Materials Today  Volume 16, Numbers 1/2  January/February 2013
RESEARCH: Review
Carbon nanotubes: controlled growth
and application
Chang Liu and Hui-Ming Cheng*
Shenyang National Laboratory for Materials Science, Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 72 Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China
Notable progress has been made on the synthesis, properties and uses of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) in
the past two decades. However, the controlled growth of single-wall CNTs (SWCNTs) with predefined
and uniform structures remains a big challenge, and making full use of CNTs in applications still
requires great effort. In this article, our strategies and recent progress on the controlled synthesis of
SWCNTs by chemical vapor deposition are reviewed, and the applications of CNTs in lithium-ion
batteries, transparent conductive films, and as connectors of metal atomic chains are discussed. Finally,
future prospects for CNTs are considered.
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have a one-dimensional tubular struc-
ture with nanometer scale diameters and typically micrometer
scale lengths. They were formally named in 1991 by Iijima after
observing a soot-like product obtained from graphite arcing under
a transmission electron microscope (TEM) [1]. A CNT is rolled up
from one or more graphene sheets concentrically. Depending on
the number of graphene layers, CNTs are classified as single-wall
CNTs (SWCNTs), double-wall CNTs (DWCNTs), or multi-wall
CNTs (MWCNTs). Due to their unique tubular structure and
perfect covalent C–C bonding, intriguing physical and chemical
properties, such as ultra-high strength and modulus, very good
electrical and thermal conductivity, desirable chemical stability,
and unique optical properties, were theoretically predicted and
experimentally demonstrated after their discovery [2]. Moreover,
their electronic structure and transport properties are closely
related to the diameter and chiral angle of SWCNTs.
In the initial stages of CNT research and development, the
quantity and quality of CNTs, especially for SWCNTs, was very
limited and poor. For example, only a few SWCNTs could be
observed under a transmission electron microscope, and the
majority of the product was amorphous carbon and residue cat-
alyst metal [3,4]. Therefore, it was crucial to synthesize high purity
SWCNTs on a large scale. In 1996, Thess et al. reported that
milligram-grade crystalline SWCNT ropes could be prepared using
a laser ablation method [3]. In 1997, Journet et al. reported the
large scale synthesis of SWCNTs using an arc discharge approach
*Corresponding author: Cheng, H.-M. (cheng@imr.ac.cn)
1369-7021/06 ß 2013 Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2013.01.019
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[4]. In 1998, our group synthesized high quality SWCNTs and their
aligned ropes with a yield of tens of milligrams per batch using a
floating catalyst chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method, using
Fe as the catalyst and benzene as the carbon source [5,6]. In the
same year, Kong et al. reported the growth of SWCNTs from a
supported Fe2O3 catalyst using CVD of methane [7]. Meanwhile,
vertically aligned MWCNTs were also synthesized during the same
period [8–10]. These pioneer studies largely stimulated investiga-
tions on the synthesis of CNTs, and high quality CNT samples
have encouraged the characterization of their properties and
exploration of their applications over the past 15 years. For exam-
ple, vertically and horizontally aligned SWCNT arrays were
synthesized by CVD [11–14]; industrial-scale production of
SWCNTs was realized using layered double hydroxides as a catalyst
[15–17]; control over the diameter of a SWCNT was achieved by
tuning its growth temperatures [18] and ‘cloning’ growth [19]; and
quantum wires, logic circuits and electronic devices based on
isolated SWCNTs and high density SWCNT arrays were demon-
strated [20–24]. The use of CNTs in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs)
[25,26], transparent conductive films (TCFs) [27], polymer-based
composites [28], tips for atomic force microscopes [29], elastic
conductors [30], flat panel displays [31,32], among others, were
also widely explored.
Despite these great efforts and significant achievements, two of
the most important challenges remain for the CNT research com-
munity to address: the structure-controlled synthesis of SWCNTs
and the large-scale application of CNTs. The first is important
because SWCNTs may behave like either metals or semiconductors,
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depending on their chiralities, and most of the as-prepared SWCNT
samples are a mixture of semiconducting and metallic nanotubes.
To make CNTs attractive for use in electronic devices, it is crucial to
realize selective growth of pure metallic or semiconducting
SWCNTs, and even SWCNTs with specific chiralities. By contrast,
MWCNTs can be produced on a large scale with reasonable cost, and
they have already been used in some areas. However, their large scale
use and importance in applications is still limited. To solve the key
scientific and technological issues related to the above challenges,
we have in recent years been working on the controlled synthesis of
RESEARCH: Review
SWCNTs and exploring the applications of CNTs. The objective of
this article is to summarize the current main challenges of CNT
research and to present our strategies toward solving these problems
and the results thus obtained. We hope that an introduction to these
strategies and outcomes may provide valuable indications to CNT
(and related materials) studies.
Controlled synthesis of SWCNTs
SWCNTs have attracted particular interest due to their ultimately
small diameter, perfect C–C bonding and excellent properties.
However, the synthesis of SWCNTs with a uniform and predefined
structure has proved extremely difficult. To realize the desired
control, it is important to develop novel catalysts and synthesis
approaches and to understand their growth mechanisms. By tun-
ing growth parameters, adding reactive etchants, and using novel
catalysts, the diameter and transport properties of SWCNTs can be
tuned. In addition, the growth mechanism of SWCNTs can be
investigated by combining in situ TEM studies and theoretical
calculations.
Generally, SWCNTs can be prepared by arc discharge, laser
ablation, and CVD. Among these three techniques, arc discharge
has the advantage of being a simple process that produces excel-
lent SWCNT crystallinity, but suffers from low purity; the laser
ablation method requires complex and expensive facilities and
gives a limited yield; CVD is currently the most widely used
approach with the advantages of high yield, low cost and most
importantly, good controllability. Therefore, we will focus mainly
on the controlled growth of SWCNTs by using the CVD method.
Diameter control of SWCNTs
The diameters of SWCNTs may range from 0.4 [33] to several
nanometers. Because the band-gap and chirality of SWCNTs are
closely related to their diameter, it is important to prepare
SWCNTs with uniform and controllable diameters. We developed
a floating catalyst CVD method for the synthesis of CNTs using
ferrocene as a catalyst precursor, H2 as a carrier gas, and hydro-
carbons as the carbon source. This technique shows the advan-
tages of high efficiency, low cost, and good controllability on the
texture and structure of CNT products. High-quality SWCNTs [5],
DWCNTs [34], and their aligned ropes [6,35,36] have been pre-
pared. We found that the diameter of SWCNTs is very sensitive to
the growth temperature, H2/hydrocarbon ratio and ferrocene
volatilization rate. By tuning these parameters carefully, high-
quality SWCNTs with controlled diameters were obtained. As
shown in Fig. 1, SWCNTs with mean diameters of 1.3 nm,
1.6 nm, 1.7 nm, 1.9 nm, and 2.1 nm were selectively synthesized.
Both statistical high resolution TEM (HRTEM) and laser Raman
resonance results indicate that the diameters of the SWCNTs are
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Materials Today  Volume 16, Numbers 1/2  January/February 2013
distributed in a narrow range (usually 0.2 nm) [37]. The selective
etching effect of high hydrogen flow suppresses the deposition of
amorphous carbon and leads to a purer sample with the desired
structural homogeneity. Such diameter control makes it possible
to tune the band-gap of SWCNTs and even to prepare SWCNTs
with enriched specific chiralities. We also in situ assembled the
diameter-controlled SWCNTs into a macroscopic buckybook com-
posed of numerous stacked thin sheets that are made up of
entangled high purity SWCNT bundles (Fig. 2). When used as a
binder-free supercapacitor electrode or as a filter, the buckybook
showed high capacitance and good molecular separation effi-
ciency [38].
Large-quantity synthesis of semiconducting SWCNTs by
in situ oxidation
To realize the appealing application of SWCNTs in high-perfor-
mance electronic devices, it is highly important yet challenging to
selectively synthesize semiconducting SWCNTs (s-SWCNTs),
because as-prepared SWCNT samples are usually a mixture of
semiconducting and metallic nanotubes. Considerable research
has been dedicated to the preparation of s-SWCNTs by ultraviolet
[39] and xenon-lamp [40] radiation, tuning of the carbon source
[41] and growth temperature used [42,43], plasma enhanced
growth [44], optimization of the composition and pretreatment
of catalysts [45–48], and post-synthesis treatments [49–53]. Post-
synthesis treatment approaches tend to introduce contamination
and defects in SWCNTs; and the direct synthesis of s-SWCNTs is
usually realized by surface growth, yielding a very limited amount
of sample. We proposed an oxygen-assisted floating catalyst CVD
method to prepare s-SWCNTs in a large quantity [54,55].
It was found from thermogravimetric analysis that SWCNTs
show distinguishable anti-oxidation features, which allows the
removal of a part of the SWCNTs by oxidation treatment [54].
Therefore, when preparing SWCNTs by using the floating catalyst
CVD, a small amount of oxygen was added into the system as an
etching reagent. Careful characterization using laser Raman,
adsorption spectroscopy, and thin film transistor tests showed
that the SWCNTs obtained are 90% s-SWCNTs [55]. This is
due to the difference in the chemical stability between m- and
s-SWCNTs, with the m-SWCNTs preferentially oxidized. The dia-
meters of the SWCNTs were tuned to be largely in the range of 1.4–
1.8 nm by using a sulfur growth promoter, which makes them
appealing for electronic device fabrication [55]. Thin film transis-
tors were fabricated using the selectively grown SWCNTs. On/off
ratios of 10 [4] were obtained, much larger than those of non-
selectively-grown samples (lower than 10), confirming a much
higher content of s-SWCNTs in the samples obtained by in situ
selective oxidation. Very recently, we have proposed a carbother-
mic reduction method for preparing s-SWCNTs at a low tempera-
ture of 3508C using NiO as the enchant [56]. An all-SWCNT field
effect transistor using the obtained s-SWCNTs as the channel
material and the pristine SWCNTs as source and drain was demon-
strated to perform highly.
Growth of SWCNTs from non-metal catalysts
Metals, especially transition metals, are commonly used as a
catalyst for the growth of SWCNTs. The inevitable residue of metal
impurities thus causes obvious disadvantages for the intrinsic
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[(Figure_1)TD$IG]
FIGURE 1
(a) SWCNT diameter distributions and their Gaussian fits with mean values of 2.13, 1.91, 1.72, 1.62, and 1.28 nm, measured from a total of 1841 nanotubes
from HRTEM images. (b) Raman spectra of the SWCNTs excited by a laser energy of 1.96 eV. From Ref. [37].
property characterization and exploration of possible uses of
SWCNTs.
We discovered that non-metal SiOx nanoparticles are also
effective for the catalytic growth of high-quality SWCNTs
[57]. A 30 nm-thick SiO2 film was sputter-deposited onto a Si
or Si/SiO2 wafer which serves as a substrate. The CVD process was
performed at 9008C using CH4 as the carbon source, without
addition of any metal catalysts. As shown in Fig. 3a, a dense,
uniform, and large area SWCNT thin film is obtained. The AFM
image (Fig. 3b) indicates a very high density (exceeding
100 tubes/mm2) of the SWCNTs. Almost no impurities were
found in these observations. Raman spectra of the as-grown
SWCNT networks are shown in Fig. 3c, where the presence of
the radial breathing mode and the low intensity ratio of defect-
induced D-band to tangential G-band (0.04) are indicative of
the high quality of the SWCNTs. A typical HRTEM image of the
SWCNTs is shown in Fig. 3d, demonstrating that isolated
SWCNTs are obtained. We also compared the growth of SWCNTs
from SiOx and traditional Ni catalyst nanoparticles. While both
catalysts are active for SWCNT growth, the average growth rate
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using the SiOx catalyst is only 8.3 nm/s, about 300 times slower
than that for the Ni catalyst under identical growth conditions
[58]. Taking advantage of this unique characteristic, we realized
direct growth of very short SWCNTs (20 nm), which may
demonstrate unique properties due to their finite length.
Similar results have been reported by other groups, and the
growth of SWCNTs from novel non-metal catalysts is attracting
intense interest [59,60]. Growing SWCNTs from non-metal cata-
lysts has two advantages. First, the completely metal-free SWCNTs
obtained will be attractive for some specific applications, such as
electronic and bio-related devices. Second, these non-metal cata-
lysts have higher melting points and better stability compared
with normal metal catalysts and could facilitate the controlled
growth of CNTs. For example, we first realized heteroepitaxial
growth of SWCNTs from a boron nitride nanofiber catalyst, and
the diameters of the obtained SWCNTs are multiples of the BN
(002) interplanar distance [61]. Following this heteroepitaxial
growth approach and using appropriate layered compounds as
growth seeds, SWCNTs with specific diameters or even chiralities
can hopefully be obtained.
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[(Figure_2)TD$IG]
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FIGURE 2
SEM images of (a) the top, (b) side, and (c) cross-section of a SWCNT buckybook. (d) Low-magnification SEM image of a peeled SWCNT monosheet that
was placed on a copper grid and (e) high-magnification SEM image of the same monosheet with a monolayer of (f) 500 nm in thickness, exhibiting
abundant entangled SWCNT bundles with a clean surface. From Ref. [38].
Growth mechanism of CNTs from SiOx catalyst
Traditionally, it is widely accepted that the growth of SWCNTs
from metal catalysts follows the vapor–liquid–solid (VLS)
mechanism. As mentioned above, the growth rate of SWCNTs
from the SiOx catalyst is very slow, indicating an unusual
growth mechanism. Bachmatiuk et al. reported that the active
catalytic material is SiC when using silicon oxide as a catalyst
[60]. However, there is no sufficient evidence supporting this
suggestion. To reveal the detailed growth process and mechan-
ism, we performed in situ TEM studies, together with density
functional theory (DFT) calculations on the nucleation and
growth mechanism of CNTs from SiOx nanoparticles. The in
situ TEM study began by filling SiOx nanoparticles produced by
the decomposition of SiH4 into the hollow core of MWCNTs
prepared by an anodic aluminum template method [62,63].
Next, a SiOx-filled MWCNT was manipulated with a TEM/
STM holder (NanoFactory) and connected to two gold electro-
des. When a current was passed through the MWCNT, Joule
heating led to a local high temperature, and thus, the MWCNT
served as a nanotubular furnace. Carbon atoms generated from
the MWCNT by electron-beam-induced injection and thermal
diffusion serve as a carbon source for the nucleation and growth
of SWCNTs from the loaded SiOx nanoparticles. Fig. 4 shows the
result observed on SiOx nanoparticles of different sizes. While
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Materials Today  Volume 16, Numbers 1/2  January/February 2013
large SiOx nanoparticles are not effective for CNT growth
(Fig. 4a,b), a 8 nm long SWCNT was grown from a SiOx NP
with a diameter of 3.7 nm (Fig. 4c). During the growth process,
the SiOx nanoparticle remained solid, thus we consider that the
growth follows a vapor–solid–solid (VSS) mechanism. We also
observed that SiOx is effective, whereas Si and SiC nanoparticles
are ineffective for CNT growth. DFT calculations showed that
the existence of oxygen would promote the decomposition of
hydrocarbons and thus facilitate the growth of CNTs. Therefore,
both the particle size and chemical composition of SiOx catalyst
are important factors for the growth of SWCNTs [64].
Exploring the uses of CNTs
Because of their unique structure and excellent physical and
chemical properties, various attractive applications of CNTs have
been predicted [65]. Among them, the commercial use of CNTs in
electronic devices has not yet been achieved, due to the difficulties
in the controlled growth of SWCNTs and techniques for their
assembly. Some applications making use of the advantages of
CNTs, such as high strength, toughness, good conductivity, high
surface area, and one-dimensional hollow structure, have been
demonstrated in recent years [66–68]. We have explored the use of
CNTs in the electrodes of LIBs, TCFs, and nanoelectrodes con-
necting metal atomic chains (MACs).
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[(Figure_3)TD$IG]

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FIGURE 3
(a) Typical SEM and (b) AFM images of an as-grown SWCNT network. (c) Raman spectra of the same sample acquired at three sample positions, with the peaks
at 303 cm 1 originating from the SiO2/Si substrate and used for a calibration purpose. (d) HRTEM image of three SWCNTs (indicated by arrows). From Ref. [57].

MWCNT-based electrodes for LIBs
LIBs are one of the most widely used rechargeable batteries, in
which carbon black is traditionally used as a conducting addi-
tive to increase the electrical conductivity of the electrodes.
[(Figure_4)TD$IG]
Endo et al. first added carbon nanofibers into the anode of LIBs
as a conductive filler [25] to improve its cyclic performance.
Soon after that we developed MWCNT-containing composite
electrode materials for LIBs.

FIGURE 4
In situ TEM observations of the growth of SWCNTs from SiOx nanoparticles. (a) An original SiOx nanoparticle; (b) the same SiOx nanoparticle with nucleation
of an SWCNT after continuous heating for 2 min; (c) an SWCNT grown from a small SiOx nanoparticle. From Ref. [64].

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First, MWCNTs are directly mixed with active materials as a
conductive filler. For example, we prepared a composite anode
material of Si/graphite/MWCNTs for LIBs by ball milling. The Si
particles are embedded into the ‘lamellar structure’ of flake gra-
phite particles, and wrapped by a MWCNT network. The improved
discharge capacity and cyclability of this composite can be
ascribed to the excellent resiliency and good electrical conductiv-
ity of the MWCNT network [69]. In fact, in recent years, MWCNTs
have been commercially developed as a conducting additive for
LIB anode and cathode materials such as natural graphite spheres
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and LiFePO4. The direct mixing method has advantages of simple
processing, low cost, and good compatibility with industrial pro-
duction [70], so MWCNTs have been produced in a large quantity
by a few companies based in China such as Cnano Technology
Ltd., Shenzhen Susn Sinotech New Materials Co., Ltd. and Shenz-
hen Nanotech Port Co., Ltd., and more than 40 tons of MWCNTs
are being added to the electrodes of LIBs in China in 2012. Fig. 5
shows optical images of the CNTs produced by Shenzhen Nano-
tech Port Co., Ltd. and Shenzhen Susn Sinotech New Materials Co.,
Ltd. for use in LIBs as a conductive filler.
Second, MWCNTs are grown on the surface of active materials
or current collectors. We prepared an urchin-like anode material
by growing MWCNTs directly on the surface of graphite spheres.
The MWCNT-coated graphite spheres display an improved cyclic
[(Figure_5)TD$IG]
FIGURE 5
Optical images of the MWCNTs produced by (a) Shenzhen Nanotech Port
Co., Ltd. and (b) Shenzhen Susn Sinotech New Materials Co., Ltd. for use in
LIBs as a conductive filler.
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Materials Today  Volume 16, Numbers 1/2  January/February 2013
performance and better rate capability compared to the pure
graphite sphere anode [71]. The MWCNTs form a continuous
conductive network in the bulk of the electrodes to decrease
electrode polarization and improve the adsorption of electrolyte
on the surface of active materials to improve the electrode reaction
kinetics [72]. We also grew a vertically aligned MWCNT array on
the surface of a free-standing graphene paper substrate [73] (Fig. 6)
as the anode of LIBs without any binder or additional current
collector. The MWCNT-graphene paper hybrid is flexible and
shows good cyclic performance and high-rate capability.
Third, active materials are loaded into the hollow core of
MWCNTs. We filled Fe2O3 nanoparticles into the hollow core of
MWCNTs by immersing MWCNTs with opened two ends into a
Fe(NO3)3 solution, followed by heat-treatment in air [74]. Fe2O3
nanoparticles with a mean diameter of 9 nm were homoge-
neously filled inside the MWCNTs without attachment to their
outer surface (Fig. 7). The Fe2O3-filled MWCNTs shows good
cyclability and high-rate performance (Fig. 8), due to the small
size of the Fe2O3 nanoparticles, the confinement effect of the
MWCNTs, good electrical contact between the two components,
and the good electrical conductivity and unique porous structure
of MWCNTs that improve the electron and lithium ion transport
ability of the anode [75].
CNT-based TCFs
Traditional TCFs are made from indium tin oxide (ITO), which has
the disadvantages of limited indium availability and brittleness
that may hamper its application in flexible electronics. Therefore,
TCFs fabricated with CNTs have attracted great interest because of
their potential in replacing ITO TCFs [76–80]. A MWCNT TCF
developed by Fan et al. [81] has been already commercialized for
use in cell phones [82]. Our group has focused on the dispersion of
SWCNTs, and the fabrication and patterning of SWCNT-based
TCFs [83–85].
A good dispersion of SWCNTs in liquid media is a precondition
to making high-performance TCFs. We developed an additive-free
dispersion of SWCNTs with the aid of functionalized carbonaceous
byproducts in SWCNT samples [83], and the majority of SWCNTs
in the suspension were present individually or in small bundles.
SWCNT TCFs were fabricated and demonstrated a low sheet resis-
tance of 76 and 133 V sq 1, with optical transmittance of 82% and
90% at 550 nm, respectively. This performance is superior than
most of the reported CNT-based TCFs, and it can be ascribed to the
high quality and good dispersion of the SWCNTs. We also devel-
oped a combined electrophoretic deposition (EPD) and hot-press-
ing transfer approach for fabricating flexible SWCNT TCFs [84]. No
decrease of the TCF conductivity was detected after 10,000 cycles
of repeated bending, indicating its superior flexibility. Compared
with the reported direct growth, filtration transfer, dip-coating,
and spray-coating methods, our EPD method shows the advan-
tages of low cost, high efficiency, easy scaling up, and good
combination with flexible substrates. Finally, we developed
high-quality patterning of SWCNT TCFs using a lift-off aluminum
interlayer method, resulting in contamination-free and damage-
free SWCNTs [85] (Fig. 9). The obtained patterns preserve the
electrical properties of the SWCNT films and show promising
applications in flexible high frequency electronic and display
devices.
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[(Figure_6)TD$IG]
FIGURE 6
SEM images of as-grown vertically grown MWCNTs on graphene paper. (a) Top view of the MWCNTs. (b, c) Cross section of the MWCNT array on graphene
paper. (d) Tilted-view showing the bonding between MWCNTs and graphene paper. From Ref. [73].
Connector of MACs
MACs are the ultimate one-dimensional structure with unique
physical properties, such as quantized conductance, colossal mag-
netic anisotropy and quantized magnetoresistance [86–90]. There-
fore, MACs show great potential as possible components of
nanoscale electronic and spintronic devices. However, MACs are
usually suspended between two macro-scale metallic electrodes,
hence technical barriers obviously exist in the inter-connection
and integration of MACs. Taking the advantages of the nanometer
tubular configuration, good electrical conductivity, and desired
chemical stability of MWCNTs, we prepared a MWCNT-clamped
MAC hybrid structure [90], where MWCNTs play the role of
electrical leads for the electrodes. This nanostructure was prepared
[(Figure_7)TD$IG]
FIGURE 7
TEM images of the Fe2O3-filled MWCNTs. From Ref. [74].
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by in situ machining a metal filled MWCNT, including peeling off
carbon shells by spatially and elementally selective electron beam
irradiation and further elongating the exposed metal nanorod
under TEM (Fig. 10). Atomic steps were observed during the
thinning process as marked by arrows in Fig. 10c,d. Fig. 10g shows
that an Fe nanorod contains only three layers of Fe atoms, and a
single-atom wide Fe AC is finally formed in Fig. 10h. This single-
atom wide Fe AC is composed of five atoms with three atoms
suspended, as schematically shown in Fig. 10i. First-principles
calculations indicate that strong covalent bonds are formed
between the MWCNT and MAC. The electrical transport property
of the MWCNT-clamped MAC was experimentally measured,
and quantized conductance was observed. In addition to the
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[(Figure_8)TD$IG]
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FIGURE 8
(a) Cyclic performance of the Fe2O3-filled MWCNTs measured at 35 mA g 1 between 0.02 V and 2.5 V (versus Li+/Li); the inset shows the first discharge/
charge voltage profile. (b) Rate performance tested at different current densities. From Ref. [75].

MWCNT-clamped Fe AC, we also applied the above fabrication
concept to other metals and alloys. MWCNT-clamped Pt and Fe-Ni
alloy ACs were fabricated. Therefore, this strategy is effective in
fabricating a variety of MACs and in situ connecting these MACs
with MWCNTs; thus it may find potential applications in the
[(Figure_9)TD$IG]
assembly of nano/sub-nano devices.
Challenges and prospects
Tremendous efforts have been dedicated to CNTs in the past 20
years. Notable progress and significant achievements have been
made, however, great challenges and opportunities remain.
Controlled growth of SWCNTs with specific diameter, chiral
angle, and transport properties is extremely important from the

FIGURE 9
SEM images of patterned SWCNT TCFs. (a) A 50 mm radius circle array; (b) a line pattern with 10 mm width; (c) a square array with 30 mm side length;
(d) a magnified line pattern with 5 mm width; (e) a comb electrode with 35 mm spacing; light grey areas are SWCNTs. From Ref. [85].

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[(Figure_10)TD$IG]
FIGURE 10
Formation of a Fe AC connected with a MWCNT. (a–h) High resolution TEM
images showing the formation of the Fe AC. Atomic steps can be observed
at the surface (marked by arrows in (c) and (d)). Distortion along (110) is
marked with dotted lines in (e). The scale bar is 2 nm. (i) Schematic
drawing of the Fe AC shown in (h); the projected interatom distances are
marked in Å. From Ref. [90].
viewpoint of both fundament research and practical applications,
particularly in nanoelectronics and nano-optoelectronics. The
properties, especially the electrical conductivity, of SWCNTs are
highly sensitive to their structures. This feature makes it possible to
finely tune the properties of SWCNTs. However, even after 20 years
of investigations, it is still difficult to realize such fine control due
to the narrow structural difference and formation energy of
SWCNTs with distinct properties. To solve this tough problem,
various approaches, including post-synthesis separation, selective
etching, catalyst engineering, among others, have been developed
in recent years to sort SWCNTs with specific structures and proper-
ties. These include (i) s-/m-SWCNT enriched samples have been
obtained by in situ etching and catalyst treatment; (ii) SWCNTs
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with some specific chiralities have been prepared by catalyst
engineering and post-synthesis separation; and (iii) the growth
mechanisms of CNTs from different kinds of catalyst have been
revealed. Therefore, with continuing efforts in systematically
understanding the growth mechanisms of SWCNTs and in devel-
oping innovative catalytic growth approaches, the controlled
synthesis of SWCNTs is certainly expected in the near future. In
particular, the emerging non-metal catalysts with designable and
stable structures, even at high temperatures, may play an impor-
tant role in the controlled growth of SWCNTs with specific dia-
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meters and even chiralities. Success in the controlled growth of
SWCNTs will not only greatly promote CNT research but also
provide valuable indications for the research and development of
other nanomaterials, and even for the nano-science and technol-
ogy as a whole.
The application of CNTs is another ever-increasing issue of
concern. As a representative nanomaterial, CNTs, both SWCNTs
and MWCNTs, are highly expected to have practical uses and to
contribute to economic growth and societal development. How-
ever, the assembly of SWCNT-based electronic devices is delayed
due to the lack of efficient s-/m-SWCNT synthesis techniques,
although prototypes of thin film SWCNT transistors and circuits
have recently been reported [24]. The current applications of CNTs
are mainly based on the superior electrical conductivity of CNTs
when serving as a filler. Using this advantage, MWCNTs have been
widely used in LIBs, replacing the traditional carbon black addi-
tive. With the development of electric vehicles and hybrid electric
vehicles, MWCNTs may play an even more important role in
improving the electrode conductivity and hence the fast
charge/discharge ability of high-power LIBs for vehicles. TCFs
use both the electrical and optical properties of CNTs. The per-
formance of CNT-based TCFs is already good enough for touch
panel applications. To meet the requirements of high-end applica-
tions, such as the photoelectrodes of solar cells, the optimization
of electrical conductivity, and network configuration of CNTs is
required. The contact resistance of the SWCNTs used to fabricate
TCFs is also crucial. Another important advantage of CNTs is their
toughness and flexibility, thus CNTs have the potential to be used
as parts in various newly developed flexible devices. In addition,
CNT-reinforced composites with increased toughness and
strength may find important applications in other specific areas.
It is worth noting that for each of the above potential applications,
it is important to have CNTs with the desired structures and
properties. Thus, the controlled synthesis and application of CNTs
are truly closely related and complementary.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Ministry of Science and
Technology of China (Grants 2011CB932601, 2011CB932604)
and National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grants
50921004, 51272257, and 51102242). The authors thank Prof. M.
Z. Qu and Ms. Y. Liang for providing the photographs of industrial-
scale produced CNTs.
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