Vector Analysis

UECM1653 Mathematics for Engineering I
UECM1683 Mathematics for Physics I
Topic 1: LINEAR ALGEBRA and VECTOR ANALYSIS
Introduction
In the physical world, there are quantities that have only magnitudes, but no directions. These
are known as scalar quantities or scalars. For examples, length, volume, mass, energy and
temperature are scalars.
On the other hand, there exist many physical quantities that have both magnitudes as well as
directions. They are known as vector quantities or vectors. Examples of vector quantities
include velocity, acceleration, angular velocity, force, momentum and electromagnetic field.
Vector algebra and vector calculus allow equations describing physical laws involving vector
quantities such as force (for example, Newton’s law of motion) and electromagnetic field
(Maxwell equations) to be written in compact and elegant form.
In this chapter we shall be mainly concerned with vectors in two or three dimensional space.
Basic properties of vector algebra and their geometric interpretations will be given.
Definition:
A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction.

Let ⃗ as a vector.
The magnitude of ⃗ is ‖ ⃗‖ . ‖ ⃗‖ ⃗
‖ ⃗‖ is a scalar quantity.
1
Definition:
Two vectors a and b are equal; that is, a = b, if and only if a and b have the same magnitude
and direction.
If and ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ , then a = b .
Definition:
A zero vector or null vector 0, is a vector whose magnitude is zero and whose direction is
indeterminate.
Definition:
The magnitude of a two-dimensional vector is
‖ ‖ √
Similarly, the magnitude of a three-dimensional vector
‖ ‖ √
Definition:
A unit vector, denoted by ̂ , is a vector having unit magnitude, which is ‖ ̂‖ ,
̂
‖ ‖
2
Definition:
The negative vector of a given vector a, denoted by is a vector having the same
magnitude as a, but a direction is opposite to that of a.
a =−b  b=−a
Three- Dimensional Cartesian Coordinates and Position Vector
Let us consider a Cartesian coordinate system in three-dimensional Euclidean space R3 (or 3-

space), obtained by introducing three mutually perpendicular axes, labeled x, y and z. The
origin O, has coordinates and we often speak of the ordered triple as the
coordinates of any point P in 3-space.
Let ̂ denote the unit vector parallel to the x-axis, in the positive x direction, ̂ the unit vector
in the positive y direction, and ̂ the unit vector in the positive z direction. Any vector a in 3-
space can be represented with initial point at the origin O. Let be the
coordinate of the terminal point of vector a. Then vectors ̂ ̂ ̂ are called the
component vectors of a, whereas and are called the component of a in the x, y and
z directions respectively. In terms of these component vectors, a can be uniquely expressed as
̂ ̂ ̂
and vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is called the position vector from O to the terminal point .
Geometrically, In the 3-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, we can determine each

point by its position vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ , whose initial point in
the origin and whose terminal point is A. Therefore each vector can be uniquely determined
by its ordered triple of corresponding components. Accordingly, we have
̂ ̂ ̂ and
̂ ̂ ̂
3
4
Example 1:
Which points satisfy the equations
Solution:
Because , the points lie in the horizontal plane . Because , the

points lie on the circle with radius 1 and center on the z-axis.
Definition:
The distance | | between the points and is
| | √
For two dimensional points and is
| | √
Example 2:
Find a unit vector for a = < 4, − 3> and b = < 1, 2, 2 >
Solution:
̂
‖ ‖ √
̂
‖ ‖ √
5
Example 3:
For and
i. Find the unit vector corresponding to vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
ii. Find the distance between points P and Q.
Solution:
i. The coordinate of vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is given by
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
So
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
The magnitude of vector is
|⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | √
The corresponding unit vector is
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
̂
|⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
ii. The distance between points P and Q is

| | √
Algebra of vectors
Addition
Given two vectors a and b, the sum of vectors a and b
c=a+b
is a unique vector c formed by placing the initial point of b on the terminal point of a and
then joining the initial point of a to the terminal point of b. This is called the triangle law of
vector addition. Geometrically, we have
6
Subtraction
Given two vectors a and b, the difference of vectors a and b, represented by a − b, is defined
as the sum of a and − b; that is,
a − b = a + (− b)
Remark
(i). If a = b, then a − b is defined as the null vector. Therefore we obtain a − a = 0 for any
vector a.
(ii). As a consequence of (i), we obtain the following properties:

If a + b = 0, then either a = − b or a = b = 0.
Multiplication of Vectors by Scalars
Let k be any scalar, and a be any vector. The product of a vector a by a scalar k is a vector ka
with magnitude | | times the magnitude of a and pointing in the same direction if k is
positive or in the opposite direction (if k is negative). Any vector ka is called a scalar multiple
of a.
7
If and then
Example 4:
For the vectors and , find and .
Solution:
Example 5:
Given , and .
(a) Find the vector
(b) Find the magnitude of and unit vector of
Solution:
8
〈 〉
̂ 〈 〉
‖ ‖ √ √ √ √
Properties of vector
If a, b and c are vectors and m and n are scalars, then we have the
following properties:
(a) a + b = b + a (Commutative Law of Addition)

(b) a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c (Associative Law of Addition)
(c) ma = am (Commutative Law of Scalar Multiplication)
(d) m(na) = (mn)a (Associative Law of Scalar Multiplication)
(e) (m + n)a = ma + na (Distributive Law)
(f) m(a + b) = ma + mb (Distributive Law)
(g) a + 0 = 0 + a = a
Dot Product (scalar product)
If and , then the dot product of a and b is the value

given by
‖ ‖‖ ‖
9
Properties of dot product

For any vectors a, b, c and scalars m and n, the dot product has the following
properties:
(i) (Commutative Law)
(ii) (Distributive Law)
(iii) (Distributive Law)
(iv)
(v) (Linearity)
(vi) If and a and b are not zero vector then a and b are orthogonal.
Example 6:
Given , and .
Show
Solution:
Cross Product
If and , then the cross product of a and b is the

vector given by
| | ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖‖ ‖
10
Properties of Cross Product

For any vectors a, b, c and scalars m and n, the vector product has the following
properties:
(i) a × b = −b × a
(ii) a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c (Distributive Law)
(iii) (a + b) × c = a × c + b × c (Distributive Law)
(iv) a×0=a×0=0
(v) a×a=0
(vi) i×i = j× j = k ×k = 0 and
i× j = k, j×k = i, k ×i = j
(vii) If a × b = 0 and a and b are not zero vector then a and b are parallel.
Note: Cross product is not commutative and associative, that is,
Example 7:
Find a × b where a = 2i + 3k and b = 7i − j− 4k.
Solution:
11
| |
[ ] [ ] [ ]
Applications of vectors
Vectors are useful in many aspects of physics and engineering, such as forces.
A force represented by a vector because it has both a magnitude (measured in pounds or
newtons) and a direction. If several forces are active on an object, the resultant force
experienced with the object is the vector sum of these forces.
Example 8:
A wagon is pulled a distance of 100 m along a horizontal path by a constant force of 70 N.
The handle of the wagon is held at an angle of 350 above the horizontal. Find the work done
by the force.
Solution:
If the F and D are the force and displacement vector as

figure, then the work done is
‖ ‖‖ ‖
= (70)(100) cos 350
= 5734 Nm
= 5734 J
Example 9:
A bolt is tightened by applying a 40 N force to a 0.25m wrench as shown in figure. Find the
magnitude of the torque about the center of the bolt.
12
The magnitude of the torque vector is
‖ ‖ ‖ ‖
‖ ‖ ‖ ‖
Example 10: Jan 2013

A 200-lb weight hangs from two wires as shown in the following figure. Find the tension
(forces) T1 and T2 in both wires and the magnitudes of the tensions.
Solution:
First, we express T1 and T2 in terms of their horizontal and vertical components,
| | | |
| | | |
The resultant T1 + T2 of the tensions counterbalance the weight w and so we have
13
Thus,
| | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Equating components, we get
| | | |
| | | |
Solve (1) and (2), we get

| | | |
Tension vectors is
Triple Products
The scalar triple product of the vectors a, b, and c is given by
| |
Example 11:
Volume Interpretation of the Scalar Triple Product
Let a , b and c be nonzero vectors which do not all lie in the same plane. Then the absolute
value of the scalar triple product is the volume (V) of the parallelepiped, that is
| || | | | | |
14
Example 12:
Let a = < 2,3,−1> , b = < 0,3,1> and c = < 4,2,2 >. Find the volume of the parallelepiped
determined by a, b and c.
Solution:
| |
Exercise 1:
If the vectors in the figure satisfy | | | | and , what is | | ?
Solution:
| | | |
| | | |
‖ ‖ √ √
Definition: Vector Equation for a Line
15
Let O be an origin and ⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗ as
position vector for P0 and P,
And let ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , then we can write

⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
The line equation is a vector, equal to
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
Then
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
If the vector v that gives the direction of line L is written in component form as ,
then we have . We can also write and ,
so the vector equation becomes
Two vectors are equal if and only if corresponding components are equal. Therefore we have
which are called parametric equations of the line L through the point and
parallel to the vector . Each value of the parameter gives a point
on L. the numbers and are called direction numbers of L.
Another way of describing a line L is to eliminate parameter t from parametric equations. If

none of a, b, or c is zero, each equation can be solved for t, equate the results, and obtain
These equations are called symmetric equation of line L.
16
Example 13:
a) Find a vector equation and parametric equations for the line that passes through the
point and is parallel to the vector .
b) Find two other points on the line.
Solution:
Example 14:
The line passes through the points with position vectors and
and the line passes through the points with position vectors and
. Find the value of α for which the two lines intersect.
Solution:
L1 : r  5,1,7  t  6  5,0  1,8  7  5,1,7  t  1,1,1 
L2 : r  3,1,3  s  1  3,3  1,  3  3,1,3  s  4,2,  3 
{ {
So 5+ t = 3 – 4s (1)
1 – t = 1 + 2s (2)
7 + t = 3+ s (α – 3) (3)
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From (1) and (2): and

Substitute and into (3) so:
Example 15:
Find the shortest distance between the two skew lines
r1  (0,9,2)  t (3,1,1) and r2  (6,5,10)  s(3,2,4)
Solution:
Let t  s  0 , hence,
P1P2  6,14,8 
n  3,2,4    3,1,1  6,15,3 

 2,5,1 
nˆ 
30
 2,5,1 
d  P1P2  n   6,14,8    3 30
30
Example 16:
Find the shortest distance point to the line r1  (0,9,2)  t (3,1,1)
18
d  AP sin 
AP  1,7,1 
AP  u  (6) 2  (2) 2  20 2  440
AP  u  AP  u sin 
AP  u 440
d  AP sin     2 10
u 11
Example 17:
Find the perpendicular landing point of the point to the line
and also find its distance to the line.
Solution:
r  0,5,2  s  1,2,1  s,5  2s,2  s 
Let M (the landing point) fall on line, hence coordinate of M has the form
PM  OM  OP  s  1,2s,1  s 
PM perpendicular to v  1, - 2, 1 
PM  b  0  s  1,2s,1  s    1,2,1  0
s0
Therefore coordinate of point is (0,5,2), | PM |  2
Exercise 2:
Show that the following lines intersect or not.
Solution:
19
From (1) and (2) :
These values don’t satisfy the third equation.

Substitute to (3):
So and are not intersection. Thus they are skew lines.
Equations for a Plane
A plane in space is determined by a point in the plane and a vector n that is

orthogonal to the plane. This orthogonal vector n is called normal vector. Let be
an arbitrary point in the plane, and let and be the position vectors of and . Then the
vector is represented by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗. The normal vector n is orthogonal to every vector in the
given plane. In particular, n is orthogonal to and so we have
which can be written as
It is called vector equation of the plane.
To obtain a scalar equation for the plane, let , and

〈 〉. Then the vector equation becomes
〈 〉
20
This equation is called scalar equation of the plane through with normal
vector .
Example 18:
Find an equation for the plane through P0 (2, 4, -1) normal to n = 2i + 3j+4k . Then find the
intercepts with axes and sketch the plane.
Solution:
The equation is
2( x  2)  3( y  4)  4( z  (1))  0
2 x  4  3 y  12  4 z  4  0
2 x  3 y  4 z  12
To find the x-intercept consider and from the plane equation . Similarly, the
y-intercept and z-intercept are and .
Example 19:
Find an equation for the plane through A(0,0,1), B(2,0,0) and C(0,3,0) .
Solution:
21
i j k
Normal vector n = AB  AC  2 0  1  3i  2 j  6k
0 3 1
The equation is
3( x  0)  2( y  0)  6( z  1)  0
3x  2 y  6 z  6
Example 20:
Find an equation of the line that passes through the point Q(2,−1,3) and is orthogonal to the
plane 3x − 7y + 5z + 55 = 0 . Where does the line intersect the plane?
Solution:
By inspection of the equation of the place we see that n  3i  7 j  5k is the normal vector.
Because the required line is also orthogonal to the plane it must be parallel to n. Thus the line
contains the point Q (2,-1,3) and has the direction <3,-7,5> . So its parametric form is
Now, substitute into the equation of the plane:
3(2  3t )  7(1  7t )  5(3  5t )  55

t  1
Substitute then , and

The intersection point is
Example 21:
Find the equation of a line passing through (−1,2,3) that is parallel to the line of intersection
of the planes 3x − 2y + z = 4 and x + 2y + 3z = 5.
Solution:
22
By inspection, we see that normal to the planes are – and

. The desired line is perpendicular to both of these normal, so a vector parallel to the line
is found by computing the cross product.
i j k
Normal vector n = n1  n 2  3  2 1  8i  8 j  8k
1 2 3
Thus, the required line passes through (-1,2,3) and is parallel to the vector <1,1,-1>. So it has
parametric form
Example 22:
Find the perpendicular distance from the point to the plane .
Solution:
Equation plane:
So the normal vector to the plane
Therefore, the equation of the line perpendicular to the plane and passing through point P is
The line meets the plane when

[ ]
So .
The line meets the plane at A with position vector <3, -1, 6>
The distance
d  (3  2) 2  (1  3) 2  (6  4) 2  3
23
The distance D from a point to the

plane
| |
√
Exercise 3:
1. Find the perpendicular distance between the pair of parallel planes:

and .
2. Find the cosine of the acute angle between the pair of planes: 3x  6 y  2 z  2 ,
8x  4 y  z  3 .
Solution:
1.
To find the distance D between the planes, we choose any point on one plane and calculate its
distance to the other plane.
Plane equations are
and .
Put in the equation of first plane, we get , so the point ( ) is a
point on this plane. By using the formula

| |
√
| ( ) |
√
2.
The normal vectors of these planes are
24
and
And so if is the angle between the planes,
‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ √ √
25
past year questions:
1. Find the equation for the tangent line to the curve 3( x 2  y 2 ) 2  25( x 2  y 2 ) at the
point ( 2 ,1). (Jan
2010)
2. Given the following parametric equations of the two lines
L1 : x  1  4t , y  5  4t , z  1  5t
L2 : x  2  8t , y  4  3t , z  5t
(i) Show that L1 and L2 are skew lines.
(ii) Find the shortest distance between L1 and L2 . (Jan

2010)
3. Find the acute angle of intersection of the planes to the nearest degree.
(April
2011)
4. Show that the lines L1 and L2 are parallel. Hence, find the distance between and
.
(April
2011)
5. Consider the following lines:
(i) Prove that and intersect and hence find their intersection point.
(ii) Find the acute angle between and . (Jan 2013)
6. The diagram below is a rhombus. Show that the diagonal OC is perpendicular to

diagonal AB.
26
(Jan 2014)
7. Let A, B and C be the points (1, 2, 3), (2, 4, 5) and (4, 5, 6) respectively.
(i) Find an equation of the plane that passes through the points A, B and
C.
(ii) Find the perpendicular distance from the point to the plane
that passes through the points A, B and C. (May 2012)
8. A wrench 30 cm long lies along the positive y-axis and grips a bolt at the origin. A
force is applied in the direction  0, 3,  4  at the end of the wrench. Find the
magnitude of the force needed to supply 100 Nm of torque to the bolt.
(May 2013)
9. Find the work done by a force F = 8i − 6j+ 9k that moves an object from the point
(0, 10, 8) to the point (6, 12, 20) along a straight line.
10. The figure below shows the four forces are in equilibrium condition. Find the
magnitude of P and Q forces. After that, write P and Q forces in vector form.
27

Vector Analysis

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UECM1653 Mathematics for Engineering I

UECM1683 Mathematics for Physics I

Topic 1: LINEAR ALGEBRA and VECTOR ANALYSIS

A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction.

Similarly, the magnitude of a three-dimensional vector

Three- Dimensional Cartesian Coordinates and Position Vector

Let us consider a Cartesian coordinate system in three-dimensional Euclidean space R3 (or 3-

Geometrically, In the 3-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, we can determine each

Which points satisfy the equations

Because , the points lie in the horizontal plane . Because , the

For two dimensional points and is

ii. The distance between points P and Q is

(ii). As a consequence of (i), we obtain the following properties:

Multiplication of Vectors by Scalars

(a) a + b = b + a (Commutative Law of Addition)

Dot Product (scalar product)

If and , then the dot product of a and b is the value

Properties of dot product

If and , then the cross product of a and b is the

Properties of Cross Product

Note: Cross product is not commutative and associative, that is,

If the F and D are the force and displacement vector as

The magnitude of the torque vector is

Example 10: Jan 2013

The resultant T1 + T2 of the tensions counterbalance the weight w and so we have

Solve (1) and (2), we get

Definition: Vector Equation for a Line

And let ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , then we can write

Another way of describing a line L is to eliminate parameter t from parametric equations. If

These equations are called symmetric equation of line L.

From (1) and (2): and

n  3,2,4    3,1,1  6,15,3 

Therefore coordinate of point is (0,5,2), | PM |  2

From (1) and (2) :

These values don’t satisfy the third equation.

So and are not intersection. Thus they are skew lines.

Equations for a Plane

A plane in space is determined by a point in the plane and a vector n that is

which can be written as

It is called vector equation of the plane.

To obtain a scalar equation for the plane, let , and

Now, substitute into the equation of the plane:

3(2  3t )  7(1  7t )  5(3  5t )  55

Substitute then , and

By inspection, we see that normal to the planes are – and

The line meets the plane when

The distance D from a point to the

1. Find the perpendicular distance between the pair of parallel planes:

Put in the equation of first plane, we get , so the point ( ) is a

point on this plane. By using the formula

And so if is the angle between the planes,

2. Given the following parametric equations of the two lines

(i) Show that L1 and L2 are skew lines.

(ii) Find the shortest distance between L1 and L2 . (Jan

5. Consider the following lines:

6. The diagram below is a rhombus. Show that the diagonal OC is perpendicular to

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