The Evolution of Oilfield Batteries

Well logging, measurements-while-drilling and seismic acquisition

require custom power sources. A dedicated development effort that

began in 1984 as a small project to meet short-term needs has grown

into a specialized design and manufacturing team that produces

primary and rechargeable batteries, and fuel cells for E&P services.

Don Hensley
Marvin Milewits
Wenlin Zhang
Rosharon, Texas, USA
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Bill Jones,
Bic Nguyen, Chris Spring, Henry Stevenson and Tony
Veneruso, Schlumberger Perforating & Testing Center,
Rosharon, Texas, USA; and Ting Lau, Schlumberger
Sugar Land Product Center, Sugar Land, Texas.
ARC5 (Array Resistivity Compensated), IRIS (Intelligent
Remote Implementation System), MSRT (MultiSensor
Recorder/Transmitter), RAB (Resistivity-at-the-Bit) and
UNIGAGE are marks of Schlumberger.
An autonomous power supply is not required
if an extension cord of sufficient length is
available. Likewise, a downhole tool does
not need batteries when run on an electric-
line cable, which provides, in addition to
mechanical conveyance, a direct link to the
surface for power transmission and signal
telemetry. Wireline operations, however,
require a relatively unobstructed vertical path
from surface to the measurement depth in
openhole or cased wellbore, but many wells
today are inclined, high-angle, extended-
reach or horizontal. Other wireline limita-
tions involve gauges that need to be placed
below valves in production tubulars or tools
that must be rotated. The first downhole bat-
teries were developed for pressure buildup,
production logging, measurements-while-
drilling (MWD) and logging-while-drilling
(LWD) tools that have no way of receiving
power from the surface.
Until the early 1980s, most production log-
ging tools recorded pressure, temperature
and flow rate solely with mechanically
driven components. These devices contained
a stylus to scratch marks on a carbon-coated
metallic cylinder that turned at a constant
slow rate. Specially trained field personnel
read the excursion marks with a microscope
and plotted digitized values versus elapsed
time on paper. Results were entered manu-
ally into proprietary computing software to
analyze formation pressures, drive mecha-
nisms and reservoir boundaries.
This mechanical tool, the J200, was
replaced by a battery-powered version, the
J300, which was a predecessor of solid-state
downhole processor (SSDP) models. With
each new-generation device, data stability,
precision and accuracy as well as tool auton-
omy were improved by energy-efficient elec-
tronics and high-performance batteries.
Through better information and improved
analysis, formation evaluation and reservoir
characterization were also enhanced by the
evolution of battery technology. To appreci-
ate the role of batteries in oilfield services,
the unique demands of subsurface environ-
ments need to be defined.

42 Oilfield Review

Temperatures—Logging tools are tested
at the surface before a trip into the well,
so batteries must function from arctic to
extreme downhole conditions. Well tem-
peratures routinely range from 70 to 200°F
[20 to 100° C], but can get as hot as 400°F
[200°C] or higher.
Limited space—Tool diameters have to be
smaller than the borehole and lengths need
to be minimized to facilitate handling.
Batteries must fit into the available shape
and size of a tool compartment.
Shock and vibration—Tools and batteries
are subjected to the same conditions and
must meet the same standards. However,
rugged cell designs also have to be cost-
effective and disposable.
Power and safety—A battery is designed
to provide only the power required to oper-
ate a tool. Excess power increases the dan-
ger and chance of a leak or failure. For this
reason, commercially available spiral-wrap
Autumn 1998
cells with liquid cathodes are not used by
Schlumberger in oilfield services (see
“Inside a Lithium Cell,” page 46).
Operating life—Battery life requirements
range from several days to a year. Longer
lasting power is achieved with larger cells
and energy efficient, or battery friendly, elec-
tronics. Chemistry, cell composition, tool
loads and temperature also affect battery life.
Shelf life—Global oil and gas operations
dictate that batteries often spend weeks in
transit to job locations. Once on site, bat-
teries may be stored for long periods until
work begins, so shelf life must be long
enough to provide reliable power under
most conditions and standby situations.
Production logging and formation evalua-
tion tools must be accurate and reliable and
batteries are essential in meeting these
requirements. This article reviews the history
of battery technology, and discusses current
state-of-the-art power source development at
the Schlumberger Perforating & Testing (SPT)
Center in Rosharon, Texas, USA.
Basic Electrochemical Cells
A review of conventional electrochemical,
or galvanic, cells sets the stage for under-
standing downhole batteries (see “Battery
Terminology,” page 45). The anode and
cathode—the electrodes—of conventional
cells are composed of solid materials sur-
rounded by liquid electrolyte. A porous
separator isolates the electrodes mechani-
cally to prevent an internal short circuit, but
allows ion flow, or diffusion. When a con-
ductive path or electronic device is con-
nected to the battery, electrons released
from the anode in a continuous oxidation
process flow through this external load, per-
forming work by electric potential.
Inside the cell, in a process called oxida-
tion-reduction, ions are released from both
the anode and cathode as charge neutral-
ity is maintained (below). The cell pro-
duces electric power as long as the anode
supplies electrons and the cathode accepts
electrons. Electron flow (current) stops or
is limited if the anode or cathode are con-
sumed, ions cannot reach the cathode, the
external current path is interrupted, the
anode contacts the cathode or the ion dif-
fusion limit is reached.
Electron flow Load
Electrolyte
e-
Cathode
+
Anode
Separator
■Basic electrochemical cells. A conventional
battery is a can of chemicals that performs
work by virtue of electrical potential differ-
ence between the anode and cathode. Spe-
cific electrochemical reactions produce elec-
tron flow, or current, to the external load,
providing power for tools or devices.
43
 An Early Downhole Power Source
■Early SSDP Battery Chemistries. Optimal battery designs address electro-
chemistry, tool power needs, packaging and
Chemistry Temperature operating range
diverse considerations such as cost, shelf
Alkaline –22 to 176° F [–30 to 80° C] life, shipping regulations, remaining life
Lithium copper oxide –22 to 257° F [–30 to 125° C] and disposal. These factors were not always
Lithium copper oxyphosphate 122 to 347° F [50 to 175° C] considered prior to the 1980s when batter-
ies were a last-minute tool addendum, usu-
ally obtained from outside vendors.
In 1984, a Flopetrol-Johnston group in
Melun, France, requested that engineering
counterparts in the USA develop another
source for the SSDP pressure-recording tool
battery. Prior to that time, there were three
SSDP batteries, each with different
chemistries and temperature ranges (above
left). Because each cell chemistry had lim-
ited operating temperatures, field engineers
had to plan each job carefully. One unusual
prejob procedure required lithium copper
oxyphosphate packs to be short circuited
intentionally to warm them up above 122°F
[50°C]. Wireline operators then had to lower
the tool into the hole quickly before the bat-
teries cooled down. Operations in cold
■The early SSDP battery pack. In this one-piece, all-metal, welded housing, individual weather were problematic.
cells were locked in place with epoxy resin. This design was costly and made the packs The original SSDP battery was a one-piece
a disposal problem. pack, consisting of a welded metal tube that
contained the cells and had two solid end
pieces for connectors (left). Individual electro-
chemical cells, typically AA size, were held in
3.6
place by epoxy. These packs were difficult to
[LiSOCI2]
3.4 dispose of and expensive.
Batteries for reliable oilfield service
3.2
require cell components, processes and
3.0 packaging to be addressed in a systematic
[LiSO2] fashion. Beginning with basic electro-
2.8 chemical technology, a second SSDP bat-
tery with one chemistry for the entire range
Cell voltage, volts (V)

2.6 [LiMnO2]
of operating temperatures was developed.
To ensure safe and cost-effective battery
operation, both packaging and cell electro-
2.0
[MgMnO2] chemistry were reevaluated.
1.8
A Specialized Downhole Power Source
1.6 [LiFeS2] [ZnAg2O]
In the search for a new battery supply, elec-
1.4
trochemistry was scrutinized first. Downhole
[ZnHg0] tools are relatively small, but increasingly
1.2 need more operating power. High-voltage
[Alkaline-MnO2] chemistries require fewer cells to meet
1.0 [Zn-air] these power requirements, fit the space avail-
0.8 [CdHgO] able inside tools more easily and reduce cost
[Zn-carbon]
(left). Lithium thionyl chloride [LiSOCl2]
0.6
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 appeared to be best for oilfield service in part
because only one battery type was needed for
Discharged capacity, %
most temperatures, simplifying field inventory.

■ Voltage discharge for primary battery chemistries. High-voltage lithium chemistries 1. Gabano JP (ed): Lithium Batteries. London, England:
including lithium thionyl chloride [LiSOCl2], lithium sulfur dioxide [LiSO2] and lithium Academic Press, 1983.
manganese dioxide [LiMnO2] were evaluated. Other electrochemistries include
magnesium manganese dioxide [MgMnO2], lithium iron disulfide [LiFeS2], zinc
mercury oxide [ZnAg2O], zinc silver oxide [ZnHgO], zinc air [Zn-air], alkaline man-
ganese dioxide [alkaline-MnO2], heavy-duty zinc carbon [Zn-carbon] and mercad,
or cadmium silver oxide [CdHgO].

44 Oilfield Review
 Lithium thionyl chloride chemistry was dis-
covered almost by accident. In 1969, Jean-
Paul Gabano, a French chemist, was
developing a rechargeable lithium battery
comprised of a lithium cell containing
thionyl chloride electrolyte with dissolved
chlorine acting as the cathode. The cell
demonstrated high-current rechargeable per-
formance and, surprisingly, continued to
produce current even after the chlorine
depleted. An evaluation determined that
thionyl chloride could also serve as the cath-
ode and the LiSOCl2 battery was born.1
Theoretically, lithium thionyl chloride bat-
teries should not exist. Normally, when an
anode touches a cathode, oxidation and
reduction begin immediately and continue in
an abrupt short-circuit reaction. During cell
manufacture, however, when liquid thionyl
chloride is poured into the lithium metal cell,
there are no violent reactions because of the
instantaneous formation of a LiCl layer on the
freshly wetted lithium metal surface. This pas-
sivation layer seals the surface from further
direct contact with the liquid cathode and
prevents dangerous reactions.
This chemistry, with one of the highest
energy densities of practical cells, has some
limitations and intrinsic safety issues.
Lithium metal mixed with water is
flammable and explosive, the liquid elec-
trolyte is corrosive and toxic, and high-rate
electrode structures are susceptible to
explosions when shorted. Low-rate elec-
trodes have the same hazards at high tem-
peratures. Explosions can also result from
forced over-discharge and cell charging.
This chemistry also exhibits a voltage delay,
or passivation, with load onset, which is a
function of storage time and temperature.
As a result, lithium batteries must be pre-
discharged—depassivated—before use.
Lithium thionyl chloride chemistry was not
widely used at first and had been available
commercially for fewer than 10 years when
this chemical reevaluation began. There
were initial concerns and problems related
to premature market introduction, including
leaks and failures in airline emergency light-
ing, an early use of these batteries. In
response, strict shipping regulations were
put into effect. Batteries with liquid cathodes
and more than 0.5, but less than 12, grams
of lithium had to pass specific tests and be
placed in special containers before being
shipped on cargo aircraft. By 1984, five ven-
dors were making this type of cell and most
of the associated problems were understood
and had been addressed.
Autumn 1998
Battery Terminology1
Ampere (A): A coulomb per second,
the basic international standard unit of
electric current.
Anode: The electrode where oxidation, or loss
of electrons, occurs in electrochemical cells.
Aqueous: Substances that are like water or
water based.
Battery pack: A single galvanic cell or group
of cells connected through series or parallel
circuits and housed in a modular enclosure
to provide power to electronic devices.
Cathode: The electrode where reduction, or
electron gain, occurs in electrochemical cells.
Cell charging: Electric current flowing into a
cell from an external source or other cells.
Conductivity: The material property of con-
ducting or transmitting electric current.
Coulomb: The quantity of electricity trans-
ported in one second by a one-ampere
current, the basic international standard unit
of electric charge.
Current: The transfer, or flow, rate of electric
energy, or electricity, measured in amperes
(A), or one coulomb per second.
Deep discharging: Depletion of a battery
below the normal end-of-life voltage, but
still above zero volts (V).
Electrode: An electronic conductor that acts
as an electron source or sink, usually made
of metal and immersed in electrolyte solution.
Electrolyte: An ionic solution capable of
conducting electric current.
Energy density: Electrical energy of a
unit mass or volume expressed in W-hr/kg
or W-hr/L.
Galvanic cell: An arrangement consisting of
two electrodes and an electrolyte that pro-
duces electric current from a spontaneous
chemical reaction when the electrodes are
connected externally.
Gravimetric energy density: Electric energy
in a unit mass expressed in W-hr/kg.
Hermetic seal: A gas-tight and nonconductive
external barrier that allows an electrical con-
nection with an internal cell electrode.
Ion: A positive or negative charged atom
through either gaining or losing electrons.
Ion diffusion rate: A measure of the movement
or travel of ions from the anode to the cathode.
Overdischarging: Depletion of a battery
below zero volts (V) and into voltage reversal.
Oxidation: The process of electrons being
removed at the anode in the electrochemical
reaction of a galvanic cell.
Parallel circuit: An electrical path formed by
connecting positive terminals through one
conductor and negative terminals through
another conductor, so current can flow from
each cell to the external load.
Passivation: The formation of solid products
on electrode surfaces.
Reduction: The process of electrons being
donated at the cathode in the electrochemical
reaction of a galvanic cell.
Series circuit: An electrical path formed by
connecting battery cell positive terminals to
negative terminals in a sequence, so current
can flow through each cell in succession to
the external load.
Short circuit: A very conductive path placed
across the terminals of a battery (external
short circuit) or contact between anode and
cathode (internal short circuit) that generates
large currents and damages subsequent
cell performance.
Volt (V): The difference in electric potential
that makes a 1-amp current flow through a
1-ohm resistance, the basic international
standard unit of electromotive force.
Voltage delay: The immediate drop in voltage
below normal operating values caused by pas-
sivation. Voltage recovery may occur slowly or
not at all, depending on passivation severity.
Volumetric energy density: Electric energy
in a unit volume expressed in W-hr/L.
Watt (W): A 1-ampere current under 1-volt of
electric potential; 1 joule per second or
1/746 horsepower; the basic international
unit of electric power.
1. Hibbert DB and James AM: Dictionary of
Electrochemistry, Second Edition. New York,
New York, USA: Wiley-Interscience, 1984.
45
 The next concern in developing a new bat-
tery source was packaging. The previous
method of enclosing cells in a metallic tube
was costly and did not enhance safety.
Instead, a new design concept separated the
battery into two parts (right). Rather than dis-
pose of the entire depleted battery pack, only
the section containing cells is removed. The
remaining housing, consisting of the metal
tube and end pieces, is reused. Because cells
can leak, the reusable battery package is gas-
tight to protect tools against corrosive leak-
age from the encapsulated cells. Pressure
relief valves are built into the end-caps to
allow controlled venting.
The result of this new chemistry and pack-
aging was a 50% reduction in SSDP battery
cost. This backup source soon became the
primary source and the first stage of new-
generation battery developments was com-
■A new pack design. A novel approach replaced expensive one-piece, metal batteries by
plete. Currently, the hazards and limitations building packs in sections. A removable cell holder is disposable, but the housing can be
of lithium-based batteries cannot be elimi- reused. The end-caps have integral valves to relieve internal pressure in the event of an
nated completely, but must be understood accidental cell leak.
and addressed by battery developers, tool
designers and end-users. Schlumberger con-
siders battery safety issues to be of paramount
importance and addresses them in detail dur-
ing the evaluation and design process.

Inside a Lithium Cell

Can
There are four major components of primary,
or nonrechargable, lithium thionyl chloride Separator
Carbon electrode
cells—anode, cathode, electrolyte salt and
separator (right). The negative terminal is Anode
Liquid cathode
lithium metal foil or lithium alloy, which
serves as the anode. In this chemistry, the
cathode and electrolyte are the same and are
called “catholyte.” The liquid thionyl chlo- Electron flow
ride [SOCl2] cathode reaction takes place on Load
a high-surface-area carbon electrode, which
serves as the positive terminal. A common + -
electrolyte salt, lithium aluminum chlorate
Separator Glass-to-metal
[LiAlCl4], is dissolved in the thionyl chloride
seal (GMS)
to increase ion conductivity and improve
current rates. A layer of nonwoven fiberglass
material physically and electrically isolates Carbon electrode
Anode
the lithium anode from the positive terminal.

Liquid cathode Can

■Idealized lithium cell. Major components of a non-
rechargable, or primary, lithium thionyl chloride bat-
tery are the anode, cathode, electrolytic salt and a
separator. For this chemistry, the cathode and elec-
trolyte are the same. Electrons from the lithium anode Anode reaction: Cathode reaction:
+ - - -
flow toward the positive terminal by way of the exter- 4Li 4Li +4e 2SOCI2+4e S+SO2+4CI
nal circuit, or load. Lithium ions diffuse through the
catholyte—combined cathode and electrolyte—
toward the positive terminal. Thionyl chloride at the Overall reaction:
positive terminal meets returning electrons, which are 4Li + 2SOCI2 4LiCl + S + SO2
reduced to form chloride ions, sulfur and sulfur diox- (solid) (liquid) (solid) (solid) (gas)
ide. Chloride ions combine with lithium ions to form
lithium chloride, a solid that is deposited on the car-
bon electrode reaction site.

46 Oilfield Review
 Cell chemistry—Lithium, with optimal
electrochemical potential (3-volt) and elec-
trochemical equivalence (3.86-A-hr/g), is
the best choice for downhole battery
anodes. Combined with nonaqueous
thionyl chloride, it has one of the highest
voltages and energy densities of practical
battery systems. During discharge, lithium
oxidation occurs at the negative anode ter-
minal and thionyl chloride reduction takes
place at the positive carbon electrode.
Thionyl chloride serves as both electrolyte
and cathode reactant. The carbon electrode
is not part of the cell reaction, but provides
active sites where reactions take place. There
are six modes of capacity loss and current
stoppage. If the anode is consumed, there is
no electron source and current ceases. If the
catholyte is consumed, there are no reac-
tants to receive electrons. If a cell leaks or
has no active reaction sites, current stops. If
the load, or external circuit, is disconnected,
electrons cannot move to the positive termi-
nal. If the anode and carbon electrode touch,
current will not flow. The ion diffusion limit
is reached when loads are too high for the
available electrode surface area and cells
cannot support external current due to
excessive ion flow that results in depressed
voltage or current.
Premature depletion of most primary
lithium batteries with liquid cathodes occurs
when carbon electrode sites become
blocked by lithium chloride or other solid
discharge products, even if lithium and
thionyl chloride remain. This is called cath-
ode passivation. For safety, lithium cells have
excess thionyl chloride with respect to the
anode material. This stops dendritic growth,
microfingers of lithium metal, on wet-dry
electrode interfaces, which can cause an
internal short circuit. As a result, at the end
of battery life there is thionyl chloride
remaining and minimum wet-dry interfaces.
Cell structure—In a typical cylindrical cell
design, the solid components form concen-
tric shells (above right). For an anode,
lithium foil is swaged against the inner wall
of a stainless steel tube, making the con-
tainer a negative terminal. Nonwoven glass
paper is placed against the inside diameter
(ID) of the lithium foil as a separator and a
highly porous carbon plug is placed inside
the separator shell. In the center of this car-
bon plug, a nickel or stainless steel screen
serves as current collector with a connection
to the top-mounted, glass-to-metal seal (GMS)
for outside termination, which is the positive
cell terminal. Liquid thionyl chloride with
dissolved electrolyte salt fills most cell voids.
2. Linden D (ed): Handbook of Batteries. New York,
New York, USA: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1995.
Autumn 1998
Hermetically Positive terminal
welded seam
Cover
Glass-to-metal
seal (GMS) Top insulator
Separator
Anode Cathode
Can
Current
collector
Insulating sleeve
Bottom insulator
Spot-welded
negative terminal
■Limited anode-cathode surface. Bobbin-type cylindrical cells are designed for low power
and moderate to low current discharge rates. The solid internal components form concentric
shells. The anode is lithium foil and nonwoven glass paper is used as a separator. A porous
carbon plug forms the interior ring. This plug has a steel screen in the center to collect cur-
rent and is connected to the positive terminal. Liquid thionyl chloride with dissolved elec-
trolytic salt fills the void spaces. [Adapted from Linden, reference 2.]
The bobbin design with limited anode and
cathode surface area for a given cell size is
suitable for low discharge rates. The chal-
lenge is to design electrodes with suffi-
ciently high surface area to satisfy tool load
requirements without decreasing safety.
This can be achieved with appropriate
safety features using the more popular spi-
ral-wrap cell (below).2
Cells are designed to have intrinsic safety at
ambient conditions for battery assemblers
and end users in the field. Failures occur
only if there is a short circuit at hot down-
hole temperatures. In addition to designing
safe, high-performance cells, the issue of
preventing anodes and cathodes from touch-
ing during high-shock and vibration applica-
tions like MWD and LWD was addressed by
SPT. Proprietary designs for cylindrical and
annular cells were implemented.
■High anode-cathode surface area. Tightly-
wrapped, spiral cylindrical cells are commer-
cially available for high power and high cur-
rent discharge rates. [Adapted from Linden,
reference 2.]
47
 Troubleshooting Batteries
Short circuits
Causes:
External—conductivity across terminals is too
high; can occur accidentally during pack fabrica-
tion or battery operation.
Internal—accidental anode and cathode contact;
can occur during high shock and vibration.
Mechanisms:
Heat and gas are produced in an accelerated
chemical reaction. Solid discharge products form
on the carbon electrode, block surface reaction
sites and gradually decrease current output. An
explosion may occur if cell temperature rises
above 80°C.
Cures:
Design low-rate cells with optimum electrode
surface area.
Confirm safety at ambient and higher tempera-
tures with low resistance, short circuit and
mechanical tests.
Use correct safety fuse at pack level.
Temperature buildup
Causes:
Environmental—increase in external temperature.
Internal—discharge current is too high and poor
heat dissipation.
Mechanisms:
At temperatures above 356°F [180°C], a lithium
anode melts. A short circuit can develop depending
on cell orientation and mechanical shock environ-
ment. At temperatures below 180°C, hydrostatic
bursting and leaking welds occur due to thionyl
chloride’s [SOCl2] high thermal expansion coeffi-
cient. If external temperature is low, because it is an
exothermic process, high battery temperature can
result from a discharge current that is too high.
Cures:
Use lithium alloy anode to increase melting
temperature.
Leave sufficient void volume when filling cell
with SOCl2.
Assure that battery is right size for tool load.
Design pack to have good thermal conductivity.
Cell charging
Causes:
Battery with single string of cells has an external
charging current.
A charging current flows into a battery when the
positive and negative terminals of an external
power source are connected to the corresponding
battery terminals.
A battery with multiple strings has a charging
condition when one or more strings with a higher
voltage imparts a charging current into a string
with lower voltage.
Mechanisms:
Charging current forces lithium ions to flow back-
wards towards anode.
Ions plate back onto lithium anode to form fine
dendrites, or metal “fingers.”
High surface area lithium dendrites are unstable
in SOCl2.
48
Cures:
Use a series diode in each battery string.
If required, use series diode even in a single-
battery string to avoid inadvertent charging by
an external power source.
Forced overdischarge
Causes:
Occurs when using two or more cells in a pack.
Less likely to occur if cells have uniform capacity.
Environmental factors like shocks may cause cells
to deplete differentially.
Most likely to occur near the end of battery life.
May take a long time, since driving currents are
small.
Usually does not occur during short periods of
tool operation because cells are relatively fresh.
Mechanisms:
An active cell depletes available lithium and turns
from power source to a sink.
When an external current flows through the cell,
the terminals reverse polarity.
Lithium ions flow back toward anode and
form dendrites.
Dendrites tend to form more along wet-dry
electrolyte interfaces.
Surface dendrites form slowly with low
driving currents.
Cures:
Do not deplete batteries to 0 volts.
Design tool to stop high load at a 2-volt per cell
pack equivalent. For example, 4 volt end-of-life for
a two cell-pack.
Treat packs with an open circuit voltage (OCV)
of less than 3.6-volt per cell pack equivalence
with caution.
Cell leaks
Causes:
Each cell is a miniature pressure vessel with four
weld rings on cylindrical top and bottom lids,
which can become problem areas.
High internal pressure, even on good welds, pro-
duces leaks.
Nominal internal pressure on defective welds can
produce leaks.
Mechanisms:
Escaping SOCl2 liquid combines with moisture to
form hydrochloric acid and sulfur dioxide gas.
Hydrochloric acid corrodes container exterior,
forming pits and further damaging the tool hous-
ing and electronics, and the battery. Batteries may
also build up internal pressure during thermal
cycling.
Cures:
Fabricate welds with good penetration into the
can material.
Do not overfill cells with thionyl chloride.
Operate batteries within their temperature rating.
Do not subject batteries to repeated thermal cycles.
Lithium Battery Performance
Anode passivation, self-discharge, carbon
pore blocking (cathode passivation) and fail-
ure mechanisms influence battery perfor-
mance and longevity. Designers must
address these factors during development of
downhole power sources.
Anode passivation—When a lithium anode
comes in contact with thionyl chloride elec-
trolyte, while filling a cell for example, a solid
electrolyte interface (SEI), or passivation layer,
is generated immediately on the lithium sur-
face. This thin layer protects the anode surface
from further chemical reaction. However, for
elevated temperature and long storage peri-
ods, continuous passivation layer growth
results in capacity loss. Lithium thionyl chlo-
ride batteries would not exist without a SEI
layer. The cell reaction would proceed uncon-
trollably upon initial catholyte filling.
Because of SEI microdefects, the chemical
reaction proceeds at a low rate, but never
stops, resulting in slow layer growth. Less
passivation occurs at low temperatures. The
reaction is faster at high temperatures. For
prolonged storage under no load, especially
at high temperature, the SEI layer gets quite
thick and causes observed voltage delays
when loads are placed on a battery. Voltage
drops below normal operating values ini-
tially, but recovers. For severe passivation,
voltage drops farther and takes longer to
recover, if at all. The voltage delay is worse
for batteries stored at high temperatures with
no load for long periods and then discharged
in cold conditions.
To reduce and prevent voltage delay,
lithium batteries should be stored in con-
trolled environments at about 70°F [25°C].
Batteries need to be depassivated before use
by applying a temporary load, which is
higher than the required tool current, until
voltage recovers. If passivation is heavy, it is
best to discharge the pack with a low current
for an extended time before applying higher
currents to address the difference between
thin and thick passivation layers. At SPT, a
special depassivation box was designed to
provide a timed constant current, which turns
off when the proper voltage is met or the bat-
tery fails to depassivate in a given time.
Self-discharge—Anode passivation reduces
a self-discharge condition. If a lithium anode
is fully passivated, the rate of self-discharge is
decreased dramatically. Self-discharge also
takes place during normal battery depletion.
When a cell is activated, the SEI is disrupted
continuously by ion flow from the anode sur-
face beneath, exposing more lithium to
thionyl chloride. This process occurs in par-
allel with the normal electrochemical reac-
tion, resulting in two discharge reactions: an
Oilfield Review
external current and a parasitic internal cur-
rent. Capacity losses can be appreciable. At
high temperatures for long periods, self-dis-
charge has a more severe effect. The effect is
decreased without sacrificing power output
by minimizing the lithium surface area that is
open to electrolyte fluid.
Carbon pore blocking—During lithium bat-
tery discharge, solids form inside and outside
of the carbon electrode. Solids precipitate in
carbon electrode pores and block access to
unused reaction sites, resulting in less capac-
ity and lower voltage. This carbon passivation
occurs late in battery life. Unlike anode pas-
sivation, when solid products form on the
anode surface, it is not reversible. Carbon
plugging is more severe for high discharge
rates at low to moderate temperatures.
During discharge, chloride ions, a cath-
ode reaction product, form inside the car-
bon electrode. Lithium ions, an anode
reaction product, dissolve from the lithium
anode, diffuse toward the carbon cathode
and combine with chloride ions to form
solid lithium chlorine [LiCl]. At low dis-
charge rates, LiCl is uniformly distributed in
the carbon electrode. At higher discharge
rates, Li ions cannot diffuse deep into car-
bon cathodes because of ion-diffusion rate
limits. Precipitation of LiCl occurs primarily
on the outer carbon-electrode surface,
which plugs the pores and results in ineffi-
cient use of interior reaction sites. Higher
temperatures and lower currents increase
ion diffusivity and promote recovery of
some carbon volume. Cathode blocking is
more persistent and much harder to remove
than anode passivation.
Autumn 1998
Failure mechanisms—Lithium thionyl chlo-
ride batteries are ideal for oilfield service;
however, caution must be exercised when
handling or using this chemistry due to high
energy content. Failure modes, which nor-
mally cause hot cells or annoying leaks in less
potent batteries may create venting or run-
away reactions. The reasons for this difference
are inherent high energy density and her-
metic construction of lithium cells. If a short
circuit occurs, it lasts longer, gets hotter and
builds up higher internal pressure, creating a
greater hazard than lower energy systems like
nonhermetic, alkaline cells. There are five
failure modes, which can cause cell or tool
damage from resulting leaks (see
“Troubleshooting Batteries,” previous page).
Custom Cell Development
After a second SSDP battery was successfully
introduced in 1985, the next pack to be
developed was for the MSRT MultiSensor
Recorder/Transmitter tool. The MSRT pack fits
in the tool annular battery compartment and
houses AA-size cells in a carousel configura-
tion (right). The pack is an inexpensive com-
bination of phenolic tubes and end-caps with
cells connected in series and parallel.
The next achievement in battery technol-
ogy came in 1987 with development of the
first LWD tool. Until this time, Schlumberger
built the packaging, but used commercial
cell vendors. The problems with this
approach were confidentiality, limited con-
trol, delivery uncertainty and lack of differ-
entiation from competitors. The key to
advancing to the next stage of battery devel-
opment was control of cell manufacturing.
■The MSRT MultiSensor Recorder/Trans-
mitter tool. Built using inexpensive phenolic
tubes and end-caps, the MSRT annular bat-
tery pack holds AA-size, series and parallel
connected cells in a carousel configuration.
49
 Packaging was important, but rugged cells
with custom sizes and shapes are essential to
Top Fuse
battery success.
Cell A vendor was secured to develop and pro-
Bore
duce standard and custom lithium cells
quickly, economically and with utmost con-
fidentiality. This move allowed development
of a special lithium cell for LWD tools.
Metallic tube Because LWD tools are part of the drillstring,
Each cell contains
proprietary structures the tool and battery pack must endure hun-
for extra ruggedness. dreds of hours of drilling without failures. In
addition, since batteries are a throw-away
Stiffening Bore
item, the LWD battery not only had to use
elements
Cells cost-effective packaging, but also had to rely
on intrinsically rugged cells to help ensure
A A
an overall inexpensive pack (left). After
developing the first custom cylindrical cells,
Section A-A
battery evolution at SPT accelerated. A range
of cylindrical cells of varying diameters,
lengths and electrode structures was devel-
oped. The next customized battery develop-
ment was the unique annular cell.
Downhole tools used inside or in conjunc-
tion with oilfield tubulars are cylindrical or
annular. Depending on the tool, battery
compartments are also annular, so the bat-
tery and enclosed cells can be annular as
well (below). The advantages of annular bat-
teries are fewer cells, higher capacity, thin-
ner cross sections, lower usage cost and
Bottom improved reliability. A large annular cell
replacing an ensemble of small cells in a
carousel array requires fewer connections.
■Batteries for drilling. Because MWD and LWD tools are subjected to extended shocks By using annular shapes, it is easier to max-
and vibration, power sources for these applications rely on rugged cell and battery imize cell life and minimize the tool volume
packaging to meet performance and reliability requirements. that batteries take up. The annular battery also
has a relatively large ID, which minimizes
mud or hydrocarbon flowing pressure drop.
Annular Pack Designs These benefits were verified in two diverse
battery types previously composed of cylin-
drical cells—the Schlumberger Wireline &
Testing IRIS Intelligent Remote Implementa-
tion System tool and Anadrill LWD batteries.
After annular batteries for these tools were
introduced in 1992, other custom cells fol-
lowed quickly. The ARC5 Array Resistivity
Compensated and RAB Resistivity-at-the-Bit
tools have the same annular design, but dif-
fer in ID, OD, length and electrode structure.

Cylindrical cells Annular cells

■Annular cell designs. For annular shapes it is easier to maximize battery life and
minimize required volume compared to carousel-style cylindrical cells. Annular cell
packs also have fewer electrical connections and are more robust.

50 Oilfield Review
Design Considerations
Past unrealistic tool designer and field end-
user expectations highlight confusion and
misunderstandings that exist about batteries.
Cell specifications have included a wide
range of requirements in unique and some-
times conflicting combinations—small,
lightweight, waterproof, long-lasting, never
deplete prematurely, work at any temperature
with all tools, easy to install and remove,
reusable and rechargeable in or out of the
tool for an unlimited number of times, mea-
sure remaining power capacity, long shelf life
and no shipping or disposal restrictions.
Tool requirements are dictated by end
users in the field. There are, however, many
specifications that should be defined by tool
designers and battery-specific considera-
tions that should be addressed early in the
development process. Ideally, these issues
should be dealt with before tool electronics
are planned and designed in order to
decrease battery costs and make tools more
“battery friendly.”
Costs can be reduced by minimizing tool
power and voltage requirements. Lower volt-
age means fewer cells and less expensive
packs. By making packs with larger annular
cells, fewer cells are needed to increase
capacity, more power and longer life are
available per cell and assembly costs are
less. Future rechargeable cell designs could
also reduce cost.
Batteries can be sized for single jobs, or
packs with larger custom cells can be used
multiple times. Tools should be able to
function through the end of battery life and
then shut down safely. Innovative manage-
ment and depletion techniques will help
better utilize battery capacity and allow
maximum power to be squeezed out of
each pack. Remaining battery life and
available power can be measured by
devices in the pack or the tool can track
cumulative hours of operation.
Autumn 1998
Tools can be made battery friendly by using
a constant or slowly varying load, not
exceeding battery power limits and avoiding
no-load conditions under high-temperature
operation. Battery designs should consider
the electrical load hierarchy (easy to hard) for
batteries—constant resistor, constant current
and power, and short “on” (low-duty) or long
“on” (high-duty) cycles.
Tools need to be fault-tolerant (immune to
short periods of low voltage), function at low
voltage and have a low-power delay for sur-
face check-out or long service. Current
requirements should be reduced as voltage
goes down for benign end-of-life loads and
cumulative amp-hours as well as tempera-
ture should be recorded to efficiently man-
age tool power and battery life.
To make batteries easy and safe to use,
there should be external voltage access and
a disconnect mechanism when battery packs
are installed. Concentric connector termi-
nals should be used if possible, and batteries
should not be a force- or load-bearing tool
component. A pressure seal between the bat-
tery compartment and tool electronics is
desirable, and an external leak indicator is
also needed.
In addition to SPT Power Source Products
Group experience and technical expertise,
other less visible factors like a systems design
approach positively influence battery tech-
nology implementation. Consolidating and
prioritizing user expectations are done early
in battery development, ideally before tool
electronics are designed.
■Battery Design Input: A System-Level Approach.
Specifications Battery
developer
Chemistry X
Battery shape
Cell design X
Tool load
Battery-tool interface X X
Use environment
Safety requirement X X
Battery cost X X
Shipping and disposal X X
The Design Process
When a battery is requested, many parame-
ters need to be specified by both battery and
tool developers before cell design and devel-
opment are initiated (below). The goal is to
establish mutually agreed, achievable objec-
tives based on realistic input and constraints,
so user expectations can be met. Using bat-
teries or cells developed and tested previously
is also an option. Cells from a proven battery
can be adapted to meet new requirements—
more or less cells or different packaging.
Battery specifications need to detail deliv-
erables, schedules and testing. To initiate the
design process, a project resumé stating the
requirements that batteries must fulfill is pre-
pared (see “LWD Battery Project Resumé,
next page). This record, which also helps
designers optimize tool electronics to use
batteries efficiently, includes operating tem-
peratures, tool-specific power consumption,
pack and minimum operating voltage, shelf
and operating life at various temperatures,
physical dimensions, mechanical shock,
vibration and safety testing, and transporta-
tion certification. The project resumé, ini-
tially written by tool designers for battery
developers and subsequently modified by
both parties, documents the design process.
After completion of a project resumé, engi-
neers design and test prototype batteries. The
next step is pilot testing. Batteries are built and
run on actual jobs in the field under the super-
vision of tool designers. After a predetermined
number of successful jobs, the batteries and
tools go into the commercialization phase.
Input Responsibility
Tool End user
designer
X
X
X X
X
51
 Qualification Testing
LWD Battery Project Resumé The battery qualification program was opti-
mized after years of testing and analysis.
Upon completion of safety, electrical and
mechanical qualification testing at SPT, bat-
Objective
teries are manufactured for field tests. Tool,
Develop custom lithium battery to power LWD tool. Tool will be subjected to unusual shock and vibration
field and SPT battery engineers work closely
stimuli at temperatures exceeding 150° C.
during testing. Any issues that arise from field
Description tests are addressed quickly to obtain a quality
The pack will fit inside the LWD tool battery compartment (see dimensions below) and provide N watts product that meets or exceeds expectations.
of tool power for Y days at 175° C. Staffed with a research team, electrical and
mechanical design engineers, and techni-
Technical and performance advantages cians, SPT fully supports battery sustaining
This battery must provide uninterrupted power for continuous tool operation during drilling. Previous issues anywhere in the world.
tools suffered intermittent power outages due to mechanically induced battery short circuits. High power A blast-resistant building was built at SPT
capacity is required to ensure tool operation during the total life of a drill bit. specifically to perform qualification tests and
troubleshooting. The Battery Electrical and
General specifications Shock Testing (BEST) facility has 10 explo-
Description Target Current Verification sion-resistant bays with ovens, specially
Dimensions designed shock machines, and a control
Length, in. 24 28 C, L room in which tests in each bay are moni-
OD, in. 2.5 2.8 C, L tored by computers (next page, left). Testing
Connector termination TBD – L capability of the BEST facility is being
Power expanded due to the increased number of
Open circuit voltage (OCV) 29 Same L
tools and new business opportunities requir-
Minimum voltage 20 Same L
ing special batteries. Battery manufacturing
Nominal current, amps 0.3 TBD L, F
and engineering at SPT achieved ISO 9001
Independent operation, days 14 TBD L, F
Temperature range 0 to 175° C TBD L, F
certification in August 1996.
Mechanical shock TBD TBD L, F Tests are sometimes conducted to deter-
Price, $USD <500 TBD E mine failure modes and severity, and to
Legend ensure that batteries are not operated near
C: Design calculations E: Experience from previous study F: Field testing failure. Cells in various stages of depletion
L: Laboratory testing TBD: To be determined are placed in a pressure vessel and subjected
to 15,000 psi [103 MPa] at temperatures up
Feasibility status and development plans to 302°F [150°C] to simulate flooding of a
In this section, battery users and designers list concerns, specific technical challenges and issues that battery housing. Battery packs are also
affect timely development of the proposed battery. Previous work that may serve as a guide is typically placed in a tool and heated until they
included in this section. explode to verify that tools can be recovered
in the event of a downhole failure. Cells with
As projects progress, this section is used to document changes to original specifications or schedules. various types of lithium chemistry are tested
Updates are performed at specific milestones during product development reviews as indicated in the to determine the temperatures that can be
schedule. Changes and input are made as needed and communicated to users or battery designers when tolerated without affecting battery perfor-
they occur. mance or compromising safety. Cells have
even been crushed hydraulically to simulate
Schedule being dropped or physically damaged.
Plan Actual A short circuit can occur accidentally dur-
Project launch First quarter 1998 First quarter 1998 ing manufacturing and assembly or in severe
Feasibility review Second quarter 1998 Second quarter 1998 field conditions. Safety is of utmost impor-
Field prototype available Third quarter 1998 Fourth quarter 1998 tance, so tests are performed to determine if
Field test conclusion First quarter 1999 TBD the cells can withstand a direct short without
Commercialization Second quarter 1999 TBD leaking or venting. New batteries undergo
short-circuit testing at room temperature and
Project team 122°F [50°C] to confirm that cells are safe at
These groups represent the core team that is responsible for the development of specific batteries. all ambient temperature conditions.
Typically, each battery developer has three to five projects, as well as field support responsibility for To assess battery autonomy, electrical tests
batteries developed previously. are performed at the cell and pack levels.
Battery developer Tool designer Initial testing is performed on the cells with a
Assigned engineer Project leader static resistive or constant current load to
Mechanical engineer Mechanical engineer determine cell performance at the maximum
Electrical engineer Electrical engineer rated temperature. Results are analyzed and, if
Mechanical or electrical technician necessary, the cell is redesigned. Next, a sim-
Manufacturing engineer
Buyer

52 Oilfield Review
 ■Battery shock and vibration testing.

ulated pack consisting of the proper number

of cells is tested at the maximum rated tem-
perature under simulated tool load. Once
autonomy as defined by the project resumé is
confirmed, mechanical qualification begins.
One of the toughest environments for a
battery in the oil field is MWD service, which
often positions the batteries directly above
the drill bit. The MWD batteries undergo rig-
orous mechanical and electrical qualifica-
tion tests to ensure that they can withstand
drilling shocks and vibrations while supply-
ing continuous power to operate the tool.
A battery pack is manufactured for
mechanical testing. New batteries are placed
in mock-up housings and mandrels with the
same electrical connections as actual tools.
By using a custom shock machine and spec-
ifications similar to those used for qualifying
MWD and LWD tools, every lithium battery
design is shock and vibration tested prior to
field testing. During testing, battery voltage is
monitored to check for packaging damage,
cell leaks and electrical integrity (above).
Once shock testing is complete, the battery
is placed in a test bay and cycled from max-
imum rated temperature to room tempera-
ture while being depleted. Thermal cycling is
■Testing. The Schlumberger Battery Electrical and Shock Testing (BEST) repeated until the end-of-life voltage is
facility (top) in Rosharon, Texas, is equipped with 10 blast-resistant test reached. These tests are needed because bat-
bays with ovens (middle), a specialized shock and vibration apparatus,
teries are used multiple times during their
and control room with computers to monitor each bay (bottom). This
facility is being used for both internal Schlumberger battery qualifica- service life. The battery is checked for physi-
tions and outside testing services. cal and electrical damage to determine if
there are problems with swelling, internal
wiring or cell venting. The battery is then
depleted and thermal cycled again to deter-
mine deep discharge effects.
Battery packs manufactured at SPT undergo
qualification tests to meet US and interna-
tional certification for transportation of
lithium batteries in cargo aircraft. In 1997, the

Autumn 1998 53
US Department of Transportation (DOT) first type opens and closes valves to control
revised testing requirements to incorporate downhole flow remotely. The second tool
more stringent testing than was previously records pressure during the period of flow.
done for shipping regulation compliance. Six The first requires short power pulses
series of tests are now required for lithium repeated up to 30 times, while the second,
batteries—altitude simulation, extreme tem- like production logging tools, requires con-
perature and short circuit; vibration, shock stant low power.
and short circuit; vibration, shock and Controlling direction and measuring while
charge; internal short circuit; vibration, shock drilling—Drilling control and measure-
and low-capacity cell; and forced discharge. ments-while-drilling are the most demand-
In some instances, vibration testing is ing and critical of all battery applications. In
required to make sure that the resonant fre- these applications, tools are located just
quency of a battery pack is not reached, above the drill bit and subjected to tremen-
which could result in failure during trans- dous shock and vibration, and rugged cus-
portation. A cumulative database that is tom battery designs offer distinct advantages.
kept with each Project Resumé includes Batteries need to last for the life of a drill bit,
performance and DOT test results, design up to two weeks. Temperatures of most jobs
drawings and communications, key docu- are 212°F [100°C], but in some cases they
ments, and e-mails or messages that affect climb above 150°C when mud circulation
project milestones. stops. These batteries are usually either short
with large diameters or long with small
Oilfield Applications diameters depending on the tool.
Dozens of battery types are manufactured Acquiring seismic data—In exploration
by SPT for three service sectors—wireline applications, tools on streamers behind spe-
logging and well testing, measurements- cially equipped vessels or in land equipment
while-drilling and seismic surveys. Each require power to record seismic surveys.
battery has different requirements and spe- Marine batteries power a clamp-on tool that
cifications (below). gives streamers lift for depth control and pro-
Logging, monitoring and testing wells— vide compass location information. Normally,
Tools to monitor flow, pressure and tempera- marine tools use nonrechargeable and land
ture are typically small and mandrel-shaped, tools use rechargeable batteries. Operating
and fit inside production tubing. Run time temperatures range from 0 to 50°C. Critical
can be a few hours or more than two weeks. factors for marine batteries are operating lives
Well conditions are often below 150°C, measured in months and safe handling char-
although temperatures as high as 200°C are acteristics. Marine batteries are typically
encountered in limited severe service. Power shorter than 24 inches, about 2 inches in
consumption is usually less than a watt. diameter, and weigh less than 5 pounds.
Semipermanent monitors are small—about Battery disposal—In the past, disposal of
1.2-in. OD—tools placed on tubing hangers lithium batteries was left for field organiza-
to record pressure and time for long-term tions to handle. The Power Source Products
monitoring of hydrocarbon flow in produc- group recently took over responsibility for
ing fields. Operations can last up to 90 days, disposing of lithium cells manufactured by
but temperatures are usually below 320°F SPT. For no additional cost, field locations
[160°C]. Power requirements are low, typi- worldwide can now transport used batteries
cally less than an eighth of a watt. to a facility in Cuyanosa, Texas for safe and
Drillstem testing (DST) involves temporary efficient disposal. This uniform process can
production of formation intervals. There are minimize user costs, hassles, adverse envi-
two types of battery-operated DST tools. The ronmental effects and liability.
■Oilfield Battery Applications.
Typical Typical Voltage Energy
battery battery potential, capacity,
Service type OD, in. length, in. V A-hr
Wireline logging 1 to 1.5 15 7 12 to 28
Drilling measurements 1.5 to 4.5 25 to 100 20 to 60 28 to 30
Seismic data acquisition 2 15 7 34
54
Longer Life: New Power Source Directions
There are several ways to extend the usable
life of batteries. The first, managing electrical
loads, is essential in a total power source
design and development program. Two other
keys to improving battery service are the
capability to measure and track remaining
power, and innovative methods to get maxi-
mum capacity from a battery. Each method
ensures that batteries are fully depleted
before discarding.
Battery-life indicator—One way to achieve
maximum battery consumption is to measure
elapsed A-hr. A battery can be retired when a
majority—80% to allow for safety margin—of
the capacity is consumed. The best place to
record A-hr is in the tool, rather than in the
battery. In this way, electronics can be easily
altered to record time and tool load, and a
database of battery performance can be gen-
erated. Adding electronics to batteries
increases cost in addition to reducing reliabil-
ity and independent operation.
A major disadvantage of tool-resident elec-
tronics is that if a battery is removed from the
tool, the A-hr record is decoupled from the
pack unless field personnel make a note on
the pack. Either way, a mark must be made
on the battery to record remaining life. The
best method is one that is integral to the bat-
tery and does not depend on recording
elapsed parameters. Ideally, a battery-life
indicator should be compatible with existing
tools and associated directly with the battery.
Battery-life indication for lithium thionyl
chloride chemistry is difficult because most
measurable parameters, like voltage and
internal resistance, do not vary appreciably
with discharge until near the end of battery
life.3 In addition, general lithium battery volt-
age performance at ambient temperatures
depends greatly on the growth of LiCl sur-
face layers at the internal electrodes, which
results in cell passivation. At elevated tem-
peratures, passivation effects are significantly
diminished. Electronic interrogation of bat-
teries to determine remaining life is also
complicated by additional internal battery
resistance, which depends on thermal and
load history as well as temperature.
3. Milewits M: “A Novel Method to Determine Lithium
Battery State of Charge,” in Savadogo O and Roberge
PR (eds): Proceedings, Second International
Symposium on New Materials for Fuel Cell and
Modern Battery Systems. Montreal, Quebec, Canada:
Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal (1997): 358-367.
Milewits M: “Intrinsic Method to Determine Lithium
Thionyl Chloride Battery Capacity,” presented at the
38th Power Sources Conference, Cherry Hill, New
Jersey, USA, June 8-11, 1998: 65-68.
Oilfield Review
 Tool run 1
Pack A Pack A
Position 1 (100 hr) (50 hr)
Pack B Pack B
Position 2
(100 hr) (98 hr)
Start Logging
■Sequential MWD and LWD battery depletion. The battery pack in first position is removed from the tool at the surface. The pack from
second position, which was operating on standby current and as a backup power source, is moved into first position. A new battery is
placed in second position. This procedure ensures that a “fresh” battery pack is available if a drill-bit run is longer than anticipated.
The anode electrode structure can be
altered to overcome these restrictions and
give an indication of the depth of discharge
upon application of a defined load at ambi-
ent temperatures. Typically, for oilfield appli-
cations, depletion is at high temperature, but
interrogation occurs between jobs at ambi-
ent conditions. Battery-life indication was
demonstrated in the field with the UNIGAGE
well-testing battery for pressure and temper-
ature recording. This battery is scheduled to
be commercial in late 1998.
Sequential depletion—The need for con-
stant power on MWD jobs prompted a new
method of salvaging batteries and extending
operating life. To ensure that tools would not
run out of power during a drilling job, field
engineers put in new battery packs when a
tool was tripped out of a well. This procedure
was followed even if a battery was only par-
tially depleted. As a result, there was a large
Autumn 1998
Pack A Pack B
(0 hr) Position 1 (96 hr)
Switch
pack
Pack B Pack C
Position 2
(96 hr) (100 hr)
Finish Start
backlog of partially used batteries in the field
that engineers were reluctant to re-use.
To overcome this problem, during a
planned upgrade of tool sensors, the power
electronics were modified to allow more effi-
cient battery usage. This “sequential deple-
tion” method was conceived and
implemented by Anadrill engineering. It
requires the use of two packs, one at a time,
in temporal sequence. While the first battery
provides primary power, the second battery
is on standby with a small background cur-
rent load to minimize passivation.
Switching and replacement occur at the
surface. A two-battery configuration allows
maximum power to be extracted from each
pack and there is a fresh battery in case of
an extended run with a partially depleted
pack (above).
Tool run 2
Pack B Pack B
(46 hr) (0 hr)
Pack C Pack C
(98 hr) (96 hr)
Logging Finish
Rechargeables
Rechargeable, or secondary batteries, are
used in automobiles, power backup systems,
energy storage and consumer electronics.
Recharge capability depends on the electro-
chemical reaction. Primary battery reactions
are irreversible. When the active materials
are consumed during discharge, the battery
is completely depleted. For rechargeables,
reactions at the anode and cathode are
reversible. Active materials on both elec-
trodes can almost be fully recovered by elec-
tronic recharging.
Although a secondary battery is typically
less costly than the corresponding number of
required primary batteries, there are disad-
vantages. Rechargeables typically have a
third to a quarter of the energy density of pri-
mary batteries. Secondary cells have higher
self-discharge rates, their capacity varies
with each recharge cycle, and special equip-
ment and training are required to properly
recharge the battery. There are three major
55
■Energy densities of Smaller
common secondary
batteries. Chemistries
with the highest vol-
Volumetric energy density, W-hr/kg
umetric and grav-
metric energy con-
tent make the
smallest and lightest
rechargeable cells,
respectively. How-
ever, the energy
densities of most
practical secondary
batteries are far less
than primary elec-
trochemistries like
lithium thionyl
chloride.
rechargeable chemistries—lead-acid, alka-
line with nickel cathode and nonaqueous
with lithium anode (above).
Lead-acid—Cells based on lead-acid
chemistry have been around since Gaston
Plante developed the first practical battery in
1859, and are familiar for starting and light-
ing vehicles, and uninterrupted stand-by
power. Heavy weight, and low gravimetric
and volumetric energy density limit portable
electronic applications.
Alkaline with nickel cathode—Alkaline
batteries are currently the most popular
rechargeables for portable electronics.
These batteries include nickel-cadmium
[Ni-Cd], nickel-metal hydride [Ni-MH],
nickel-zinc [Ni-Zn] and nickel-iron [Ni-Fe]
cells. The cathode is a nickel electrode
[NiOOH/Ni(OH)2] and potassium hydroxide
[KOH] is the common electrolyte. The Ni-Fe
battery with heavier iron anode and less
gravimetric energy density is not widely
used. The Ni-Zn battery, due to the cycle lim-
itation of a Zn anode, is still in development.
The Ni-MH battery with higher energy den-
sity and similar discharge performance, but
fewer environmental concerns, is replacing
the Ni-Cd battery in portable electronics.
Nonaqueous with lithium anode—These
advanced batteries include lithium-ion and
lithium-metal polymer chemistries. Lithium-
ion batteries, with the highest energy density
of rechargeables, are produced at a rate of
several million per month for consumer elec-
tronics. Lithiated carbon [LiC6] is the anode,
lithium metal oxide is the cathode and the
electrolyte is a nonaqueous organic solution.
By replacing liquid electrolyte with a solid
polymer electrolyte, the lithium polymer bat-
tery achieves the versatility and safety of an
all-solid design. The dry polymer electrolyte
plays a dual role as ionic conductor for a
56
400
350
300
250
200
Li-Ion
Ni-MH
150
Ni-Cd
100
Acid
Pb-
50
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Gravimetric energy density, W-hr/kg
Lighter
current pathway and electronic insulator—
separator—inside the battery. Solid-state
lithium polymer cells for industrial applica-
tions are under development.
For surface application at ambient temper-
ature, commercial Ni-MH, lithium-ion and
lithium metal rechargeable batteries may
potentially replace lead-acid batteries. The
high energy density could reduce the size
and weight of battery packs. Presently, how-
ever, these advanced batteries are limited by
their relatively small size. The largest com-
mercially available size is only about 5 A-hr
compared with 50 to 100 A-hr (typical car
battery), which are normally found in lead-
acid batteries. To put the same energy into a
battery pack, larger numbers of cells need to
be connected in series or parallel. The result-
ing battery management becomes more
complex during charge and discharge. In
addition, designing a rugged mechanical
package that houses many small cells and
survives high shock is challenging.
Designing the largest cell size possible is
clearly the way to proceed for optimal per-
formance and reliability of both primary and
secondary cells.
For downhole application, aqueous alka-
line and lithium-ion cells are not suited for
high temperature because of the low boiling
point of liquid electrolytes—aqueous and
nonaqueous. However, a lithium-metal poly-
mer rechargeable battery with solid elec-
trolyte adds little vapor pressure to the battery
and is less prone to volatile reaction with the
lithium anode. In addition, the plastic char-
acteristics of the polymer electrolyte allow
thin laminates to be placed on the lithium
metal surface to enhance thermal and electri-
cal conductivity, and uniform current distri-
bution. Manufacturing involves winding a
tight spiral wrap of three thin electrodes—
lithium foil laminate, lithium ion-conducting
polymer electrolyte and a layer of cathode
material. This geometry minimizes ion diffu-
sion losses across the polymer film and
enhances charge and discharge efficiency.
It is possible that a high-temperature sta-
ble polymer will be developed for down-
hole use. Obstacles like thermal stability,
manufacturing feasibility and cost are cur-
rently being addressed. In addition, other
rechargeable chemistries are being moni-
tored and evaluated for potential use in
high-temperature markets.
Fuel Cells
Fuel cells (FC) also generate power from elec-
trochemical reactions, but unlike batteries,
which have a finite amount of chemicals, fuel
is stored separately from the reaction zone.
Theoretically, a fuel cell will run forever if
fuel and oxidizer are supplied continuously.
Small fuel cells (less than 500 watts) can
replace batteries in some ambient surface
applications. If power is required for long
periods of time, fuel cells have an advantage
over batteries because the fuel source is
expandable and renewable. Fuel cells can
also have a higher energy density than bat-
teries with resident fixed chemical supplies if
designed properly. Tripling battery life
requires a cell that is three times larger, but
only the fuel tank size needs to be tripled for
a fuel cell. Three types of fuel cells are appli-
cable at low or medium temperatures.
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel
cells use an ion exchange membrane elec-
trolyte. A polymer film with good acid func-
tionality provides higher proton mobility for
high power density. The typical PEMFC
operating temperature is from 68 to 212°F
[20 to 100°C]. These fuel cells can be sized
for milliwatt to kilowatt power. In smaller
sizes, the systems are simple with few mov-
ing parts, start quickly and can be throttled
up and down rapidly. Presently, high cost
limits wide application.
No fuel cell is right for all applications. For
small 10-W to 1-kW portable applications,
the PEMFC offers the most advantages and a
great deal of flexibility, ranging from passive
systems with no moving parts for low-
power applications to systems with the
complexity and power output of internal
combustion engines.
These systems can use hydrogen or
methanol directly as fuel. For surface appli-
cations, an air-breathing system is used
instead of pure oxygen to supply oxidizer. A
direct methanol PEMFC permits the conve-
nient use of a liquid fuel that is easy to trans-
port. Refueling is like filling the gas tank on
a lawn mower. A hydrogen-fueled PEMFC is
Oilfield Review
 Load
Electron flow
- (H2O)
e
+
H
Anode
(H2)
Hydrogen fuel
Proton conducting membrane
Anode reaction: Cathode reaction:
+ -
H2 2H +2e O2+4H +4e
■Typical fuel cell process.
refueled by pressurized tank. Because hydro-
gen oxidation electrocatalysts support cur-
rent densities an order of magnitude greater
than methanol oxidation electrocatalysts and
oxidize hydrogen at a higher cell potential
than methanol can be oxidized, a hydrogen-
fueled PEMFC operates at higher power den-
sity. This leads to smaller systems to meet
given power requirements. Safer gas storage,
such as metal hydride hydrogen devices, are
available. Hydrogen stored as a metal
hydride is not under high pressure. If the tank
ruptures, release is slow and hydrogen dissi-
pates quickly instead of pooling like propane
or butane because it is lighter than air and
has a rapid diffusion rate.
The phosphoric acid fuel cell uses liquid
phosphoric acid in an inorganic matrix as
the electrolyte and must operate at 302 to
428°F [150 to 220°C] due to the poor acid
ionic conductivity at low temperatures. The
phosphoric acid FC is the most advanced
system for commercial power generation.
High operating temperatures and low power
density—the major disadvantage—make this
system suitable only for multikilowatt sta-
tionary applications, but it is efficient in this
role. Most phosphoric acid FCs operate on
natural gas from pipelines or on-site storage.
Autumn 1998
Water and
waste heat
Cathode
(O2)
Air supply
+ -
2H2O
■Battery manufacturing, packing and shipping at SPT.
Alkaline fuel cells, which are used in the
space shuttle, employ aqueous potassium
hydroxide [KOH] as the ionic conducting
electrolyte. The operating temperature range
is 68 to 248°F [20 to 120°C]. A fundamental
problem limiting alkaline FC use is sensitiv-
ity of the basic electrolyte (aqueous KOH) to
carbon dioxide [CO2], which forms potas-
sium carbonate [K2CO3] and precipitates.
These systems use only pure oxygen, making
them impractical in most applications.
Fuel cells generate waste heat as a result of
chemical inefficiency. The key reaction in
most fuel cells is hydrogen oxidation. In a
fuel cell, this process is split into two half-
cell reactions that are carried out separately.
In an acid-type, PEMFC for example, hydro-
gen is oxidized to produce protons and elec-
trons at the anode. Protons pass through an
acid electrolyte to the cathode, where oxy-
gen is reduced to form water. The electrolyte
is an electronic insulator, so electrons cannot
pass to the cathode; instead they flow to the
external circuit, providing electric current.
Fuel cells use pure oxygen or collect air from
the atmosphere (above left).
The full range of fuel cell applications is
being studied at SPT. Not only are physical
and mechanical constraints—confining
geometry, high shock, wide temperature
ranges—tighter, but costs are also higher
than for batteries. If extended life and safe
high power are to be realized, these obsta-
cles must be overcome.
A Systems Engineering Approach
By utilizing modern manufacturing and test-
ing facilities, and an expanding base of
knowledge, expertise and experience,
Schlumberger Perforating & Testing develops,
designs and manufactures battery packs for a
variety of oilfield services and measurement
applications (above). These developments
include custom mandrel packs made with
cylindrical and annular cells, which currently
use liquid cathode lithium chemistries and
unique, proprietary electrode constructions.
Higher temperature cells for greater than
200°C, solid-cathode rechargeable cells and
other new power-source technologies are cur-
rently being pursued for oilfield services and
other applications outside of the industry.
As in the case of primary batteries, the key
to successful, cost-effective, high-perfor-
mance secondary batteries and fuel cells is
concurrent engineering of mechanical, elec-
trical and operational tool factors—a systems
approach. This approach helps battery engi-
neers, tool designers and end users meet the
challenges of supplying power to advanced
downhole and surface tools. —MET
57