ARCHAEOLINGUA

Edited by
ERZSÉBET JEREM and WOLFGANG MEID

Volume 29
 For Fritz-Eckart Barth
Pioneer of salt mine research and excavator of the main corpse of Hallstatt textiles
Pionier der Bergbauforschung und Ausgräber der meisten Textilien aus Hallstatt

"Nos 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 – several fragments of various woollen cloths, the working of which amazes those who
know the subject; the handwork is equal to our latest wool manufacture. Had these pieces not been enclosed
entirely in the salt mines, their authenticity would have been much in doubt."
„No. 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 und 18 mehrere Stücke verschiedenartiger Wollenstoffe, deren Arbeit von Kennern bewundert,
den neuersten Wollstoffen in der Bearbeitung gleich gehalten, und wenn nicht diese im ganzen Salzberge
eingeschlossen wären, dieß als eine Täuschung erklärt werden würde.“
Johann Georg Ramsauer 1850

Tabula III from the report of J.G. Ramsauer 1850, watercolour by Isidor Engl (© Natural History Museum Vienna)
 Textiles from Hallstatt
Weaving Culture in Bronze Age and Iron Age Salt Mines

Textilien aus Hallstatt

Gewebte Kultur aus dem bronze- und
eisenzeitlichen Salzbergwerk

Edited by
Karina Grömer, Anton Kern, Hans Reschreiter and
Helga Rösel-Mautendorfer

Budapest 2013
 Published in cooperation with
Natural History Museum Vienna
and with the support of CinBA-Project, HERA Foundation

Cover illustration
Details: Early Iron Age textiles from the salt mine Hallstatt, different scales
(© Natural History Museum Vienna, graphics: K. Grömer, photos: A. Rausch, H. Reschreiter)

Volume Editor
Erzsébet jerem

ISBN 978-963-9911-46-8
HU-ISSN 1215-9239

© The Authors and Archaeolingua Foundation

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any other information storage
and retrieval system, without requesting prior permission in writing from the Natural History Museum
Vienna and from the publisher.

2013
archaeolingua alapítvány
H-1250 Budapest, Úri u. 49
Layout catalogue: Andreas Rausch
Desktop editing: Gergely Hős
Printed by AduPrint Kiadó és Nyomda Kft.
 Contents

Karina Grömer, Anton Kern, Hans Reschreiter, Helga Rösel-Mautendorfer

Acknowledgements  .......................................................................................................................   7

Vorwort
Preface  ...........................................................................................................................................   9

Hans Reschreiter
Kapitel 1: Das Salzbergwerk Hallstatt
Chapter 1: The prehistoric salt-mines of Hallstatt  .......................................................................   13

Karina Grömer, Hans Reschreiter

Kapitel 2: Hallstatt - 160 Jahre Forschung
Chapter 2: Hallstatt - 160 years of research  ................................................................................   33

Karina Grömer
Kapitel 3: Tradition, Kreativität und Innovation - Textiltechnologische Entwicklung von der
Bronzezeit zur Hallstattzeit
Chapter 3: Tradition, creativity and innovation - The development of textile expertise from the
Bronze Age to the Hallstatt Period  ..............................................................................................   53

Helga Rösel-Mautendorfer
Kapitel 4: Nähtechnik und Design
Chapter 4: Sewing techniques and design  ...................................................................................   99

Karina Grömer, Helga Rösel-Mautendorfer, Hans Reschreiter

Kapitel 5: Funktion der Textilien aus dem Bergwerk
Chapter 5: Function of textiles in the salt mines  ........................................................................  119

Regina Hofmann-de Keijzer, Maarten R. van Bommel, Ineke Joosten,

Anna Hartl, Art Néss Proaño Gaibor, Andreas G. Heiss, Robert Kralofsky,
Rudolf Erlach, Suzan de Groot
Kapitel 6: Expertenberichte / 6.1 Die Farben und Färbetechniken der prähistorischen
Textilien aus dem Salzbergbau Hallstatt
Chapter 6: Analysis reports / 6.1 The colours and dyeing techniques of prehistoric textiles
from the salt mines of Hallstatt  . ................................................................................................   135

Antoinette Rast-Eicher
Kapitel 6: Expertenberichte / 6.2 Die Faserqualität von Fellen und
Textilien aus dem Salzbergwerk von Hallstatt
Chapter 6: Analysis reports / 6.2 The fibre quality of skins and textiles
from the Hallstatt salt mines  ......................................................................................................   163
Lena Hammarlund
Chapter 6: Analysis reports / 6.3 Visual analysis and grouping of the Hallstatt textiles  ...........   179

Mark Van Strydonck, Karina Grömer

Chapter 6: Analysis reports / 6.4 14C-Dating of textiles from the Hallstatt salt mine  ...............   183

Kapitel 7: Zusammenfassung
Chapter 7: Summary  ..................................................................................................................   193

Chapter 8: Appendix / 8.1 Glossary of textile and mining terms /

8.1 Glossar zu textilkundlichen und bergmännischen Ausdrücken  ...........................................   197

Chapter 8: Appendix / 8.2 List of HallTex numbers and inventory numbers  . ..........................   203

Chapter 8: Appendix / 8.3 Literature  ..........................................................................................  211

List of contributors  ....................................................................................................................   235

Karina Grömer, Helga Rösel-Mautendorfer

Chapter 9: Catalogue of the Hallstatt textiles  ............................................................................   243
 Chapter 6: Analysis reports
6.4 14C-Dating of textiles from the Hallstatt salt mine
Mark Van Strydonck – Karina Grömer
6.4.1 Research questions
A complex system of archaeological
findspots, 14C-datings (Stadler 1999) and
dendrochronological dating (Grabner et al.
2006) secure our knowledge about the age of
the prehistoric salt mine in Hallstatt. In general,
the oldest mining started at the so-called “North
group” findspots and the Christian-von-Tusch-
Werk, which are dated between 1500-1100
BC. The “East group” sites are contemporary
to the Hallstatt cemetery and cover a time-span
between 900–350 BC. Textiles from Hallstatt –
as other finds from the mine – are usually dated
according to their find context. But there are
some woven items which – for special reasons –
require a radiocarbon date:
a) Technically very developed fabrics in Bronze
Age:
The corps of Bronze and Iron Age textiles from
Hallstatt can be distinguished according to their
wool quality, fineness, patterns and weave types
(compare Chap. 3). At the Bronze Age findspot
Tusch-Werk two highly developed fragments
were found (HallTex 211 und 275). From a
technical point of view they fit better into the
Iron Age textile group than to the Bronze Age.
They are finely spun and woven chevron twill
with point repeat, made of good quality wool (see
Chap. 6.2). One of those items (HallTex 275) was
selected to assure their Bronze Age date.
b) Disturbed layers from Kilbwerk:
The find spot Kilbwerk is a wet mining area
(„Laugwerk“), where salt-mining took place from
1721 on. Quaterly, the miners had to control and
clean the place. There they discovered prehistoric
finds – heathens rock „Heidengebirge“ with
prehistoric wooden items and textiles. At last,
in 1734, a „man in the salt“ was found together
with his clothes and shoes (Barth 1989). Mid
of the 18th century salt-mining was given up in
this area. Over the centuries the rock salt closed
the cavern again. At modern excavations it can
be distinguished between prehistoric layers and
those from the 18th century AD. In those layers
prehistoric as well as modern items could be
found. A total of 67 textiles (203 fragments)
survived from this area (see Grömer 2007,
75–76 „verlaugtes Heidengebirge”). Possibly,
some textiles could be baroque intrusions – torn
off the clothes of the 18th century miners or
brought in for some purpose. The publications
of textiles from Hallstatt by H.-J. Hundt
1960 and 1967 mainly dealt with finds from
those layers. There he discussed the inherent
problems of possible baroque intrusions
(Hundt 1967, 63–65). But he also mentions,
that the textiles from the Kilbwerk-disturbed
layers do not differ from those from secure Iron
Age findspots at Hallstatt. Nevertheless some
scientific publications suggest, that there is no
secure prehistoric date at all for the main corps
of textiles from Hallstatt, e.g. Banck-Burgess
(1999, 42, footnote 193): „Die Schichten können
jedoch auch rezente Funde enthalten, die durch
veränderte Abbaumethoden ab dem Mittelalter
190 Mark Van Strydonck – Karina Grömer
hineingeschwemmt worden sein könnten.
Für wenige Funde ist eine Datierung in die
Hallstattzeit gesichert“.
More finds from undisturbed layers and
techno-typological comparisons (Grömer
2007, 79–84) to the problematic Kilbwerk as
well as recent 14C-datings on some characteristic
samples (KIA-42750–55) ensure the prehistoric
date of the questionable finds.
c) Braided band HallTex 301:
In 1961–1966 some fragments of textiles were
excavated that gave reason to dispute their
prehistoric age. At the first glimpse HallTex 301
and 306 look like a shoe-band of mountain
boots, used in the mid of the 20th century AD.
Technically, the fragments are finger-loop
braided, which was not known from Central
European Iron Age so far. The archaeological
context was also problematic, the item was found
in disturbed layers (“verlaugtes Heidengebirge”)
of Kilbwerk.
6.4.2 The principle of radiocarbon dating
method (Van Strydonck et al. 1999)
The radioactive carbon isotope (14C) is formed in
small quantities in the atmosphere as a result of
the interaction of cosmic rays with the molecules
Fig. 72: The principle of radiocarbon dating (after VAN STRYDONCK et al. 1999)
in the atmosphere. The 14C reacts with oxygen
from the atmosphere to form 14CO2. These
molecules mix with the non-radioactive 12CO2
from the atmosphere. Due to photosynthesis the
14
CO2 as well as the 12CO2 is incorporated into
plant molecules and indirectly also in all living
organisms (Fig. 72). When the organism dies
there is no uptake anymore of new 14C and due to
the radioactive decay the concentration in 14C will
diminish. The speed of this radioactive decay is
known. The Half-life (t½), the time required for a
quantity of 14C to fall to half its value as measured
at the beginning of the time period, is 5730±40
years. In the laboratory the remaining 14C in a
sample is measured and compared with a modern
standard. These two data in relation to the decay
curve allows us to calculate the age of a sample.
The result is not a single year but a probability
distribution (red curve in Fig. 73) expressed
as A±a BP. This means that there is ca. 68%
probability that the real date falls between (A+a)
and (A-a) and that there is ca.95% probability that
the real age falls between (A+2a) and (A-2a). BP
means Before Present.
6.4.3 The need of calibration
Unfortunately the 14C production was not constant
over time. The cosmic ray flux in the atmosphere
 Chapter 6: Analysis reports / 6.4 14C-Dating of textiles from the Hallstatt salt mine 191

that triggers the production of 14C depends on

the strength of the earth’s magnetic field and by
induction on the solar activity. Figure 74 depicts
the calibration curve in the period of interest in
this study. The ordinate gives the radiocarbon
age, the abscissa the corresponding calendar
year. It can be noticed very clearly that in the
period between ca. 700 and 300 BC there is a
plateau in the curve. This plateau is caused by a
sudden change in solar activity comparable to the
Maunder minimum that caused the Little-Ice-Age
(Damon 1989; Davis et al. 1992; van Geel et
Fig. 73: Date of HallTex 301 (© Van Strydonck)
al. 1998; Dergachev – Zaitseva  1999). As a
consequence of this samples from the Iron Age can
never be measured very precise. Figure 73 depicts
the results of measurement KIA-45773 (HallTex
301). Although the 14C measurement was rather
precise (red curve) with a standard deviation of
only ±25 years, after calibration the age spans a
period of ca. 340 years (95% probability).

6.4.4 Dating textile

14
C dating does not determine the use or the
moment of the making of an object, but the
moment the material that the object was made of,
was cut off from the carbon cycle. So a modern
sculpture made from old wood is dated old. This
difference can be important even compared with
the standard deviation of the date. Furthermore
certain long living organism accumulate carbon
their entire live. The carbon in the bones of a Fig. 74: Calibration curve between 1000 and
person who died at the age of 70 is a mixture of 200 BC (© Van Strydonck).
older and younger carbon.
Textiles however don’t have that problem.
Plant fibres like wool, flax and cotton are from This cleaning procedure is difficult especially
one growth season and are used to make fabrics in the case of animal fibres because they do not
relatively soon after they have been harvested. resist very well the pre-treatment. In the case of
This means that there is a good agreement the Hallstatt textiles the samples were cleaned
between the radiocarbon event (absorption of by a successive ‘wash’ with hexane, acetone and
14
C from the atmosphere through the food chain) ethanol followed by a cold treatment with NaOH
and the human event of interest (the making of (1%) and HCl (1%). The amount of sample that
the fabric). remains after pre-treatment is a good indicator
Archaeological textiles have to be cleaned of the degree of oxidation of the fibres. It can
before they can be dated. Organic material be noticed from table 11 that from the ca. 20 mg
in archaeological deposits absorbs organic of sample taken for the analyses, in most cases
substances and calcium carbonate from the soil. about 50% is lost during pre-treatment.
192 Mark Van Strydonck – Karina Grömer

Hallstatt Textile Nr. Inv. Nr. NHM Lab code Weight before and Radiocarbon Calibrated age
after pre-treatment age (BP) (95% probability range)
(mg) (Bronk Ramsey 2009)
(Reimer et al. 2009)
HallTex 88 H78-551 KIA-42754 37.5-19.9 2445±30 753-408 BC
HallTex 90 H78-552 KIA-42755 23.4-17.4 2380±30 717-392 BC
HallTex 96 H79.429 KIA-42752 23.8-19.1 2525±30 795-540 BC
HallTex 100 H79-442b KIA-42750 14.9-10.1 2555±30 803-551 BC
HallTex 102 H79.448 KIA-42753 21.1-10.6 2485±30 773-418 BC
HallTex 103 H80.672 KIA-42751 25.7-18 2225±30 384-203 BC
HallTex 275 H07-065c KIA-42749 14.3-10.6 2980±30 1371-1117 BC
HallTex 301 73399 KIA-45773 19.9 -11.5 2460±25 756-414 BC
HallTex 305 No. Inv Nr RICH-20229 19.1-10.5 2473±30 770-410 BC

Table 11: results

6.4.5 Results and discussion

All samples (Tab. 11 and Fig. 75) were relatively

well preserved. According to their provenance
the samples can be subdivided in 3 groups. KIA-
45773 (HallTex 301) is probably Hallstatt HaC
or HaD. It is not of baroque age as supposed.
The group of samples KIA-42750-55 are not
all from the same period. 4 can be situated in
the Hallstatt Period, but one is definitely Early
La Tène (HallTex  103). Finally sample KIA-
42749 (HallTex 275) is much older than the
other samples and dates into the Bronze Age.
Although it is a technically advanced piece it is
much older than the Iron Age.

Fig. 75: Summary radiocarbon samples from

Hallstatt (© Van Strydonck)