Torch Used in Oxyacetylene Welding

Figure 27.2 (a) General view of and

(b) cross-section of a torch used in
oxyacetylene welding. The acetylene
valve is opened first; the gas is lit
with a spark lighter or a pilot light;
then the oxygen valve is opened and
the flame adjusted. (c) Basic
equipment used in oxyfuel-gas
welding. To ensure correct
connections, all threads on acetylene
fittings are left-handed, whereas those
for oxygen are right-handed. Oxygen
regulators are usually painted green,
acetylene regulators red.

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 Oxyacetylene Flames Used in Welding

Figure 27.1 Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas welding and cutting
operations: (a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or reducing, flame. The gas
mixture in (a) is basically equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene.

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 Shielded Metal-Arc-Welding Process

FIGURE 12.2 (a) Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-arc-welding process. About
50% of all large-scale industrial welding operations use this process. (b) Schematic
illustration of the shielded metal-arc-welding operation, also known as stick welding,
because the electrode is in the shape of a stick.

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 Flux-Cored Arc-Welding Process

FIGURE 12.6 Schematic illustration of the flux-cored arc-welding process. This operation
is similar to gas metal-arc welding, shown in Fig. 12.5.

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 MIG Welding Basic Equipment

FIGURE 12.5 (a) Gas metal-arc-welding process, formerly known as MIG welding (for
metal inert gas). (b) Basic equipment used in gas metal-arc-welding operations.

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 TIG Welding Process

FIGURE 12.9 (a) Gas tungsten-arc-welding process, formerly known as TIG welding (for
tungsten inert gas). (b) Equipment for gas tungsten-arc-welding operations.

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 Weld Zone Build-Up Sequence

FIGURE 12.3 A weld zone showing the build-up sequence of individual weld beads in
deep welds.

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 Comparison of Weld Bead Size

FIGURE 12.11 Comparison of the size of weld beads in (a) electron-beam or laser-beam
welding with that in (b) conventional (tungsten-arc) welding. Source: American Welding
Society, Welding Handbook, 8th ed., 1991.

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 Fusion-Weld Zone

FIGURE 12.13 Characteristics of a typical fusion-weld zone in oxyfuel-gas and arc

welding.

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 Grain Structure

FIGURE 12.14 Grain structure in (a) deep weld and (b) a shallow weld. Note that the grains in the
solidified weld metal arc perpendicular to their interface with the base metal are perpendicular to their
interface with the base metal. In a good weld, the solidification line at the center in the deep weld shown
in (a) has grain migration, thus developing uniform strength in the weld bead.

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 Intergranular Corrosion

FIGURE 12.17 Intergranular corrosion of a weld in ferritic stainless-steel welded tube after
exposure to a caustic solution. The weld line is at the center of the photograph. Scanning
electron micrograph at 20X. Source: Courtesy of B, R, Jack, Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corp.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

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 Weld Bead Microhardness Profile

FIGURE 12.15 (a) Weld bead on a cold-rolled nickel strip produced by a laser beam. (b)
Microhardness profile across the weld bead. Note the softer condition of the weld bead
compared with the base metal. Source: IIT Research Institute.

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 Fusion-Weld Zone
FIGURE 12.16 Schematic illustration
of various regions in a fusion-weld
zone and the corresponding phase
diagram for 0.30% C steel. Source:
Courtesy of the American Welding
Society.

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 Discontinuities in Fusion Welds

FIGURE 12.18 Examples of various discontinuities in fusion welds.

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 Defects in Fusion Welds

FIGURE 12.19 Examples of various defects in fusion welds.

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 Types of Cracks in Welded Joints

FIGURE 12.20 Types of cracks in welded joints. The cracks re caused by thermal stresses
that develop during solidification and contraction of the weld bead and the welded structure:
(a) crater cracks; (b) various types of cracks in butt and T joints.

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 Crack in a Weld Bead
FIGURE 12.21 Crack in a weld bead. The two
components were not allowed to contract after the
weld was completed. Source: S.L. Meiley, Packer
Engineering Associates, Inc.

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 Residual Stresses in Straight Butt Joint

FIGURE 12.23 Residual stresses developed in a straight butt joint. Source: Courtesy of the
American Welding Society.

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 Distortion of Parts After Welding

FIGURE 12.22 Distortion of parts after welding: (a) butt joints and (b) fillet welds. Distortion is caused
by differential thermal expansion and contraction of different parts of the welded assembly. Warping can
be reduced or eliminated by proper weld design and part fixturing prior to welding.

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 Design Guidelines for Welding

FIGURE 12.53 Design guidelines for welding. Source: J. G. Bralla (ed.), Handbook of
Product Design for Manufacturing. Copyright © 1986, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company.
Reproduced by permission of the McGraw-Hill Companies.

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 Chapter 12
Joining and Fastening Processes

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 Diffusion Bonding and Superplastic
Forming

FIGURE 12.39 (a) Sequence of operations in diffusion bonding and superplatic forming of
a structure with three flat sheets. Source: After D. Stephen and S, J. Swadling. (b) Typical
structures fabricated. Source: Rockwell International Corp.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

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