) x 100%
%Vd = 6.15%

Therefore,
Vr = 400 x ( 1 - 0.0615 ) / 1.732
Vr = 216.74 volts/phase

Typical minimum starting voltage for motors is 80% x rated voltage. Since the calculated volt-drop in our
example is less than 20%, the motor will accelerate to full speed easily.

In practice, since the actual motor parameters are not known during the design stage, the minimum starting
voltage is raised to 85% to provide a factor for safety.

For Part 3, we shall be providing more examples for voltage drop calculations.

Time-Current Curves with Excel III

Saturday, 22 November 2008 23:27
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In this tutorial, we shall be able to create Normal Inverse curves from the formula given below (IEC). This
formula has been used in so many coordination studies world wide. You can actually use it to coordinate your
protection settings with your power supplier. Normally the time setting for the network protection will be
provided by the power supplier. We shall be discussing this on the next tutorial.
Time-Current Formula
where

k = time, s
α, β = constants, see table below
I = Input Current
IO = Pickup setting

The curve constants for the different response curves are as follows.

Curve Constants

α β

Normal Inverse (Type A) 0.02 0.14

Very Inverse (Type B) 1.00 13.5
Extremely Inverse (Type C) 2.00 80.0
Long Time Inverse 1.00 120

Using the formula above, the resulting values will be the following table. You could copy the whole table and
paste it into your worksheet or create the values yourself using the above formula. Remember that this curve is
for Normal Inverse curve.

500 A CT Rating (Normal Inverse)

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
I/I
I (A) 5 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
O
Time, s
10.3 12.0 13.7 15.4 17.1
1.5 750 0.86 1.72 3.44 4.30 5.16 6.88 8.60
2 4 6 7 9
10.0
2.0 1000 0.50 1.00 2.01 2.51 3.01 4.01 5.01 6.02 7.02 8.02 9.03
3
 500 A CT Rating (Normal Inverse)

I/I 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
I (A)
O 5 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

3.0 1500 0.32 0.63 1.26 1.58 1.89 2.52 3.15 3.78 4.41 5.04 5.67 6.30
4.0 2000 0.25 0.50 1.00 1.24 1.49 1.99 2.49 2.99 3.49 3.98 4.48 4.98
5.0 2500 0.21 0.43 0.86 1.07 1.28 1.71 2.14 2.57 3.00 3.42 3.85 4.28
6.0 3000 0.19 0.38 0.77 0.96 1.15 1.53 1.92 2.30 2.69 3.07 3.45 3.84
7.0 3500 0.18 0.35 0.71 0.88 1.06 1.41 1.76 2.12 2.47 2.82 3.17 3.53
8.0 4000 0.16 0.33 0.66 0.82 0.99 1.32 1.65 1.98 2.31 2.64 2.97 3.30
9.0 4500 0.16 0.31 0.62 0.78 0.93 1.25 1.56 1.87 2.18 2.49 2.80 3.12
10 5000 0.15 0.30 0.59 0.74 0.89 1.19 1.49 1.78 2.08 2.38 2.67 2.97
1000
20 0.11 0.23 0.45 0.57 0.68 0.91 1.13 1.36 1.59 1.81 2.04 2.27
0

With the values above, We shall be using the 2003 version of Excel to draw the chart. If you have 2007
version, it is not a problem, the steps would just be different but the resulting graph will still be the same.

Step 1
Select the cell range as shown.
Note: Do not include the I/IO, else you will be getting a different graph profile.
Step 2
Start chart wizard and select XY (Scatter) with data points connected by smoothed lines without marker.
Step 3
Select the data range with series in columns
Step 4
Type a title, make sure to put x-axis title as Current in amperes and y-axis values as time in seconds.

Step 5
Click the gridlines tab and tick all the major and minor gridlines for X and Y axis. Then click finish. If prompted
about the location of the graph, select it as an object in the worksheet.
Step 6
The resulting graph will be

Step 7
Double click on the Y-axis values, the format Y-axis window will pop-up. Select Logarithmic scale. and values
as shown. Do similar for the X-axis.
Step 8
The resulting graph will be as follows. As you could see, the graph scale now are logarithmic.

Step 9
Try format the graph, putting some additional values, removing the chart background, etc. The final graph may
look like this.

Next time

Time-Current Curves with Excel II

Thursday, 20 November 2008 03:53
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In this part of the tutorial, we shall be able to produce a Normal Inverse time-current curve. Given the values
below, we will be plotting the values on an XY Scatter graph with data points connected without markers.

Normal Inverse Curve 400A Setting

I (A) t (s)
600 2.75
800 1.60
1200 1.01
1600 0.80
1600 0.80
1600 0.14
4800 0.14
4800 0.10

Try plotting the values and I presume that you will be getting a graph similar to Figure 1.

Figure 1

To plot a graph similar to Figure 2, the technique is to chunk the data into separate data series.

Data Series 1

I (A) t (s)
600 2.75
800 1.60
1200 1.01
1600 0.80
Data Series 2

I (A) t (s)
1600 0.80
1600 0.14
Data Series 3

I (A) t (s)
1600 0.14
 Data Series 3

I (A) t (s)
4800 0.14
Data Series 4

I (A) t (s)
4800 0.14
4800 0.10

Figure 2

As I have said in the first part of this tutorial, I presume that you know how to use MS Excel. In the next part,
we shall be learning about how to calculate curves for normal inverse, very inverse, extreme inverse and long
time inverse.

Time-Current Curves with Excel IV

Wednesday, 26 November 2008 03:57
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This is the final part of the tutorial creating for time-current current curves with Excel. We shall be able to attain
a complete relay coordination similar to this following curve.
To understand better the coordination curve, here are the parameters. Please note that values are referred to
the primary which is 11kV.

Utility Supply (0.2 time multiplier)

Voltage : 11kV
SC Capacity : 75MVA
Protection: 250A set @ 5IN
Supply Cable
Size : 35 mm2 PVC/PVC
Primary Circuit Breaker (0.16 time multiplier)
Rating : 160A
Setting 1 : 800A @ 5IN
Setting 2 : 1120A @ 7IN
Power Transformer
Rating: 2500 kVA, 11/0.415kV, 6.25%Z
Secondary Circuit Breaker (0.12 time multiplier)
Rating : 4000A (150A - referred to Primary)
Setting 1 : 604A @ 4IN
Setting 2 : 905A @ 6IN
Motor Cable
Size : 185 mm2 PVC/PVC
Motor Circuit Breaker (0.1 time multiplier)
Rating : 800A (30A - referred to Primary)
Setting 1 : 483A @ 16IN
Setting 2 : 604A @ 20IN

The utility time multiplier is normally provided by the power provider. Then, we need to work below it else, our
protection is not time coordinated with the utility.

For the motor circuit breaker, we need to select a setting wherein the value protection will not trip during motor
starting which is ideally 6 time the full load motor current and it should still be tripping below the secondary
circuit breaker setting.

You may have noticed that I have included the damaged curve of the cables. These are correctly selected
because they way above the protection setting of the utility.
 This is the final part of the time-current curve with excel. If you have any queries, feel free to post a comment
and we shall discuss.

Creating Coordination Curves with Excel

As electrical engineers, doing protective devices coordination is always a part of our tasks. You may say that I
could always use ETAP or EDSA or SKM Power Tools to do the job.

If your company has the money to buy all these software, then you are right. The most important thing however
is, do you know how to use the sophisticated power system analysis software.

At the end of this tutorial, the electrical engineer will be able to create coordination graphs for any particular
application. This tutorial also aims to provide tips during the process.

The requirements of this tutorial are the following

 You have MS Excel - at least MS Excel 2003 - lower versions may do as well.
 You know how to use MS Excel
 You know how to create graphs.

This is a sample of coordination curve we shall be doing on the next part of the tutorial.

As mentioned in Part 1, the value of the fault loop impedance shall be able to generate enough fault current to
activate any protective device.

What does this mean? The earth fault current must be high enough to trigger the automatic disconnection of a
protective device within an specified time. If the value of the earth fault current is not within the tripping current
of the protective device, then there will be no means of protective device will provide protection against touch
voltage. At the location of the fault, there is a possibility that the full voltage is present in the equipment
enclosure posing hazard to people with the increased touch voltage higher than 50 Vac.

If in cases where there is no way to increase the fault current, say the distance of the fault from the supply is
too far - cable impedance is limiting the earth fault current, the only solution will be using a residual current
(earth leakage) protection. It is not always advisable to have this solution though. There are applications that
when a residual current protection is used, annoying erratic device operation is possible particularly when the
protection device setting is not correct.

In the event that a reduction of the earth fault-loop impedance required to ensure correct disconnection times
of the protective device is not possible due to distance factor, additional bonding to earthing system may be
used.

To calculate the fault loop impedance

Zs x Ia ≤ Uo
where:
Zs = the impedance of the earth fault-loop comprising the source, the active conductor up to the point of the
fault and the return conductor between the fault and the source
Ia = the current require to cause automatic operation of the disconnecting protective device within the required
disconnecting time
Uo = the nominal AC rms voltage to earth (230V for a 400V line-to-line

Note:Return path will comprise both protective earthign and neutral conductors

Example, a 400V, 3ph load is supplied by a 25 meters long, 2.5mm 2 cable and protected by a 6A MCB.
Calculate the fault-loop current, if there is a bolted fault at the load. Check if the fault current is sufficient to
provide protection in specified time.

Substituing values into the formula

Zs x Ia ≤ Uo
Zs ≤ 230 / 6
Zs ≤ 38.3 Ohms

For a 2.5mm2 cable, the typical impedance is

Z = 9.44 ohms / km
The total cable fault-loop impedance for the example will be
Z = 2 x 25 x 9.44 / 1000 (The 2 in means that it will be the active conductor and neutal conductor)
Z = 0.472 ohms

If we divide Zs by Z then we get 81 meters which is the maximum length of 2.5 mm2 cable to used in the
application.

In part III, we shall be discussing how to coordinate circuit breakers with earth fault currents.

T his article is the first of a series in the selection of electrical cables.

Cable selection is an important part of electrical installation design. Selecting the correct size of cable could
lower initial cost, lower operating cost, better voltage regulation notwithstanding the safety factor.

Cable parameters are provided in values per unit length, usually ohms per kilometer(Ω/km) for IEC or
miles(Ω/mi) for North American Standards.

The following table illustrate the typical parameters for industrial cables

Table 1. 600/1000 V. Cu/EPR/CSP/GSWB run on open trays or enclosed in air. 1 to 6 x single, 3 or 4

cores
In the initial part of this tutorial, we were able to calculate the size of the power factor correction capacitor bank
required to improve the power factor of a plant from 0.75 lagging to 0.95 lagging. In this part of the tutorial, we
shall be able to calculate the savings generated from the improved power factor.

Depending on the power utility company, the following values may vary.

Example : Utility Company A has the following charges.

Average Cost /khw : $0.09 (Other costs such as demand charges are already integrated in this value)
Power Factor Charges:
Below 0.80 lagging : +5.00 % x Total Energy Consumption
Above 0.90 lagging : -3.75 % x Total Energy Consumption

As shown above, if a plant's power factor is within the 0.80 to 0.90 lagging, there is a minimal advantage of
power factor improvement in terms of utility discounts. The savings saving will be on the improvement of the
plant energy efficiency (we shall be dealing with this on the next tutorial).

The installed cost of a Power Factor Correction capacitor bank ranges from $100 - $200/kVAR.The price
variation depends on so many factors beyond the scope of this tutorial.

Let us choose the upper value for purposes of this tutorial.

Installed Cost Power Factor Correction

Installed Cost = 100 kVAR kwh x $200 / kVAR

Installed Cost = $20 000
Note : The 100kVAR was taken from the previous tutorial Power Factor Correction - Tutorial

Without Power Factor Correction

Energy CostNO PFC = 125 000 kwh x $0.09

Energy CostNO PFC = $ 11 250.00
PF Charges : $ 11 250 x (5.0/100) = $ 562.50

Total ChargesNO PFC = $ 11 812.50

With Power Factor Correction

Energy CostPFC = 125 000 kwh x $0.95

Energy CostPFC = $ 11 250.00
PF Charges : $ 11 250 x (-3.75/100) = -$ 421.88

Total ChargesPFC = $ 10 828.12

The saving from the electricity billing per month with be

Total Savings = Energy CostNO PFC - Energy CostPFC Total Savings = $ 11 812.50 - $ 10 828.12 Total Savings
= $ 984.38

Using simple math, without considering interest rates, the Power Factor Capacitor bank will be paid for by the
saving generated from the billing in 20 months.

This does not include the increase in overall plant efficiency due to the higher plant power factor.

Conclusion: Savings from power factor correction is tangible, notwithstanding your possible contribution to the
reduction of green house gases due to the increase overall plant efficiency.

What is "Earth Fault-Loop Impedance"? Why is it important?

Standards define "Earth Fault-Loop Impedance" as the impedance of the earth fault-current loop (active-to-
earth loop) starting and ending at the point-of-earth fault.
It is important to know the earth fault-loop impedance of a circuit to ensure that during the occurence of a
phase-to-earth fault, normally an insulation fault, the magnitude of the fault current is enough to cause the
operation of the protective device within the required time particularly where the touch potential exceeds 50V
a.c. or 120V ripple-free d.c.

The earth fault-loop in a MEN system comprises the following parts:

1. The active conductor as far as the point of the fault, including supply mains service line, consumers
mains, submains (if any) and the final subcircuit.
2. The protective earthing conductor (PE), including the main earthing terminal/connection or bar and MEN
connection.
3. The neutral-return path, consisting of the neutral conductor (N) between the main neutral terminal or bar
and the neutral point at the transformer, including supply mains, service line and consumers mains.
4. The path through the neutral point of the transformer and the transformer winding

The earth fault-loop impedance in its simplest form is the impedance of the active conductor olus the
impedance of the earth conductor. In this case, the fault is a bolted fault, the impedance of which is zero.

The maximum disconnection time for a 230 V supply voltage shall not exceed the following:

0.4 s for final subcircuits that supply

socket-outlets having rated currents not exceed ing 63A; or
hand-held Class I equipment; or
portable equipment intended for manual movement during use.
5 s for other circuits
where it can be shown that people are not exposed to touch voltages that exceed safe values.

Please note that the maximum disconnection times will vary for other operating voltages or installation
conditions, such as wet locations. etc. The fault current must be of sufficient magnitude to cause automate
disconnection within the required times

In part II, we shall be discussing how to calculate fault-loop impedances.

In any project, doing a simple short circuit verification and load flow analysis will save the electrical engineer
headaches during testing, commissioning and system reliability testing of the project.

I know some electrical engineers who don't even bother doing a manual calculation because they assume that
what they have experienced in their past projects will be the same as their current. This is totally wrong. Every
project, despite having similarities have different electrical parameters. Making assumptions and not verifying it
mathematically is totally unacceptable.

One reasoning for this may be, I can't do manual calculation, the project is too complex or I don't have the tools
to do system analysis, etc. Again, these are just alibis for not doing what is a very important aspect in electrical
design.

I have now tried using InterPSS. My first impression,it is very versatile and simple. When I have seen the
icons, I ask myself, where are the utility, transformer, feeder, motor icons, etc. But as I started using it, I came
to know that the few icons appearing in the tool bar can simlulate several equipment.

The results are actually comparable to ETAP. If you have started using this power system analysis software,
you may not even bother looking at the very expensive commercial softwares again.

The only limitation I found is that the IEC Standard short circuit calculation is not yet available. Using the
generic one will suffice however. I have not tried using motor starting analysis but I knew that it will be probably
as easy as changing the values of the motors with their starting parameter values. This is just a personal
opinion though. I have not actually done it. I will share it once I get the right answer.

Screen captures and some explanation of a simple calculation that I made using the InterPSS could be found
at the download section.
 Some higlights of the calculation are:

 Supply
33KV, X/R = 7, MVAsc = 2000
 Transformers
1.5MVA, 33KV/11KV
500KVA, 11KV/415V
 Motors
800kW, 11KV
300kW, 415V

Short circuit calculation plays a very important role in determining the ratings of electrical equipment. Using
software has the advantages, however, to ensure that the software results are correct, hand calculation could
be done as a check. Depending on the complexity of the system, hand calculation may be very tedious and
impractical.