1.

Herbs

In general use, herbs are any plants used for food, flavoring, medicine, or fragrances for their
savory or aromatic properties. Culinary use typically distinguishes herbs from spices. Herbs refers to the
leafy green or flowering parts of a plant (either fresh or dried), while spices are produced from other
parts of the plant (usually dried), including seeds, berries, bark, roots and fruits.All herbs are of
medicinal value.

2. A. Gumamela- leaves and flower poultice (boils)

Scientific name: Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn.

English: China rose, Hibiscus

Tagalog: Gumamela

Ilocano: Kayanga

Ibaloi: Gumamela

-Chop 5 leaves and 2 flowers, apply directly on abscess or boil as poultice, 2 times a day.

B. Akapulko- leaves, (ring worm)

Scientific name: Cassia alata L.

English: Ringworm bush or shrub

Tagalog: Akapulko

Ilocano: Andadasi

- Crush young leaves and extract juice.

- Apply the juice directly between the toes and other affected areas after the hot foot
bath in the makabuhay decoction.

C. Kutchai- leaves

Scientific name: Allum Tubersum

English: Chinese chives

Tagalog: Kutchai

Ilocano: Kutchay

Ibaloi: Kutsay
 - Pound 4-5 leaves, then rub the pounded leaves in the area bitten by wasp or bees.

D. Mayana- leaves (wounds and cuts)

Scientific name: Coeus blumei Benth.

Tagalog: Mayana

- Wash the young leaves, and crush then extract the juice from the leaves.

- Drop a few drops as poultice. Bandage snugly but not too tight to interfere with
circulation.

E. Wild Sunflower- leaves (wounds and cuts)

Scientific name: Tithonia Diversifonia (hemsl.)

English: Shrub Sunflower

Ilocano: Marapait

Ibaloi: Penawel

- Pound or crush the leaves.

- Apply the pounded leaves directly to the wound, put a light pressure using gauze.

F. Gipah- leaves (burns)

Scientific name: Sarcandra glabra

Ibaloi: Kep-pas, Gipas

- Pound the leaves and extract juice.

- Apply juice on the burned area of the skin.

G. Lagundi- leaves (for fever)

Scientific name: Vitex negundo L.

English: Five-leaved Chaste tree

Tagalog: Lagundi, Kamalan

Ilocano: Dangla

Ibaloi: Lagundi

- Boil 4 or 6 tablespoons of chopped dry leaves in 2 glasses of water for 15 minutes.

- Dosage: Adults- drink 1 cup every 4 hours.

 Children- (babies) 1 tablespoon every 4 hours

(2-6 yrs.) drink 1 fourth cup every 4 hours

(7-12 yrs.) drink 1 half cup every 4 hours

H. Kangkong- leaves (constipation)

Scientific name: Ipomea aquatic Torsk

English: Potato Vine, Swamp cabbage

Tagalog: Kangkong

Ilocano: Kangkong

Ibaloi: Kangkong

- Eat 2 cups of boiled leaves with meals. This may be a part of the menu or diet.

I. Malunggay- leaves (constipation)

Scientific name: Moringa oleifera Lam.

English: Horse raddish tree

Tagalog: Malunggay

Ilocano: Marunggay

Ibaloi: Malungkay

- Eat 1 cup of cooked leaves with meals.

J. Oregano- leaves (cough)

Scientific name: Coleus aromaticus Benth.

English:

Tagalog: Suganda, Oregano

Ilocano: Oregano

Ibaloi: Oregano

- Boil 1 cup of chopped fresh leaves in 2 glasses of water for 15 minutes.

- Dosage: Adults- drink 1 half cup 3 times a day.

Children- (babies) drink 1 tablespoon 3 times a day.

(2-6 yrs.) drink 2 tablespoons 3 times a day.

(7-12 yrs.) drink 1 fourth cup 3 times a day.

4. I was cut in my knees and my brother pounded sunflower leaves and apply to my wound.

I have boils then my mother applies gumamela and mulberry leaves in my boil.

AKAPULKO Poultice and juice.

1. Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earth's
streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms. Its chemical formula is H2O,
meaning that each of its molecules contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms that are connected by
covalent bonds. Strictly speaking, water refers to the liquid state of a substance that prevails at standard
ambient temperature and pressure; but it often refers also to its solid state (ice) or its gaseous state
(steam or water vapor). It also occurs in nature as snow, glaciers, ice packs and icebergs, clouds, fog,
dew, aquifers, and atmospheric humidity.

2. A. Excretory system

B. Endocrine System

C. Circulatory system.

3. Fluid balance is an aspect of the homeostasis of organisms in which the amount of water in the
organism needs to be controlled, via osmoregulation and behavior, such that the concentrations of
electrolytes (salts in solution) in the various body fluids are kept within healthy ranges.

4. The amount of water intake varies with the individual, as it depends on the condition of the subject,
the amount of physical exercise, and on the environmental temperature and humidity. The common
misconception that everyone should drink two liters (68 ounces, or about eight 8-oz glasses) of water
per day is not supported by scientific research.

5. Water is one of the most important nutrients that your body needs. Every cell, tissue and organ in
your body consists of or uses water to function, with about 75 percent of muscle tissue and about 10
percent of fat tissue comprised of water. Water is used to regulate body temperature, cushion and
support your joints and organs, and aid in digestion. You also lose water through everyday body
functions such as perspiration, using the bathroom, even when you exhale. It is important to replace the
water your body loses each day. Generally, the body can go several days or longer without food, but can
only survive a few days without water because it is so essential to body functions.

URINARY TRACT SYSTEM

Vitamin Supplementation

Observation

Vitamins have its own purpose and it has a composition that water and oil can only dissolve,
vitamins have its own solvent.

1. Vitamins is an organic compound and an essential nutrient that an organism requires in limited
amounts. An organic chemical compound is called a vitamin when the organism cannot synthesize the
compound in sufficient quantities, and it must be obtained through the diet.

Vitamin Functions Sources

Form and maintain teeth,
1. Vitamin A
bones, tissue, and skin.
Essential to help cells turn
2. Vitamin B1 (thiamine)
carbohydrates into energy.
Maintains red blood cells
3. Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)
and body growth.
Maintains healthy skin and paprika, peanuts, sun-dried
4. Vitamin B3 (niacin)
nerves. tomatoes, mushrooms, and
Essential for metabolism of
5. Pantothenic acid (B5)
food.
Form and maintain red blood
6. Vitamin B6
cells and brain function.
Essential for metabolism of Oil-roasted peanuts, oil-
7. Biotin (B7)
protein and carbohydrates. roasted sunflower seeds,
Ripe yellow fruits, carrots,
oranges, paprika, squash,
red peppers, leafy green
vegetables, cayenne,
pumpkin, chili powder,
spinach, soy milk, and
sweet potatoes.
Whole grains, enriched
cereals, brown rice, sesame
seeds, sunflower seeds,
dried herbs and spices, pine
nuts, pistachios, macadamia
nuts, pecans, legumes,
wheat germ, bran, brewer’s
yeast, and blackstrap
molasses.
Bananas, dried herbs,
asparagus, almonds, wheat
bran, dried spices, green
beans, sesame seeds, dried
roasted soybeans, sun-dried
tomatoes, dried peppers,
and popcorn.
Rice bran, wheat bran,
tree nuts.
Broccoli, wheat bran,
avocado, rice bran,
sunflower seeds, whey
powder, mushrooms,
cheese, corn, broccoli,
caviar, sun-dried tomatoes,
squash, and fish.
Tree nuts, dried spices,
wheat bran, sesame seeds,
bananas, rice bran, dried
herbs, pistachios, raw garlic,
sunflower seeds, molasses,
sorghum syrup, filberts, and
hazelnuts.
 Vitamin Functions Sources
soy beans, dried yeast,
oatmeal, walnuts, baker’s
yeast, mustard powder,
salted peanut, salted
sunflower seeds, salted
hazelnuts, dried peanuts,
instant coffee, oil-roasted
hazel nuts, and green laver.
Leafy green vegetables,
pasta, bread, cereal,
spinach, dark leafy greens,
asparagus, turnip, beets,
mustard greens, Brussels
Forms red blood cells and
sprouts, lima beans,
8. Folate (folic acid or B9) essential to production of
soybeans, brewer’s yeast,
DNA.
root vegetables, whole
grains, wheat germ, bulgur
wheat, kidney beans, white
beans, mung beans, orange
juice, and avocado.
Clams, oysters, mussels,
liver, caviar, octopus, fish,
Forms red blood cells and crab, lobster, beef, beef,
9. Vitamin B12
maintains central nervous mutton (especially
(cyanocobalamin)
system. shoulder), cheese
(especially Swiss), and
eggs.
Red chili peppers, guava,
green chili peppers, bell
peppers, fresh herbs (thyme
and parsley), dark leafy
An antioxidant that promotes greens (garden cress, kale,
10. Vitamin C
healthy teeth and gums. and mustard), broccoli,
cauliflower, Brussels
sprouts, kiwi, papaya,
strawberries, oranges, and
clementines.
Essential for development of Fish, eggs, liver,
11. Vitamin D
healthy teeth and bones. mushrooms, and sunshine.
Corn oil, sunflower seeds,
paprika, soybean oil,
margarine, safflower oil,
wheat germ oil, sunflower
Helps form red blood cells oil, red chili powder, cooked
12. Vitamin E
and process Vitamin K. taro root, almonds, pine
nuts, peanuts, dried herbs
(basil and oregano), dried
apricots, pickled green
olives, and cooked spinach.
Dried herbs, prunes, pickled
cucumber, dark leafy herbs,
Essential for blood
13. Vitamin K spring onion, Brussels
coagulation and bone health.
sprouts, broccoli, chili
powder, curry, paprika,
 Vitamin Functions Sources
cayenne, asparagus, and
cabbage.

Signs of Vitamin Deficiency

Vitamin A Deficiency
 Vitamin A deficiency causes impaired vision, particularly in reduced light. This condition is
commonly known as night blindness.
 Deficiency can also lead to hyperkeratosis, which is a thickening of the stratum corneum, or the
outermost layer of skin. This appears as white lumps at the hair follicles.
 Deficiency of Vitamin A also causes keratomalacia, an eye disorder.

Signs of Vitamin B1 Defiency

 Vitamin B1 deficiency can cause beriberi, a condition that produces symptoms including loss of
appetite, weakness, pain in the limbs, shortness of breath, and swollen feet or legs.
 B1, or thiamine, deficiency can also lead to Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, which manifests as
vision disturbances, mental confusion, and unsteady walking.
 Cataracts
 Alzheimer’s disease
 Heart failure
 Excessive consumption of alcohol can lead to B1 deficiency, as alcohol flushes the vitamin out of
the body.

A man with beriberi, which can result from Vitamin B1 (thiamine) deficiency.

Signs of Vitamin B2 Deficiency

 Digestive problems
 Frequent dizziness
 Hair loss
 Skin rashes
 Eye problems
 Insomnia
 Slow mental response
 Ariboflavinosis, which manifests with lesions around the mouth, weakness, weight loss, and anemia

Signs of Vitamin B3 Deficiency

 Pellagra (diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia, aggression, red skin lesions, insomnia, weakness, and
confusion)
Signs of Vitamin B5 Deficiency
 Paresthesia (a burning sensation in the hands and feet, muscle cramps, numbness, tingling
sensations, irritability, fatigue, diarrhea, vomiting, sleep disturbances, and restlessness).

Broccoli is an excellent natural source of Vitamin B5.

Vitamin B6 Deficiency
Anemia and peripheral neuropathy are caused by a deficiency in Vitamin B6. Inflammation of the skin,
sore tongue, depression, cognitive problems, and convulsions are some symptoms associated with these
conditions.

Raw garlic is an excellent source of Vitamin B6.

Signs of Vitamin B7 Deficiency

 Dermatitis
 Enteritis (inflammation of the intestine)
 Hair loss
 Fatigue
 Depression
 Nausea
 Muscle pains
 Anemia

Walnuts are rich in Vitamin B7.

Signs of Folate, or Vitamin B9, Deficiency

 Magaloblastic anemia
 Heart problems
 Age-related hearing loss
 Age related macular degeneration
 Depression
 Neural tube defects and other birth defects

Vitamin B12 Deficiency

 Megaloblastic anemia
 Heart problems
 Weakness
 Rapid breathing
 Tiredness
 Light-headedness
  Rapid heartbeat
 Pale skin
 Sore tongue
 Weight loss
 Diarrhea

Vitamin C Deficiency
Vitamin C deficiency causes scurvy. Symptoms include fatigue, mood swings, joint pain, dry skin, weight
loss, bruising, muscle pain, dental problems, dry hair, and infection.

Oranges are an abundant source of Vitamin C.

Vitamin D Deficiency
Vitamin D deficiency causes rickets and osteomalacia. People with this deficiencyare more likely to be
affected by cardiovascular diseases and possibly even cancer. Older adults may suffer from cognitive
impairment. Children with Vitamin D deficiency may experience severe asthma.

Sunlight is an excellent source of Vitamin D.

Vitamin E Deficiency
Vitamin E deficiency is very rare. It may cause mild hemolytic anemia in newborn infants. Spinocerebellar
ataxia, myopathies, peripheral neuropathy, ataxia, skeletal myopathy, and retinopathy are other
conditions caused by vitamin E deficiency.

Almonds are an abundant source of Vitamin E.

Vitamin K Deficiency
Deficiency in Vitamin K causes bleeding diathesis. Newborn infants are more likely to be affected by
Vitamin K deficiency.

Brussels sprouts are rich in Vitamin K.

Many vitamin supplements are available in the market. However, it is always advisable to obtain vitamins
from their natural sources by eating foods rich in vitamins daily.
Macrominerals

Major minerals

Mineral Function Sources

Sodium Needed for proper fluid balance, nerve
transmission, and muscle contraction
Table salt, soy sauce; large
amounts in processed foods; small
amounts in milk, breads,
vegetables, and unprocessed
meats

Chloride Needed for proper fluid balance, stomach acid Table salt, soy sauce; large
amounts in processed foods; small
amounts in milk, meats, breads,
and vegetables

Potassium Needed for proper fluid balance, nerve Meats, milk, fresh fruits and
transmission, and muscle contraction vegetables, whole grains, legumes

Calcium Important for healthy bones and teeth; helps
muscles relax and contract; important in nerve
functioning, blood clotting, blood
pressure regulation, immune system health
Milk and milk products; canned fish
with bones (salmon, sardines);
fortified tofu and fortified soy milk;
greens (broccoli, mustard greens);
legumes

Phosphorus Important for healthy bones and teeth; found in Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, milk,
every cell; part of the system that maintains acid- processed foods (including soda
base balance pop)

Magnesium Found in bones; needed for making protein, Nuts and seeds; legumes; leafy,
muscle contraction, nerve transmission, immune green vegetables;
system health seafood; chocolate; artichokes;
"hard" drinking water

Sulfur Found in protein molecules Occurs in foods as part of protein:

meats, poultry, fish, eggs, milk,
legumes, nuts
Trace minerals (microminerals)

The body needs trace minerals in very small amounts. Note that iron is considered to be a trace mineral,
although the amount needed is somewhat more than for other microminerals.

Trace minerals

Mineral Function Sources

Iron Part of a molecule (hemoglobin) found in
red blood cells that carries oxygen in the body;
needed for energy metabolism
Organ meats; red meats; fish;
poultry; shellfish (especially clams);
egg yolks; legumes; dried fruits;
dark, leafy greens; iron-enriched
breads and cereals; and fortified
cereals

Zinc Part of many enzymes; needed for Meats, fish, poultry, leavened whole
making protein and genetic material; has a grains, vegetables
function in taste perception, wound healing,
normal fetal development, production of sperm,
normal growth and sexual maturation, immune
system health

Iodine Found in thyroid hormone, which helps Seafood, foods grown in iodine-rich
regulate growth, development, and metabolism soil, iodized salt, bread, dairy
products

Selenium Antioxidant Meats, seafood, grains

Copper Part of many enzymes; needed for Legumes, nuts and seeds, whole
iron metabolism grains, organ meats, drinking water

Manganese Part of many enzymes Widespread in foods, especially

plant foods

Fluoride Involved in formation of bones and teeth; helps Drinking water (either fluoridated or
prevent tooth decay naturally containing fluoride), fish,
and most teas

Chromium Works closely with insulin to regulate blood Unrefined foods, especially liver,
sugar(glucose) levels brewer's yeast, whole grains, nuts,
cheeses

Molybdenum Part of some enzymes Legumes; breads and grains; leafy

greens; leafy, green vegetables;
milk; liver
HEALTH ACCORDING TO:

1.Ruth Grout- It is the translation of what is known about health into desirable individual and community
behavior patterns by means of the educational process.

2. Thomas Wood -Health education is the sum of experiences which favorably habits, attitudes, and
knowledge relating to individual, community and social health

3. Frederick Kilander- It’s the sum of all experience relating to individual and community health.

4. Carl Anderson- Equality of physical, emotional, mental, social, well-being and not merely the absence
of disease or infirmity.

2. Determinants of Health

 Where you live: is there clean and safe water and air? Is housing safe and not overcrowded? Is
there good sanitation? What are levels of crime like? How safe are roads? Are there jobs with
decent working conditions?

 Genetics: have you inherited greater likelihood of certain illnesses? How do you cope with
stress?

 Income: unsurprisingly, higher income is linked with better health.

 Nutrition: can you regularly eat enough healthy food?

 Education: going to school can improve many other determinants of health.

 Relationships with friends and family: better support networks are linked with better health.

 Gender: men and women face different diseases at different ages. In many countries women
also face many extra challenges that affect their health.

 Culture: customs, traditions and beliefs can all affect health for better or worse.

 Social status and social exclusion: people who are excluded, or on the margins of society
have worse health chances.

 Access to and use of health services: are services available nearby to prevent and treat poor
health?

 Personal behaviours: What do you eat? How much exercise do you do? Do you smoke or
drink?

 All these health determinants interact to create a complex set of health dynamics. But reducing
poverty, providing livelihoods, increasing access to education and promoting gender equality are
key parts of the puzzle.

3. Burt’s Taxonomy

4. TERMINOLOGIES

APPRASE- to judge the quality, success, or needs of someone or something.

BEHAVIOR- the way in which one acts or conducts oneself, especially toward others.

LIFESTYLE- the way in which a person or group lives.

MEDIA- the main means of mass communication (broadcasting, publishing, and the Internet), regarded
collectively.
CONSUMER- a person who purchases goods and services for personal use.

COMPONENT- a part or element of a larger whole, especially a part of a machine or vehicle.

DIMENSION- a measurable extent of some kind, such as length, breadth, depth, or height.

DETERMINANT- a factor that decisively affects the nature or outcome of something.

EXISTENCE- the fact or state of living or having objective reality.

EQUILIBRIUM- a situation in which supply and demand are matched and prices stable.

EVALUATE- form an idea of the amount, number, or value of.

FAITH- complete trust or confidence in someone or something.

ORGANIZATION- an organized body of people with a particular purpose, especially a business, society,
association, etc.

QUACKERY- dishonest practices and claims to have special knowledge and skill in some field, typically
medicine.

HEALTH INSURANCE- is a type of insurance coverage that covers the cost of an insured individual's
medical and surgical expenses.

HEALTH EDUCATOR- teach people about behaviors that promote wellness.

SCHOOL HEALTH- services provided through the school system to improve the health and well-being of
children and in some cases whole families and the broader community.

HEALTH EDUCATION- is a profession of educating people about health. Areas within this profession
encompass environmental health, physical health, social health, emotional health, intellectual health, and
spiritual health.

RISK- a situation involving exposure to danger.

PATTERN- a repeated decorative design.

PROGRAM- a planned series of future events, items, or performances.

RACIAL- relating to race.

SERVICE- the action of helping or doing work for someone.

SOCIALIZATION- the activity of mixing socially with others, the process of learning to behave in a way
that is acceptable to society.

SOCIAL SUPPORT- is the perception and actuality that one is cared for, has assistance available from
other people, and that one is part of a supportive social network.

TAXONOMY- the study of the general principles of scientific classification.

TRAINING- the action of teaching a person or animal a particular skill or type of behavior.

- the action of undertaking a course of exercise and diet in preparation for a sporting event.

WELLNESS- the state of being in good health, especially as an actively pursued goal.

ENVIRONMENT- the surroundings or conditions in which a person, animal, or plant lives or operates.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

OBJECTIVES; structure and importance of the skin

Skin has three layers:

The epidermis, the outermost layer of skin, provides a waterproof barrier and creates our skin tone.

The dermis, beneath the epidermis, contains tough connective tissue, hair follicles, and sweat glands.

The deeper subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis) is made of fat and connective tissue.

Functions of the skin:

• Protects the body against physical injury.

• Provides some protection for the body against numerous pathogenic microbes and chemical agents.

• Helps to restrict fluid and water loss.

• Helps to prevent excessive water absorption by imparting water resistance to the skin.

• Is involved in temperature regulation of the body.

• Is the body’s main sensory organ for temperature, pressure, touch and pain.

• Provides protection from UV light.

• Plays a key role in metabolism, including vitamin D synthesis and biotransformation of some
chemicals.

Lack of vitamin D can lead to soft bones and many associated problems.

OBSERVATION- The skin has its own texture and color. There are salt like structures.

1. There are salt like structures.

2. Yes. They look like crystals, some are oval shape.

3.Microorganisms that causes disorder of the skin;

The most common bacteria to cause skin infections are:

 Staphylococcus aureus

 Streptococcus pyogenes

 Neisseria species, cause of gonorrhoea and meningococcal disease

 Erysipelothrix insidiosa, cause of erysipeloid (usually an animal infection)

 Haemophilus species, cause of chancroid and cellulitis in young children

 Helicobacter pylori, a stomach infection, which may be associated with some cases of chronic
urticaria and rosacea

 Klebsiella rhinoscleromatis, cause of rhinoscleroma

 Mycoplasma pneumoniae, a cause of pneumonia, causes non-specific erythema, bullous
eruptions, urticarialrashes, erythema multiforme, mucositis and rarely, SJS/TEN

 Pseudomonas aeruginosa causes wound infections, athlete's foot, gram negative folliculitis,
chronic paronychia(green nail syndrome), spa pool folliculitis and ecthyma gangrenosum

 Calymmatobacterium granulomatis, cause of granuloma inguinale

 Bacillus anthracis, cause of anthrax

 Clostridium perfringens and other species cause gas gangrene

 Treponema species cause syphilis, yaws and pinta

 Bartonella species cause cat scratch fever, bacillary angiomatosis and bartonellosis

 Mycobacterium species cause tuberculosis, leprosy and atypical mycobacterial infections

including Buruli ulcer

 Leptospira, cause of leptospirosis, which may cause bleeding into the skin (purpura)

 Nocardia, cause of nocardiosis

 Yersinia pestis, cause of bubonic plague, which causes swollen lymph glands and pustules, ulcers
and scabs on the skin

 Serratia marcescens, a facultative anaerobic gram-negative bacillus that may rarely cause skin
infections such as cellulitis, abscesses and ulcers; usually in patients with immunodeficiency.

 Fusibacterium species, Bacillus fusiformis, Treponema vincenti and other bacteria may result in
tropical ulcer

 Burkholderia species, cause of melioidosis and glanders, in which abscesses may be associated
with systemicsymptoms.

 Actinomcyes species, cause of actinomycosis, in which granular bacteriosis occurs i.e. abscesses
and sinus tracts draining sulphur-yellow granules.

 Vibrio vulnificus, a cause of septic shock characterised by blood-filled blisters.

 Brucella species, cause of brucellosis, a febrile illness caught from unvaccinated animals or their
unpasteurised milk.

 Salmonella species, particularly S typhi (typhoid fever)

 Aeromonas found in water rarely causes skin and soft tissue infection.
4. Skin Conditions

 Rash: Nearly any change in the skin’s appearance can be called a rash. Most rashes are from
simple skin irritation; others result from medical conditions.

 Dermatitis: A general term for inflammation of the skin. Atopic dermatitis (a type of eczema) is
the most common form.

 Eczema: Skin inflammation (dermatitis) causing an itchy rash. Most often, it’s due to an
overactive immune system.

 Psoriasis: An autoimmune condition that can cause a variety of skin rashes. Silver, scaly plaques
on the skin are the most common form.

 Dandruff: A scaly condition of the scalp may be caused by seborrheic dermatitis, psoriasis, or
eczema.

 Acne: The most common skin condition, acne affects over 85% of people at some time in life.

 Cellulitis: Inflammation of the dermis and subcutaneous tissues, usually due to an infection. A
red, warm, often painful skin rash generally results.

 Skin abscess (boil or furuncle): A localized skin infection creates a collection of pus under the
skin. Some abscesses must be opened and drained by a doctor in order to be cured.

 Rosacea: A chronic skin condition causing a red rash on the face. Rosacea may look like acne,
and is poorly understood.

 Warts: A virus infects the skin and causes the skin to grow excessively, creating a wart. Warts
may be treated at home with chemicals, duct tape, or freezing, or removed by a physician.

 Melanoma: The most dangerous type of skin cancer, melanoma results from sun damage and
other causes. A skin biopsy can identify melanoma.

 Basal cell carcinoma: The most common type of skin cancer. Basal cell carcinoma is less
dangerous than melanoma because it grows and spreads more slowly.

 Seborrheic keratosis: A benign, often itchy growth that appears like a “stuck-on” wart.
Seborrheic keratoses may be removed by a physician, if bothersome.

 Actinic keratosis: A crusty or scaly bump that forms on sun-exposed skin. Actinic keratoses can
sometimes progress to cancer.

 Squamous cell carcinoma: A common form of skin cancer, squamous cell carcinoma may begin
as an ulcer that won’t heal, or an abnormal growth. It usually develops in sun-exposed areas.

 Herpes: The herpes viruses HSV-1 and HSV-2 can cause periodic blisters or skin irritation around
the lips or the genitals.

 Hives: Raised, red, itchy patches on the skin that arise suddenly. Hives usually result from an
allergic reaction.
  Tinea versicolor: A benign fungal skin infection creates pale areas of low pigmentation on the
skin.

 Viral exantham: Many viral infections can cause a red rash affecting large areas of the skin. This
is especially common in children.

 Shingles (herpes zoster): Caused by the chickenpox virus, shingles is a painful rash on one side of
the body. A new adult vaccine can prevent shingles in most people.

 Scabies: Tiny mites that burrow into the skin cause scabies. An intensely itchy rash in the webs
of fingers, wrists, elbows, and buttocks is typical of scabies.

 Ringworm: A fungal skin infection (also called tinea). The characteristic rings it creates are not
due to worms.

THE SKIN
URINARY AND EXCRETORY SYSTEM

OBJECTIVES; Beneficial effects of excreting body waste.

Excretion is an essential process in which waste products are removed from the body. Without
excretion, waste products build up in the body and cause serious health issues. The body needs to
excrete waste products in order to maintain its homeostasis. For example, consider what would happen
if there was no excretion? the waste products would pile up in the body and cause major problems.
Thus, in order to maintain the normal working condition of the body, the body eliminates waste
products (urine, bowel, CO2 and many others).

1. Urine is tested to diagnose disease or to screen for health problems. In some cases, kidney disease
might be suspected based on what is found. In other cases, nothing important is found. A sample can be
analyzed using a number of different tests. These tests can help doctors diagnose certain diseases or to
monitor their progress. For example, urine test strips can show whether you may have a urinary tract
infection or diabetes. Drugs can also be detected in urine for a while after being used.

2. Protein: Excessive protein in the urine (proteinuria) is a sign of kidney involvement in lupus. Usually,
your kidneys prevent protein from passing from your blood into your urine: loops of capillaries
(glomeruli) that filter blood allow small particles to pass into the urine while retaining larger particles,
such as protein, and kidney tubules reabsorb the smaller proteins that were able to escape. Large
amounts of protein in the urine suggest that these glomeruli and tubules are inflamed or damaged in
some way.

Blood: The chemical examination of urine also measures the amount of red blood cells in the urine
sample. The presence of red blood cells in the urine is known as hematuria, and the presence of
hemoglobin (from red blood cells) is known as hemoglobinuria. Usually people have very small amounts
of red blood cells in their urine, but even a minute increase can indicate a problem, such as a disease of
the kidney or urinary tract, trauma, medications, smoking, or intense exercise (e.g., running a
marathon). When the chemical test for blood in the urine is negative but the microscopic assessment
shows the presence of red blood cells, the laboratory will usually check for the presence of vitamin C,
which can interfere with test results.

Turbidity or cloudiness: may be caused by excessive cellular material or protein in the urine or may
develop from crystallization or precipitation of salts upon standing at room temperature or in the
refrigerator which is usually of no significance. Clearing of the specimen after addition of a small amount
of acid indicates that precipitation of salts is the probable cause of turbidity.

Glucose: Your urine should not contain glucose. If it does, your doctor will order further bloodwork and
urine tests to determine the cause. Glucose in the urine is called glucosuria; it can occur in people with
diabetes that is not properly regulated with insulin, in people with kidney problems that affect the
absorption of glucose, in pregnant women, and in people with liver abnormalities or hormonal
disorders.

3.There are 2 kidneys in our body. When someone’s kidneys stop working we call this kidney failure.
Damage to the kidneys usually happens over time. When someone’s kidneys stop working that means
that they need treatment to keep them alive. Treatments for kidney failure are called dialysis and
transplant. If your kidneys stop working completely, your body fills with extra water and waste products.
This condition is called uremia. Your hands or feet may swell. You will feel tired and weak because your
body needs clean blood to function properly.

4.KIDNEY TRANSPLANT

When a suitable donor kidney is found, the transplant center will contact you. Staff at the center will
check you don't have any new medical problems and then ask you to go to the center.

When you hear from the transplant center:

-don't eat or drink anything

-take all current medicines with you

-take a bag of clothes and essential items for your hospital stay

When you arrive at the transplant center, you'll be quickly assessed. Some of the tests you had at your
initial assessment may be repeated to ensure no new medical conditions have developed. Tests will also
be done to ensure the donor kidney is suitable for you.

The transplant procedure must be carried out as quickly as possible for the transplant to have the best
chance of success. After the medical team has confirmed the kidney is in good condition and is suitable,
you'll be given the general anesthetic and taken to the operating theatre.

The operation

The kidney transplant procedure involves three main stages:

First, an incision (cut) is made in your lower abdomen (tummy), through which the donated kidney is
put into place. Your own kidneys will usually be left where they are, unless they're causing problems
such as pain or infection.

Second, nearby blood vessels are attached to the blood vessels of the donated kidney. This is to provide
the donated kidney with the blood supply it needs to function properly.

Finally, the ureter (the tube that carries urine from the kidney to the bladder) of the donated kidney is
connected to your bladder.

A small plastic tube called a stent may be inserted into the ureter to help ensure a good flow of urine
initially. This will usually be removed about 6 to 12 weeks later during a minor procedure called a
cystoscopy.

When the kidney is properly in place, the incision in your abdomen will be closed with surgical staples,
stitches or surgical glue.

Although the procedure may sound relatively straightforward, it's very demanding and complex surgery
that usually takes around three hours to complete.
After the operation

Once you've recovered from the effects of the anesthetic, it's likely you will feel some pain at the site of
the incision. Painkillers will be provided, if necessary.

After the operation, you'll immediately begin treatment with medication designed to prevent your
immune system from rejecting your new kidney. See living with a kidney transplant for more
information on this.

Most transplanted kidneys will start working immediately, particularly if they come from a living donor,
although sometimes they may take a few days or weeks to work properly. If this is the case, you'll need
to have dialysis during this time.

Most people can leave hospital in about a week, but you'll need to attend frequent appointments at the
transplant center, so your kidney function can be assessed and tests can be carried out to check how
well your medications are working.

For the first few weeks after surgery, you may need to have two to three appointments a week.
However, over time, your appointments will become less frequent. After a year, as long as you do not
have any serious problems, you should only have to attend the center once every few months.

After kidney surgery, you should be able to return to work and normal activities within a few months,
provided you make good progress.

URINE SAMPLE
NERVOUS SYSTEM

OBJECTIVES; Parts and function of nerves.

1. Cell body- The cell body (soma) is the factory of the neuron. It produces all the proteins for the
dendrites, axons and synaptic terminals and contains specialized organelles such as the mitochondria,
Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, secretory granules, ribosomes and polysomes to provide
energy and make the parts, as well as a production line to assemble the parts into completed products.

2. Neuronal Membrane - The neuronal membrane serves as a barrier to enclose the cytoplasm inside
the neuron, and to exclude certain substances that float in the fluid that bathes the neuron.

The membrane with its mosaic of proteins is responsible for many important functions:

-keeping certain ions and small molecules out of the cell and letting others in,

-accumulating nutrients, and rejecting harmful substances,

-catalyzing enzymatic reactions,

-establishing an electrical potential inside the cell,

-conducting an impulse

-being sensitive to particular neurotransmitters and modulators.

3. Dendrites- These structures branch out in treelike fashion and serve as the main apparatus for
receiving signals from other nerve cells. They function as an “antenna” of the neuron and are covered by
thousands of synapses. The dendritic membrane under the synapse (the post-synaptic membrane) has
many specialized protein molecules called receptors that detect the neurotransmitters in the synaptic
cleft. A nerve cell can have many dendrites which branch many times, their surface is irregular and
covered in dendritic spines which are where the synaptic input connections are made.

4. Axon- Usually a long process which often projects to distant regions of the nervous system. The axon
is the main conducting unit of the neuron, capable of conveying electrical signals along distances that
range from as short as 0.1 mm to as long as 2 m. Many axons split into several branches, thereby
conveying information to different targets. Many neurons do not have axons. In these so-called
amacrine neurons, all the neuronal processes are dendrites. Neurons with very short axons are also
found.

The axons of many neurons are wrapped in a myelin sheath, which is composed of the membranes of
interstitial cells and is wrapped around the axons to form several concentric layers. The myelin sheath is
broken at various points by the nodes of Ranvier, so that in cross section it looks like a string of
sausages. The myelin protects the axon, and prevents interference between axons as they pass along in
bundles, sometimes thousands at time.

The cells that wrap around peripheral nerve fibers - that is, nerve fibers outside of the brain and spinal
cord - are called Schwann cells (because they were first described by Theodor Schwann). The cells that
wrap around axons within the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) are called
oligodendrocytes. The axon, with its surrounded sheath, is called a nerve fiber. Between each pair of
successive Schwann cells is a gap of a node of Ranvier.
5. Nerve Ending (Presynaptic Terminals)

Synapses are the junctions formed with other nerve cells where the presynaptic terminal of one cell
comes into 'contact' with the postsynaptic membrane of another. It is at these junctions that neurons
are excited, inhibited, or modulated. There are two types of synapse, electrical and chemical.

Electrical synapses occur where the presynaptic terminal is in electrical continuity with the postsynaptic.
Ions and small molecules passing through, thus connecting channels from one cell to the next, so that
electrical changes in one cell are transmitted almost instantaneously to the next. Ions can generally flow
both ways at these junctions i.e. they tend to be bi-directional, although there are electrical junctions
where the ions can only flow one way, these are known as rectifying junctions. Rectifying junctions are
used to synchronize the firing of nerve cells.

Chemical synaptic junction is more complicated. The gap between the post- and presynaptic terminals
is larger, and the mode of transmission is not electrical, but carried by neurotransmitters, neuroactive
substances released at the presynaptic side of the junction. There are two types of chemical junctions.
Type I is an excitatory synapse, generally found on dendrites, type II is an inhibitory synapse, generally
found on cell bodies. Different substances are released at these two types of synapse. The direction of
flow of information is usually one way at these junctions. Each terminal button is connected to other
neurons across a small gap called a synapse. The physical and neurochemical characteristics of each
synapse determines the strength and polarity of the new input signal. This is where the brain is the most
flexible, and the most vulnerable. Changing the constitution of various neurotransmitter chemicals can
increase or decrease the amount of stimulation that the firing axon imparts on the neighboring dendrite.
Altering the neurotransmitters can also change whether the stimulation is excitatory or inhibitory

NEURON CELL
1. Main jobs of the nervous system. It receives sensory impulses from the sensory organs through
sensory nerve fibers, analyzes and interprets this information and starts the motor impulses which are
carried to muscles and glands which act on these impulses and cause the body to react.

2. 5 senses; taste, sight, touch, smell, and sound.

3. The brain and spinal cord are known as the central nervous system (CNS).

4. Peripheral Nervous System is where the nerve of arms and legs can be found.

5. The nervous system is like a network that sends messages back and forth from the brain to different
parts of the body. It does this via the spinal cord, which runs from the brain down through the back and
contains threadlike nerves that branch out to every organ and body part.

6. The brain is responsible when a person is unconscious.

7.The skeletal system protects the spinal cord.

8. The central nervous system (CNS) is designed to respond to the environment and is peculiarly
vulnerable to many of the influences found in the environment. Utilizing an anatomical classification
(cortex, cerebellum, peripheral nerves) major toxins and stresses are reviewed with selections from
recent references. Selective vulnerability of certain areas to particular toxins is apparent at all levels of
the CNS, although the amount of damage produced by any noxious agent depends on the age and
genetic substrate of the subject. It is apparent that the effects of certain well known and long respected
environmental toxins such as lead, mercury, etc., deserve continued surveillance. In addition, the
overwhelming impact on the CNS of social damages such as trauma, alcohol, and tobacco cannot be
ignored by environmentalists. The effect of the hospital and therapeutic environment has become
apparent in view of increased awareness of iatrogenic disorders. The need for particular laboratory
tests, for example, examination of CSF and nerve conduction toxicity studies, is suggested. Epidemics
such as the recent solvent neuropathies suggest a need for continued animal studies that are chronic, as
well as acute evaluations when predicting the potential toxic effects of industrial compounds.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM

OBJECTIVES; Different types of muscles and their functions.

1. Skeletal Muscles are those which attach to bones and have the main function of contracting to
facilitate movement of our skeletons. They are also sometimes known as striated muscles due to their
appearance. The cause of this 'stripy' appearance is the bands of Actin and Myosin which form the
Sarcomere, found within the Myofibrils.

Skeletal muscles are also sometimes called voluntary muscles, because we have direct control over
them through nervous impulses from our brains sending messages to the muscle. Contractions can vary
to produce powerful, fast movements or small precision actions. Skeletal muscles also have the ability to
stretch or contract and still return to their original shape.

2. Smooth muscle is also sometimes known as Involuntary muscle due to our inability to control its
movements, or unstrained as it does not have the stripy appearance of Skeletal muscle. Smooth muscle
is found in the walls of hollow organs such as the Stomach, Oesophagus, Bronchi and in the walls of
blood vessels. This muscle type is stimulated by involuntary neurogenic impulses and has slow,
rhythmical contractions used in controlling internal organs, for example, moving food along the
Oesophagus or contracting blood vessels during Vasoconstriction.

3. Cardiac muscle (heart muscle)

This type of muscle is found solely in the walls of the heart. It has similarities with skeletal muscles in
that it is striated and with smooth muscles in that its contractions are not under conscious control.
However, this type of muscle is highly specialized. It is under the control of the autonomic nervous
system, however, even without a nervous input contraction can occur due to cells called pacemaker
cells. Cardiac muscle is highly resistant to fatigue due to the presence of a large number of
mitochondria, myoglobin and a good blood supply allowing continuous aerobic metabolism.

OBSERVATIONS

1. My hand don’t feel anything after the first 15 time I write my name.

2. My hand is getting tired after the 2nd 15 time I write my name.

3. My hand is getting numb after the 3rd 15 time I write my name.

4. My hand is numb after the 4th 15 time I write my name.

5. My hand feels light like feather.

6.My hand feels like the blood is released and rushing.

7. My hand writing change, it become ugly, because my hands are tired and numb.

Answers for research questions;

1. A muscle cramp is a sudden and involuntary contraction of one or more of your muscles. If you've
ever been awakened in the night or stopped in your tracks by a sudden charley horse, you know that
muscle cramps can cause severe pain.
2. An eyelid twitch (or tic) is when your eyelid quickly moves a little. This movement does not affect your
vision. Eyelid twitches are common, and often caused by stress and being tired. Most eyelid twitches are
minor and go away without treatment. You can often get rid of eyelid twitching by getting enough sleep,
reducing stress, and limiting your caffeine.

3. Spores of the bacteria that cause tetanus, Clostridium tetani, are found in soil, dust and animal feces.
When they enter a deep flesh wound, spores grow into bacteria that can produce a powerful toxin,
tetanospasmin, which impairs the nerves that control your muscles (motor neurons). The toxin can
cause muscle stiffness and spasms (the major signs of tetanus). Tetanus is a serious bacterial infection
that affects the nervous system and causes muscles throughout the body to tighten. It’s also called
lockjaw because the infection often causes muscle contractions in the jaw and neck. However, it can
eventually spread to other parts of the body.

4. A hernia occurs when an organ pushes through an opening in the muscle or tissue that holds it in
place. For example, the intestines may break through a weakened area in the abdominal wall. Hernias
are most common in the abdomen, but they can also appear in the upper thigh, belly button, and groin
areas. Most hernias aren’t immediately life-threatening, but they don’t go away on their own.
Sometimes they can require surgery to prevent potentially dangerous complications.

Treatment

For a hernia without symptoms, the usual course of action is to watch and wait, but this can be risky for
certain types of hernia, such as femoral hernias.

Within 2 years of a femoral hernia being diagnosed, 40 percent result in bowel strangulation.

It remains unclear whether non-emergency surgery is worthwhile for hernia repair in cases of an
inguinal hernia without symptoms that can be pushed back into the abdomen.

The American College of Surgeons and some other medical bodies consider elective surgery unnecessary
in such cases, recommending instead a course of watchful waiting. Others recommend surgical repair to
remove the risk of later strangulation of the gut, a complication where blood supply is cut off to an area
of tissue, which requires an emergency procedure. These health authorities consider an earlier, routine
operation preferable to a riskier emergency procedure.

5. The cardiac muscle is helped by aerobic exercise.

6. Milk contain protein that is essential for muscle growth.

7. Exercise can improve your muscular system by increasing your muscle strength. Resistance exercise,
such as weightlifting, is the ideal form of exercise for strength training. A stronger muscular system can
generate more force against resistance, and allows you to move heavier weight over greater distances.

8. Sleep plays an important role in your physical health. For example, sleep is involved in healing and
repair of your heart and blood vessels. Ongoing sleep deficiency is linked to an increased risk of heart
disease, kidney disease, high blood pressure, diabetes, and stroke.
SCREENING FOR ANEMIA

1. Hemoglobin, an Oxygen Carrier. Red blood cells. A drop of blood contains millions of red blood cells,
or erythrocytes. These specialized cells are like flattened discs, which gives them a much greater surface
area with which to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide in the lungs and with body cells. The most-used
parameter for screening blood donors for the presence of anemia.

2. Anemia is a condition that develops when your blood lacks enough healthy red blood cells or
hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a main part of red blood cells and binds oxygen. If you have too few or
abnormal red blood cells, or your hemoglobin is abnormal or low, the cells in your body will not get
enough oxygen.

Different classes of anemia;

 Iron deficiency anemia. This is the most common type of anemia worldwide. Iron deficiency
anemia is caused by a shortage of iron in your body. Your bone marrow needs iron to make
hemoglobin. Without adequate iron, your body can't produce enough hemoglobin for red blood
cells.

Without iron supplementation, this type of anemia occurs in many pregnant women. It is also caused by
blood loss, such as from heavy menstrual bleeding, an ulcer, cancer and regular use of some over-the-
counter pain relievers, especially aspirin.

 Vitamin deficiency anemia. In addition to iron, your body needs folate and vitamin B-12 to
produce enough healthy red blood cells. A diet lacking in these and other key nutrients can
cause decreased red blood cell production.

Additionally, some people may consume enough B-12, but their bodies aren't able to process the
vitamin. This can lead to vitamin deficiency anemia, also known as pernicious anemia.

 Anemia of chronic disease. Certain diseases — such as cancer, HIV/AIDS, rheumatoid arthritis,
kidney disease, Crohn's disease and other chronic inflammatory diseases — can interfere with
the production of red blood cells.

 Aplastic anemia. This rare, life-threatening anemia occurs when your body doesn't produce
enough red blood cells. Causes of aplastic anemia include infections, certain medicines,
autoimmune diseases and exposure to toxic chemicals.

 Anemias associated with bone marrow disease. A variety of diseases, such as leukemia and
myelofibrosis, can cause anemia by affecting blood production in your bone marrow. The effects
of these types of cancer and cancer-like disorders vary from mild to life-threatening.

 Hemolytic anemias. This group of anemias develops when red blood cells are destroyed faster
than bone marrow can replace them. Certain blood diseases increase red blood cell destruction.
You can inherit a hemolytic anemia, or you can develop it later in life.

 Sickle cell anemia. This inherited and sometimes serious condition is an inherited hemolytic
anemia. It's caused by a defective form of hemoglobin that forces red blood cells to assume an
abnormal crescent (sickle) shape. These irregular blood cells die prematurely, resulting in a
chronic shortage of red blood cells.
  Other anemias. There are several other forms of anemia, such as thalassemia and malarial
anemia.

3. Anemia occurs when your blood doesn't have enough red blood cells. This can happen if:

 Your body doesn't make enough red blood cells

 Bleeding causes you to lose red blood cells more quickly than they can be replaced

 Your body destroys red blood cells

HAEMANOMETER
BLOOD TYPING

OBSERVATION

I observe that the shape of the blood is biconcave and round. Blood has its own antisera.

1. A Whole Blood- blood drawn directly from the body from which none of the components, such as
plasma or platelets, has been removed.

B. Blood Plasma- a yellowish colored liquid component of blood that normally holds the blood cells in
whole blood in suspension; this makes plasma the extracellular matrix of blood cells. It makes up about
55% of the body's total blood volume.

C. Blood serum/sera- is a clear, yellowish colored fluid which is part of the blood. It does not contain
white or red blood cells or a clotting factor. It is the blood plasma without the fibrinogens.

D. Antigen- an antigen is a molecule capable of inducing an immune response (to produce an antibody)
in the host organism. Sometimes antigens are part of the host itself in an autoimmune disease.

E. Antibody- An antibody (Ab), also known as an immunoglobulin (Ig), is a large, Y-shaped protein
produced mainly by plasma cells that is used by the immune system to neutralize pathogens such as
pathogenic bacteria and viruses.

F. Blood Screening- Laboratory testing of donated blood prior to transfusion is intended to ensure that
recipients receive the safest possible blood products. All infectious disease screening assays must be
negative in order to release the blood unit or its components to hospitals for transfusion.

G. Blood donor- a person who gives blood for transfusion.

2. The ABO blood group was discovered in the first decade of the 1900s by Austrian physician Karl
Landsteiner. Through a series of experiments, Landsteiner classified blood into the four well-known
types. The “type” actually refers to the presence of a particular type of antigen sticking up from the
surface of a red blood cell. An antigen is anything that elicits a response from an immune cell called an
antibody. Antibodies latch onto foreign substances that enter the body, such as bacteria and viruses,
and clump them together for removal by other parts of the immune system. The human body naturally
makes antibodies that will attack certain types of red-blood-cell antigens. For example, people with type
A blood have A antigens on their red blood cells and make antibodies that attack B antigens; people with
type B blood have B antigens on their red blood cells and make antibodies that attack A antigens. So,
type A people can’t donate their blood to type B people and vice versa. People who are type AB have
both A and B antigens on their red blood cells and therefore don’t make any A or B antibodies while
people who are type O have no A or B antigens and make both A and B antibodies.

3. The Rh blood group system (including the Rh factor) is one of thirty-five known human blood group
systems. It is the second most important blood group system, after the ABO blood group system. The Rh
blood group system consists of 50 defined blood group antigens, among which the five antigens D, C, c,
E, and e are the most important. The commonly used terms Rh factor, Rh positive and Rh negative refer
to the D antigen only. Besides its role in blood transfusion, the D antigen is used to determine the risk of
hemolytic disease of the newborn (or erythroblastosis fetalis) for Rh disease management .Rh derives
from rhesus and the terms rhesus blood group system, rhesus factor, rhesus positive and rhesus
negative are also used.

Rh blood grouping is important to avoid complications from a blood transfusion, recipients must be sure
a donor’s blood matches their own, meaning two main factors must agree: the blood group (A, B or 0)
and the Rhesus factor, either positive or negative. Both are antigens expressed on the surface of red
blood cells--and if they are different, they can invoke an immune attack.

4. Screening Donated Blood

Blood donors are asked a set of standard questions just before they donate blood to assist in
determining if they are in good health and free of any diseases that could be transmitted by blood
transfusion. If the donor’s answers indicate they are not well or are at risk for having a disease
transmissible by blood transfusion, they are not allowed to donate blood.

If the donor is eligible to donate, the donated blood is tested for blood type (ABO group) and Rh type
(positive or negative). This is to make sure that patients receive blood that matches their blood type.
Before transfusion, the blood is also tested for certain proteins (antibodies) that may cause problems in
a person receiving a blood transfusion.

All blood is tested for evidence of certain infectious disease pathogens, such as hepatitis B and C viruses
and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

5. What conditions disqualify you from donating blood?

 Being positive for the AIDS or hepatitis viruses’ rules one out as a blood donor.

 Individuals who have had ear, tongue, or other body part piercing are allowed to donate blood
as long as the needle used in the piercing was sterile. If it was not or if this is unknown, the
potential donor must wait 12 months from the time of the piercing.

 Being imprisoned rules one out as a blood donor.

 Being in the US military and serving in Iraq or Afghanistan rules one out as a blood donor for one
year.

 A person with diabetes is allowed to donate blood. Insulin dependent diabetics are allowed to
donate blood as long as their insulin syringe, if reused, is used only by them.

 Being deferred from travel to the UK and Western Europe due to concerns about Mad Cow
Disease rules one out as a blood donor.

 Physically small people are not acceptable as blood donors as they have lower blood volumes
and may not be able to safely lose a full pint of blood.

 One may not donate blood while one has the flu. But one can donate blood after exposure to
someone with the flu provided the potential donor feels and has no symptoms.

 A minimum age limit exists as to how old a person must be in order to donate blood (usually age
17). There is no maximum age limit.
  Pregnancy and recent childbirth rule one out as a blood donor. The safety of donating blood
during and shortly after pregnancy has not been fully established. There may be medical risks to
the mother and baby during this time.

 Having high or low cholesterol does not exclude a person from donating blood.

 Potential blood donors may be temporarily prevented from donating if they have a low level of
iron (hematocrit) in their blood. This requirement is for the safety of the donor in order to
ensure that their blood iron level remains within the normal range for a healthy adult.

 For almost all cancers (such as breast, brain, prostate, and lung), a person may donate blood five
years after diagnosis or date of the last surgery, last chemotherapy or last radiation treatment.

 For blood cancers (such as leukemia or lymphoma), a person is not allowed to donate blood.

 For non-melanoma skin cancer or a localized cancer that has not spread elsewhere, a person
may give blood if the tumor has been removed and healing is complete.

 If a potential donor has had malaria they cannot donate blood for 12 months. This is because
the parasite that causes malaria can lay dormant in a person's system for as long as a year.

 A person cannot donate blood while they are on antibiotics. This is not because of the antibiotic,
but due to the presence of the illness or infection requiring the antibiotic - it may be transmitted
through the blood.

6. A universal blood donor is someone whose blood type is O negative. ... Individuals with the blood
group O Rh negative are called “universal donors” because their red blood cells can be transfused to
people of all blood groups. This is why the Red Cross is constantly recruiting donors whose blood type is
O Rh negative.

A person who has group AB blood and is therefore able to receive blood from a person with any other
blood type. Group AB blood contains red blood cells that have both antigens A and B and thus does not
have reactive antibodies in its plasma to these antigens, which are found in some other blood types.
Human Blood Group
BLOOD MORPHOLOGY

1. Blood is a body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers necessary substances such as
nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells.
The liquid part, called plasma, is made of water, salts, and protein. Over half of your blood is plasma.
The solid part of your blood contains red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells
(RBC) deliver oxygen from your lungs to your tissues and organs.

- Supplying oxygen to cells and tissues. providing essential nutrients to cells, such as amino acids, fatty
acids, and glucose. removing waste materials, such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid. protecting
the body from infection and foreign bodies through the white blood cells.

- Venous blood is deoxygenated blood that flows from tiny capillary blood vessels within the tissues into
progressively larger veins to the right side of the heart. Capillary blood is obtained from capillary beds
that consist of the smallest veins (venules) and arteries (arterioles) of the circulatory system. The
venules and arterioles join together in capillary beds forming a mixture of venous and arterial blood. The
specimen from a dermal puncture will therefore be a mixture of arterial and venous blood along with
interstitial and intracellular fluids.

2. Blood component

 Plasma: Plasma is a straw-colored fluid in which blood cells are suspended. It is made up of
approximately 90% water as well as electrolytes such as sodium and potassium and proteins.

 Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes): The main function of red blood cells is to carry oxygen. Red
blood cells contain a protein called Hemoglobin. This combines with oxygen to form
Oxyhemoglobin. Each red blood cell has a lifespan of approximately 120 days before it gets
broken down by the spleen. New cells are manufactured in the bone marrow of most bones.
There are approximately 4.5-5 million red cells per micro-liter of blood.

 White Blood Cells (Leucocytes): There a number of types of white blood cells, although the
function of all of them is to help fight disease and infection. They typically have a lifespan of a
few days and there are only 5-10 thousand WBC's per micro-liter of blood.

 Platelets (Thrombocytes): Platelets are disc shaped cell fragments which are involved in clotting
the blood to prevent the excess loss of body fluids.

3. Types of white blood cells

 Monocytes. They have a longer lifespan than many white blood cells and help to break down
bacteria.

 Lymphocytes. They create antibodies to defend against bacteria, viruses, and other potentially
harmful invaders.

 Neutrophils. They kill and digest bacteria and fungi. They are the most numerous type of white
blood cell and your first line of defense when infection strikes.
  Basophils. These small cells appear to sound an alarm when infectious agents invade your
blood. They secrete chemicals such as histamine, a marker of allergic disease, that help control
the body's immune response.

 Eosinophils. They attack and kill parasites, destroy cancer cells, and help with allergic responses.

Microscopic morphology of a raw blood sample

Stained morphological appearance of different blood cells

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

OBSERVATION;

I observe that the texture of the heart is like a rubber and the shape is like our fist. The hearts apex is in
the bottom while the base is in the top. The coronary blood vessels supply the heart with blood.

1. The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system or the vascular system, is an organ
system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes),
oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells in the body to provide
nourishment and help in fighting diseases, stabilize temperature and pH, and maintain homeostasis.

2. Aorta-the body's largest artery. Takes oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body.

Pulmonary Artery-carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs.

Right Atrium-Receives deoxygenated blood from the body

Pulmonary Vein-Takes oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium

Left Ventricle-Pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta

Right Ventricle-pumps deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary artery

Coronary Vessels-supply the heart muscle with its blood supply

Arteries-carry blood AWAY from the heart

Veins-carry blood TOWARDS the heart

Bicuspid Valve-valve between the left atrium and the left ventricle.

Tricuspid Valve-valve between the right atrium the right ventricle.

Vena Cava-the largest vein in the body, it carries blood from the body back to the heart.

3. Pericardial fluid is the serous fluid secreted by the serous layer of the pericardium into the pericardial
cavity. The pericardium consists of two layers, an outer fibrous layer and the inner serous layer.

4. Each and every cell needs nutrients water and oxygen to properly function.

5. If the circulatory system did not pick up waste, he wastes will build up and possibly kill the cells. Bad
cholesterol will build up.

6. Artery is a blood vessel that takes blood from the heart to all parts of the body. Most arteries carry
oxygenated blood; the two exceptions are the pulmonary and the umbilical arteries, which carry
deoxygenated blood to the organs that oxygenate it. The effective arterial blood volume is that
extracellular fluid which fills the arterial system. Veins are blood vessels that carry blood toward the
heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the heart; exceptions are the
pulmonary and umbilical veins, both of which carry oxygenated blood to the heart. In contrast to veins,
arteries carry blood away from the heart. Veins are less muscular than arteries and are often closer to
the skin. There are valves in most veins to prevent backflow.
THE HEART
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

OBSERVATION;

I observe that a person with lung problem has a rough sound while a person with healthy lung has a
smooth sound when using stethoscope.

1. Main Parts of the Respiratory System and their Function

The nostrils: Nostrils are involved in air intake, i.e. they bring air into the nose, where air is warmed and
humidified. The tiny hairs called cilia filters out dust and other particles present in the air and protects
the nasal passage and other regions of the respiratory tract.

Trachea: The trachea is also known as windpipe. The trachea filters the air we inhale and branches into
the bronchi.

Bronchi: The bronchi are the two air tubes that branch off of from the trachea and carry atmospheric air
directly into the lungs.

Lungs: The main organ of the respiratory system is lungs. Lungs are the site in body where oxygen is
taken into and carbon dioxide is expelled out. The red blood cells present in the blood picks up the
oxygen in the lungs and carry and distribute the oxygen to all body cells that need it. The red blood cells
donate the oxygen to the cells and picks up the carbon dioxide produced by the cells.

Alveolus: Alveolus is the tiny sac like structure present in the lungs which the gaseous exchange takes
place.

Diaphragm: Breathing begins with a dome-shaped muscle located at the bottom of the lungs which is
known as diaphragm. When we breathe in the diaphragm contracts and flatten out and pull downward.
Due to this movement the space in the lungs increases and pulls air into the lungs. When we breathe
out, the diaphragm expands and reduces the amount of space for the lungs and forces air out.

2. The process of breathing (respiration) is divided into two distinct phases, inspiration (inhalation) and
expiration (exhalation). During inspiration, the diaphragm contracts and pulls downward while the
muscles between the ribs contract and pull upward. This increases the size of the thoracic cavity and
decreases the pressure inside. As a result, air rushes in and fills the lungs.

During expiration, the diaphragm relaxes, and the volume of the thoracic cavity decreases, while the
pressure within it increases. As a result, the lungs contract and air are forced out.

3. Diaphragm is responsible for making the chest cavity larger when we inhale and make the chest cavity
smaller when we exhale.

4. The diaphragm relaxes when you exhale. The air pressure in the chest cavity increases when you
inhale. The air pressure in the chest cavity decreases when you exhale.

5. Asthma, COPD, Bronchitis, Emphysema, Lung Cancer, Cystic Fibrosis, Pneumonia, Allergies,
Tuberculosis, Influenza, Pneumoconiosis, etc.
 6. Prevention of respiratory complications

 Wash your hands often, especially when you are around people with colds.

 Keep your hands away from your nose, eyes, and mouth. These are the places where viruses are
most likely to enter your body.

 Do not smoke or use other tobacco products. Smoking irritates the mucous membranes of the
nose, sinuses, and lungs, which may make them more susceptible to infections. For more
information, see the topic Quitting Smoking.

 If you live in an area that has problems with air pollution or smoke from wildfires:

o Stay indoors and avoid breathing in smoke, ashes, or polluted air.

o Do not exercise outdoors if you smell smoke or notice irritation of your eyes, nose, or
throat.

o Keep your motor vehicle windows rolled up and the vents closed when driving.

 Avoid cleanup activities, such as raking leaves or cutting brush.

 Avoid exposure to chemicals. Do not spray or apply chemicals unless you are wearing protective
clothing, such as a particle-filtering respirator, safety goggles, and gloves.

 Exercise regularly. For more information, see the topic Fitness: Getting and Staying Active.

 Get a flu shot (influenza vaccine) each year. For more information, see the topic Influenza
(Seasonal Flu).

 Get a pneumococcal shot if you have chronic lung disease, such as asthma or chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD); if you smoke; or if you have a health risk that increases the
seriousness of your symptoms. If you are age 65 or older, it is recommended you get two
different types of pneumococcal vaccines.

 Make sure your immunizations are current, such as pertussis to reduce your risk of
getting whooping cough. For more information, see the topic Immunizations.

 For information on preventing allergies or asthma, see the topic Allergic Rhinitis or Asthma in
Teens and Adults.
THE LUNGS
PARASITISM

OBSERVATION; I observe that the parasites has its own parts that make them stick on the walls of
intestines and hard to remove like the tape and hook worm they have hooks in their mouth, some
parasites have segments and can be pull into pieces and reproduce like tape worms. Some are flat,
rounded shape.

1. The practice of living as a parasite in or on another organism.

- In general, the term "infestation" refers to parasitic diseases caused by animals such as arthropods
(mites, ticks, and lice) and worms, but excluding conditions caused by protozoa, fungi, bacteria, and
viruses, which are called infections.

- Infection is caused by microorganisms or germs like viruses, protozoa and bacteria. They enter the
internal body tissues and then multiply disrupting the normal functionality of the cells. On the other
hand, infestation refers to the inflection by larger and complex organisms than germs especially
arthropods which reproduce on the exterior surfaces of the body.

2. Consumption of contaminated water in contact with infected soil, inadequate sanitation and
improper hygiene; specifically lack of facilities for safe disposal of human waste that can result in
intestinal parasites and diseases.

-To prevent parasitism, good hygiene is necessary to avoid it.

-Increasing environmental sanitations.

-Educating the community about proper hygiene and proper disposal of wastes.

3. Condition caused by gastrointestinal parasites

-Diarrhea, with its frequent and watery bowel movements, often is caused by gastrointestinal infections
(although other illnesses and dietary changes also can be culprits). Germs such as parasites, viruses, or
bacteria all can cause gastrointestinal (GI) infections.

- Food poisoning happens when toxins made by bacteria in food that is not handled, stored, or cooked
properly make a person sick.

- Amoebiasis (Amebiasis)

- Cyclosporiasis
4. INTESTINAL PARASITES

Common Source/Transm
name of Latin name Body parts Diagnostic ission
Prevalence
organism (sorted) affected specimen (Reservoir/Vec
or disease tor)

areas with
stool (fresh
intestines poor
diarrheic
(mainly colon, sanitation, high fecal-oral
Entamoeba stools have
Amoebiasis but can cause population transmission of
histolytica amoeba,
liver failure if density and cyst, not amoeba
solid stool
not treated) tropical
has cyst)
regions

stool
(diarrhea=cili
intestinal mu ated
cosa, may trophozoite; ingestion of cyst,
become solid zoonotic infection
Balantidiasis Balantidium coli
invasive in stool=large acquired from
some cyst with pigs (feces)
patients horseshoe
shaped
nucleus)

colon, Mexico, Triatoma/Reduvii

esophagus, Central dae – "kissing
Chagas Trypanosoma Giemsa
heart, nerves, America, South bug" insect
disease cruzi stain – blood
muscle and America – 16- vector, feeds at
blood 18 million night

ingestion of
oocyst
(sporulated),
Cryptosporid Cryptosporidiu
intestines stool widespread some species are
iosis m spp.
zoonotic (e.g.
bovine fecal
contamination)
Common Source/Transm
name of Latin name Body parts Diagnostic ission
Prevalence
organism (sorted) affected specimen (Reservoir/Vec
or disease tor)

ingestion of
Cyclosporiasi Cyclospora oocyst thru
intestines stool United States
s cayetanensis contaminated
food

ingesting water or
up to 10% in
Dientamoebi Dientamoeba food
intestines stool industrialized
asis fragilis contaminated
countries
with feces

ingestion of
Cyclosporiasi Cyclospora oocyst thru
intestines stool United States
s cayetanensis contaminated
food

ingestion of
oocyst
(sporulated),
Cryptosporid Cryptosporidiu
intestines stool widespread some species are
iosis m spp.
zoonotic (e.g.
bovine fecal
contamination)

colon, Mexico, Triatoma/Reduvii

esophagus, Central dae – "kissing
Chagas Trypanosoma Giemsa
heart, nerves, America, South bug" insect
disease cruzi stain – blood
muscle and America – 16- vector, feeds at
blood 18 million night

• worldwide:
one of the
most common eating food
direct human contaminated
Blastocystosi microscopy parasites[1][2]
Blastocystis spp. intestinal with feces from
s of stool (PCR, • United
an infected
antibody) States: human or animal
infected ~23%
of the
population
Common Source/Transm
name of Latin name Body parts Diagnostic ission
Prevalence
organism (sorted) affected specimen (Reservoir/Vec
or disease tor)

during year
2000[1][3]
• Developing
regions:
infects 40–
100% of the
total
populations[1][
2][4]

stool
(diarrhea=cili
intestinal mu ated
cosa, may trophozoite; ingestion of cyst,
become solid zoonotic infection
Balantidiasis Balantidium coli
invasive in stool=large acquired from
some cyst with pigs (feces)
patients horseshoe
shaped
nucleus)

areas with
stool (fresh
intestines poor
diarrheic
(mainly colon, sanitation, high fecal-oral
Entamoeba stools have
Amoebiasis but can cause population transmission of
histolytica amoeba,
liver failure if density and cyst, not amoeba
solid stool
not treated) tropical
has cyst)
regions
TAPE WORM
Internal Structure of the Gastrointestinal Tract

OBSERVATIONS; I observe that the stomach is like a rubber that expand. It is elastic and it has a purpose.

1. 3 TYPES OF GASTRIC GLANDS

1.The cardiac glands are found in the cardia of the stomach which is the part nearest to the heart,
enclosing the opening where the esophagus joins to the stomach. Only cardiac glands are found here
and they primarily secrete mucus. They are fewer in number than the other gastric glands and are more
shallowly positioned in the mucosa. There are two kinds - either simple tubular with short ducts or
compound racemose resembling the duodenal Brunner's glands

2.The fundic glands (or oxyntic glands), are found in the fundus and body of the stomach. They are
simple almost straight tubes, two or more of which open into a single duct. Oxyntic means acid-
secreting and they secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl) and intrinsic factor.

3.The pyloric glands are located in the antrum of the pylorus. They secrete gastrin produced by their G
cells.

2. Gastrin is a peptide hormone that stimulates secretion of gastric acid (HCl) by the parietal cells of
the stomach and aids in gastric motility. It is released by G cells in the pyloric antrum of the stomach,
duodenum, and the pancreas.

3. Layers of the small intestine and functions

I. The duodenum is the first section of the small intestine and is the shortest part of the small
intestine. It is where most chemical digestion using enzymes takes place.

II. The jejunum is the middle section of the small intestine. It has a lining which is designed to
absorb carbohydrates and proteins. The inner surface of the jejunum, its mucous membrane, is
covered in projections called villi, which increase the surface area of tissue available to absorb
nutrients from the gut contents. The epithelial cells which line these villi possess even larger
numbers of microvilli. The transport of nutrients across epithelial cells through the jejunum
includes the passive transport of some carbohydrates and the active transport of amino acids,
small peptides, vitamins, and most glucose. The villi in the jejunum are much longer than in the
duodenum or ileum.

III. The ileum is the final section of the small intestine. The function of the ileum is mainly to absorb
vitamin B12, bile salts, and any products of digestion that were not absorbed by the jejunum.
The wall itself is made up of folds, each of which has many tiny finger-like projections known as
villi on its surface. The ileum has an extremely large surface area both for the adsorption of
enzyme molecules and for the absorption of products of digestion.

4. The large intestine performs several important functions in digestion, the large intestine performs the
vital functions of converting food into feces, absorbing essential vitamins produced by gut bacteria, and
reclaiming water from feces. A slurry of digested food, known as chime, enters the large intestine from
the small intestine via the ileocecal sphincter.

The major function of the large intestine is to absorb water from the remaining indigestible food matter
and transmit the useless waste material from the body.
5. The liver has multiple functions, but its main function within the digestive system is to process the
nutrients absorbed from the small intestine. Bile from the liver secreted into the small intestine also
plays an important role in digesting fat.
Gross Anatomy and Movements of Abdominal Organs

OBSERVATIONS; Gastrointestinal tract has its own distinct function in digestion, has a it s own function.
When the first part of the small intestine is filled with chyme, its wall is stretched. We also see that the
presence of chyme in the small intestine makes the environment acidic due to the acid secretions from
the stomach.

Peristalsis is what moves food along the small intestine.

Segmentation is one of these movements. It is a localized contraction of circular smooth muscles that
constrict the intestine into segments. This is a rhythmic movement that involves the contraction and
relaxation of adjacent segments of muscles as if the small intestine is being momentarily pinched closed
along its path. Segmentation acts to slosh the chyme back and forth, almost like it is being tossed
around in a washing machine. This fully mixes the chyme and allows it to come in contact with the wall.

1. The stomach secretes acid and enzymes that digest food. Ridges of muscle tissue called rugae line the
stomach. The stomach muscles contract periodically, churning food to enhance digestion. The pyloric
sphincter is a muscular valve that opens to allow food to pass from the stomach to the small intestine.

2. Parts of the heart

1.Cardiac Sphincter

The cardiac sphincter is the site at which material enters the stomach, a bolus at a time, from the
oesophagus.

Each bolus passes from the oesophagus into the stomach through the cardiac sphincter.

The area of the stomach surrounding the cardiac sphincter is called the cardia and is the first region of
the stomach into which material passes (from the oesophagus).

2.Fundus- The fundus is the area of the stomach located above the cardiac sphincter.

3.Body (of stomach)- The largest area of the stomach is called the body.

4.Pylorus- The lowest and narrowest part of the stomach is called the pylorus.

5.Pylonic Sphincter- The pylonic sphincter is also called the "pyloric valve" and is the route by which the
contents of the stomach is squeezed out of the stomach as chyme, passing into the first part of the small
intestine - called the duodenum.

3. Disorders in the digestive system

Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) –Severe “heartburn” in laymen’s language. Weakness of the
valve between the esophagus and stomach may allow stomach acid to reflux (regurgitate, backup) into
the esophagus and irritate and inflame the lining. This results in chest pain which can mimic that of
angina (pain of cardiac ischemia or an MI).

Jaundice – Literally means “yellow” in French. Yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes from a
backup of bile metabolic by-products from the blood into body tissues. May result from blockage of the
ducts draining bile from the liver into the intestines or excessive breakdown of red blood cells.
Hemoglobin from destroyed RBCs is broken down, and in part, ends up in bile secretions.

Diverticulosis/diverticulitis – Small pouches may form along the walls of the large intestine called
diverticuli which if symptomatic, causing discomfort to the patient, is called diverticulosis. These
abnormal outpocketings may collect and not be able to empty fecal material which can lead to
inflammation, diverticulitis.

Cirrhosis – Literally, “orange-yellow” in Greek. A degenerative disease of the liver that often develops in
chronic alcoholics, but can have other causes. The name refers to the gross appearance of the organ.

Portal hypertension – A potential complication of chronic alcoholism resulting in liver damage and
obstruction of venous blood flow through the liver. The rising blood pressure in the veins between the
gastrointestinal tract and liver causes engorgement of veins around the umbilicus (navel). The
characteristic radiating pattern of veins is called a “caput medusae” (head of Medusa). Medusa was the
“snake-haired lady” in Greek mythology.

Esophageal varices – bulging, engorged veins in the walls of the esophagus are often a complication of
chronic alcoholism (see portal hypertension). The thin-walled, swollen veins are at risk of tearing
resulting in severe, possibly fatal, bleeding.

Dysphagia – Difficulty swallowing. May be related to GERD (see above), esophageal tumor or other
causes.

Crohn’s Disease – a chronic inflammatory disease primarily of the bowel. Typical symptoms are
abdominal pain, weight loss, diarrhea. There may also be rectal bleeding that can lead to anemia. Special
X-rays and tests are needed to differentiate Crohn’s from other diseases with similar symptoms.

Peritonitis – Inflammation of the lining of the abdominal cavity. Before antibiotics, people would die
from peritonitis if an inflamed appendix burst. Indications of peritonitis are called “peritoneal signs”:
tender abdomen, rebound pain (pain when manual pressure released from examining abdomen), board-
like rigidity of abdominal muscles, no bowel sounds (gurgles). The peritoneal membrane is very sensitive
to exposure to foreign substances. Contact with blood, bile, urine, pus will cause peritoneal signs.

4. Fiber and Fluids

Fiber has the important role of helping to sweep all unused and unwanted digestion byproducts through
the intestinal tract.

Fluids work with fiber to move things along. A diet high in foods like fruits and vegetables, which are
both high in fiber and provide water, can help keep your stool soft and easy to pass.

Examples of foods

Chia Seeds

Coconut Oil

Salmon

Zucchini