Materials

CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Classification of Materials

1.0 Introduction 1-1
1.1 Metallic Materials 1-1
1.2 Polymeric (Plastic) Materials 1-2
1.3 Ceramic Materials 1-2
1.4 Composite Materials 1-2
1.5 Electronic Materials 1-3
Chapter 2 Mechanics of Materials

2.0 Normal Stress and Strain 2-4
2.1 Stress-Strain Diagrams 2-8
2.2 Elasticity and Plasticity 2-10
2.3 Creep 2-12
2.4 Linear Elasticity and Hooke's Law 2-13
2.5 Poisson's Ratio 2-14
2.6 Shear Stress And Strain 2-15
2.7 Allowable Stresses and Allowable Loads 2-18
Chapter 3 Atoms, Molecules and Crystals

3.1 Chemical Bonding of Atoms 3-21
3.2 Electrovalent Bond 3-23
3.3 Metallic Bond 3-24
3.4 Covalent Bond 3-25
3.5 Polymorphism 3-25
Chapter 4 Crystal Structure of Metals

4.1 Body Centred Cubic 4-27
4.2 Face Centred Cubic 4-27
4.3 Close Packed Hexagonal 4-28
4.4 Dendritic Solidification 4-28
4.5 Effect of Impurities 4-29
4.6 Influence Of Cooling Rates on Crystal Size 4-30
Chapter 5 Casting Processes

CONTENTS
5.1 Ingot Casting 5-31
5.2 Continuous Casting 5-32
5.3 Sand Casting 5-32
5.4 Die Casting 5-33
5.5 Centrifugal Casting 5-33
Chapter 6 Mechanical Testing

6.0 Properties of Materials 6-34
6.1 Strength 6-34
6.2 Stiffness 6-34
6.3 Elasticity 6-34
6.4 Plasticity 6-34
6.5 Toughness 6-34
6.6 Brittleness 6-35
6.7 Ductility and Malleability 6-35
6.8 Hardness 6-35
6.8.1 Tensile Test 6-36

6.8.2 Hardness Tests 6-37
6.8.3 Brinell Test 6-38
6.8.4 Vickers Pyramid Test 6-39
6.8.5 Rockwell Test 6-39
6.8.6 Impact Tests 6-40
6.8.7 Izod Test 6-40
6.8.8 Creep Test 6-41
6.8.9 Fatigue Test 6-42
6.9 Some Other Mechanical Tests 6-44
6.9.1 Erichsen Cupping Test 6-44

6.9.2 Bend Test 6-44
6.9.3 Compression Test 6-45
6.9.4 Torsion Test 6-46
6.10 Significance of Mechanical Properties 6-47
Chapter 7 Non-Destructive Testing

7.1 Tests for the Detection of Surface Cracks and Flaws 7-48
7.1.1 Penetrant Methods 7-48

7.1.2 Magnetic Dust Methods 7-49
7.1.3 Acid Pickling Methods 7-50
CONTENTS
7.2 Test For The Detection Of Internal Defects 7-51
7.2.1 X-Ray Methods 7-51

7.2.2 Gamma-Ray Methods 7-52
7.3 Ultrasonic testing 7-52
Chapter 8 Deformation and Recrystallization

8.0 Slip and Work Hardening 8-54
8.1 Step-Step Movement of Dislocations 8-55
8.2 Deformation by Twinning 8-55
8.3 Annealing 8-56
8.4 The Relief of Stress 8-56
8.5 Recrystallization 8-56
8.6 Grain Growth 8-57
8.7 Normalizing 8-57
8.8 Cold-Working Processes 8-57
8.9 Hot-Working Processes 8-59
Chapter 9 Mechanical Shaping of Metals

9.0 Hot-Working Processes 9-60
9.1 Forging 9-60
9.1.1 Drop-Forging 9-60
9.2 Hot-Pressing 9-61
9.2.1 Hot-Rolling 9-62
9.3 Extrusion 9-62

9.4 Cold-Working Processes 9-63
9.5 Cold-rolling 9-63
9.6 Drawing 9-64
9.7 Stretch-forming 9-65
9.8 Coining and Embossing 9-66
9.9 Powder Metallurgy 9-67
Chapter 10 Metals
10.0 Pure Metals 10-68

10.1 Alloys 10-68
10.2 Ferrous Metals 10-68
10.3 Non-Ferrous Metals 10-
CONTENTS
Chapter 11 Soldering and Brazing

11.1 Soldering 11-70
11.2 Brazing 11-72
Chapter 12 Welding
12.0 Welding 12-74
12.1 Fusion Welding Processes 12-75
12.2 Pressure Welding Processes 12-78
12.3 Consequences of Welding 12-79
Chapter 13 Concrete
13.0 Concrete 13-81
13.1 Cements 13-81
13.1.1 Gypsum 13-81

13.1.2 Lime 13-81
13.1.3 Natural Cements 13-82
13.1.4 Portland Cement 13-82
13.2 Concrete Aggregates 13-83

13.3 Admixtures 13-83
13.4 Proportioning of Concrete 13-84
13.5 Reinforced Concrete 13-85
13.6 Uses and Properties of Concrete 13-86
13.7 Pre-stressed Concrete 13-87
13.8 Failure of Concrete 13-88
13.9 Special Applications of Concrete in a Nuclear
Station 13-89
Chapter 14 Lubricants
14.0 Lubricants 14-92
14.1 Oils 14-92
14.2 Greases 14-97
14.3 Solid Lubricants 14-98
Chapter 15 Plastic, Rubber and Protective Coatings

15.0 Plastics 15-99
CONTENTS
15.1 Rubber composition 15-101
15.2 Vulcanization 15-101
15.3 Bits and Pieces 15-103
15.4 Protective Coatings 15-104
Chapter 16 Adhesives
16.0 Adhesives 16-109
16.1 Principles of Adhesion 16-109
16.2 Functions 16-110
16.3 Sealing and insulating 16-111
16.4 Other uses 16-111
16.5 Chemical forms 16-112
16.6 Types of Adhesives 16-112
16.7 Hot melts 16-113
16.8 Others 16-114
16.9 Tapes 16-114
16.10 End Use Requirements 16-116
16.11 Conclusion 16-116
Chapter 17 Radiation Damage

17.0 Radiation damage 17-117
17.1 Types of Radiation 17-117
17.2 Effects of Radiation on the Bond Types 17-119
17.3 Effects of Radiation on Materials 17-119
Classification of Materials
CHAPTER 1
1.0 Introduction:
Materials are substances of which something is composed or made. For
convenience, most engineering materials are divided into three main classes:
metallic, polymeric (plastic), and ceramic materials. In addition to these main
classes, two more types, composite materials and electronic materials also have
great engineering importance.
All important properties of solid materials may be grouped into six different
categories: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and deteriorative.
Mechanical properties relate deformation to an applied load or force; examples
include elastic modulus and strength. Electrical properties demonstrate the
behavior of material in electric field; examples include electrical conductivity and
dielectric constant. The thermal behavior of solids can be represented in terms of
heat capacity and thermal conductivity. Magnetic properties demonstrate the
response of a material to the application of a magnetic field. Example of optical
properties are index of refraction and reflectivity. Finally, deterriorative
characteristics indicate the chemical reactivity of materials. In addition to structure
and properties, two other important components are involved in the science and
engineering of materials, i.e. processing and performance.
1.1 Metallic Materials:

These materials are inorganic substances which are composed of one or more
metallic elements and may also contain some nonmetallic elements. They have
large number of unlocalized electrons; that is, these electrons are not bound to
particular atoms. Many properties of metals are due to the presence of this sea of
free electrons. Examples of metallic elements are iron, copper, aluminum, nickel,
and tungsten. Nonmetallic elements such as carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen may also
be contained in metallic materials. Metals have crystalline structure in which the
atoms are arranged in an orderly manner. Metals, in general, are good thermal and
electrical conductors. They are non-transparent to visible light. Polished metal
surface has a lustrous appearance. Many metals are relatively strong and ductile at
room temperature, and many maintain good strength even at high temperatures.
Metals and alloys are commonly divided into two classes: ferrous metals and
alloys that contain a large percentage of iron such as steels and cast iron and
nonferrous metals and alloys that do not contain iron or only a relatively small
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amount of iron. Examples of nonferrous metals are aluminum, copper, zinc,

titanium, and nickel.
1.2 Polymeric (Plastic) Materials:

Most polymeric materials consist of organic (carbon containing) long molecular
chains or networks. Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials.
Structurally, most polymeric materials are noncrystalline but some consist of
mixtures of crystalline and noncrystalline regions. The strength and ductility of
polymeric materials vary greatly. Because of their nature, most polymeric
materials are poor conductors of electricity. Some of these materials are good
insulators and are used for electrical innovative applications. In general, polymeric
materials have low densities and may be extremely flexible. They have relatively
low softening or decomposition temperatures.
1.3 Ceramic Materials:

Ceramic materials are inorganic materials which consist of metallic and
nonmetallic elements chemically bonded together. They are most frequently
oxides, nitrides, and carbides. The wide range that falls within this classification
includes ceramics that are composed of clay minerals, cement, and glass. They can
be crystalline, noncrystalline, or mixtures of both. Most ceramic materials have
high hardness and high temperature strength but tend to have mechanical
brittleness. Lately, ceramic materials have been developed for engine applications.
Advantages of ceramic materials for engine applications are light weight, high
strength and hardness, good heat and wear resistance, reduced friction, and
insulative properties.
Ceramics are low in cost, but their processing into finished products is usually
slow and costly. Also, most ceramic materials are easily damaged by impact
because of their low or nil ductility.
1.4 Composite Materials:

Composite materials are misture of two or more materials. Fiberglass is a familiar
example, in which glass fibbers are embedded within a polymeric material. A
composite is designed to display a combination of the best characteristics of each
of the component materials. Fiberglass acquires strength from the glass and
flexibility from the polymer. Most composite materials consist of a selected filler
or reinforcing material and a compatible resin binder to obtain the specific
characteristics and properties desired. Usually, the components do not dissolve
into each other and can be physically identified by an interface between the
components. Composites can be of many types. Some of predominant types are
fibrous (composed of fibbers in a matrix) and particulate (composed of particles in
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a matrix). There are many different combinations of reinforcements and matrices

used to produce composite materials. Two outstanding types of modern composite
materials used for engineering applications are fibre-glass reinforcing material in a
polyester or epoxy matrix and carbon fibbers in a an epoxy matrix.
1.5 Electronic Materials:

Electronic materials, i.e semiconductors, are not a major type of material by
volume but are an extremely important type of material for advanced engineering
technology. Semiconductors have electrical properties that are intermediate
between the electrical conductors and insulators. Furthermore, the electrical
characteristics of these materials are extremely sensitive to the presence of minute
concentrations of impurity atoms. The most important electronic material is pure
silicon which is modified in various ways to change its electrical characteristics. A
very large number of electronic circuits can be miniaturized on a silicon chip
which is about 0.25 squared inch. Microelectronic devices have made possible
such new products as communication satellites, advanced computers, hand-held
calculators, digital watches, and welding robots.
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Mechanics of Materials
CHAPTER 2
2.0 Normal Stress and Strain:

The fundamental concepts of stress and strain can be illustrated by considering
a prismatic bar that is loaded by axial forces 'P' at the ends (Figure 2-1a). In
this case, the axial forces produce a uniform stretching of the bar and the bar is
said to be in tension. The internal stresses produced in the bar by the axial
forces are exposed if we make an imaginary cut at section mn (Figure 2-1b).
The intensity of force (i.e. the force per unit area) is called the Stress 'σ'.
P
σ = -------------------(2-1)
A
Figure 2-1a Figure 2-1b
When the bar is stretched by the forces 'P', as shown in the figure, the resulting
stresses are tensile stresses, if the forces are reversed in direction, causing the
bar to be compressed, we obtain compressive stresses. In as much as the stress
c axis in a direction perpendicular to the cut surface, it is referred to as a
normal stress. Thus, normal stresses may be either tensile or compressive
stresses. Later, we will encounter another type of stress, called a shear stress,
that acts parallel to the surface.
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When a sign convention for normal stresses is required, it is customary to

define tensile stresses as positive and compressive stresses as negative.
The stress distribution at the ends of the bar depends upon the details of how
the axial load P is actually applied. If the load itself is distributed uniformly
over the end, then the stress pattern at the end will be the same as elsewhere.
However. the load usually is concentrated over a small area, resulting in high
localized stresses (called stress concentrations) and nonuniform stress
distributions over cross sections in the vicinity of the load. As we move away
from the ends, the stress distribution gradually approaches the uniform
distribution shown in Figure 2-1c.
Figure 2-1c
An axially loaded bar undergoes a change in length, becoming longer when in

tension and shorter when in compression. The change in length is denoted by
' δ '. The elongation per unit length is called strain 'ε'.
δ
ε= ----------------------------(2-2)
L
If the bar is in tension, the strain is called a tensile strain, representing an
elongation or stretching of the material. If the bar is in compression, the strain
is a compressive strain and the bar shortens. Tensile strain is usually taken as
positive and compressive strain as negative. The strain 'ε' is called a normal
strain because it is associated with normal stresses.
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Because normal strain is the ratio of two lengths, it is a dimensionless quantity,

that is, it has no units.
Example 2-1
A prismatic bar with rectangular cross section (20 x 40 mm) and length
L = 2.8 m is subjected to an axial tensile force of 70 KN (Figure 2-2). The
measured elongation of the bar is δ = 1.2 mm. Calculate the tensile stress and
strain in Ihe bar.
Figure 2-2
Solution:
Using equation 2-1 to calculate normal stress:
P 70 kN
σ= = = 87.5 MPa
A (20 mm) (40 mm)
The normal strain from equation 2-2 is:
δ 1.2 mm
ε= = = 429 × 10 −6
L 2.8 m
The quantities σ and ε are the tensile stress and strain, respectively, in the
longitudinal direction of the bar.
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Example 2-2
A deep-well pump is operated by a crank that rotates in fixed bearings and
moves a piston up and down in the well (Figure 2-3). The pump rod has a
diameter d = 15 mm and a length L = 97.5 m. It is made of steel having
specific weight γ = 7.85 t/m3. The resistance encountered by the piston during
the downstroke is 0.89 kN and during the upstroke is 8.90 kN. Determine the
maximum tensile and compressive stresses in the pump rod due to the
combined effects of the resistance forces and the weight of the rod.
Figure 2-3
Solution:
During the downstroke, the resistance of the piston creates a compressive force
C = 0.89 k.N throughout the length of the rod, and during Ihe upstroke it
creates a tensile force T = 8.90 kN. The weight of the rod produces a tensile
force that varies from zero at the lower end of the rod to a maximum at the
upper end. The maximum force equals the weight of the entire rod, given by
the expression
W =γLA
π
W = (7.85 t/m 3 × 9.81 × 10 3 N/t) × (9.75 m) × × (0.015 m) 2
4
W = 1327 N
The maximum tensile force in the pump rod occurs during the upstroke at the
upper end and is equal to T + W or 10.227 kN. The corresponding maximum
tensile stress is
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P 10.227 × 10 3 N
σt = = = 57.9 MPa
A π × (15 mm) 2 /4
The maximum compressive stress occurs at the lower end during the
downstroke:
P 0.89 × 10 3 N
σc= = = 5.0 MPa
A π × (15 mm) 2 /4
These calculations give the axial stresses in the pump rod due only to the
specified loads. Other considerations, such as bending of the pump rod and
dynamic effects, have not been taken into account in this example.
2.1 Stress-Strain Diagrams:
After performing a tension or compression test and determining the stress and
strain at various magnitudes of the load, we can plot a diagram of stress versus
strain. Such a stress-strain diagram is characteristic of the material and conveys
important information about the mechanical properties and type of behavior.
Stress-strain diagram for a typical structural steel in tension is shown in
Figure 2-4. Strains are plotted on the horizontal axis and stresses on the
vertical axis.
Figure 2-4
The diagram begins with a straight line from the origin 'O' to point 'A', which
means that stress and strain are proportional. Beyond point 'A', the
proportionality between stress and strain no longer exists: hence the stress at
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'A' is called the Proportional Limit. The slope of the straight line from 'O' to 'A'
is called the Modulus of Elasticity, which is usually represented by 'E'.
Because strain is nondimensional, this slope has the same units as stress.
With an increase in the load beyond the proportional limit, the strain begins to
increase more rapidly for each increment in stress. The stress-strain curve then
has a smaller and smaller slope, until, at point 'B', the curve becomes
horizontal. Beginning at this point, considerable elongation occurs with no
noticeable increase in the tensile force (from 'B' to 'C'). This phenomenon is
known as yielding of the material, and point B is called the Yield Point. The
corresponding stress is known as the Yield Stress. In the region from 'B' to 'C',
the material becomes Perfectly Plastic, which means that it can deform without
an increase in the applied load.
After undergoing the large strains that occur during yielding in the region 'BC',
the material begins to Strain Harden. During strain hardening, the material
undergoes changes in its atomic and crystalline structure, resulting in increased
resistance of the material to further deformation. Additional elongation now
requires an increase in the tensile load, and the stress-strain diagram has a
positive slope from 'C' to 'D'. The load eventually reaches its maximum value,
and the corresponding stress (at point D} is called the Ultimate Stress. Further
stretching of the bar is actually accompanied by a reduction in the load and
Fracture finally occurs at point 'E'.
Lateral contraction of the specimen occurs when it is stretched, resulting in a

decrease in the cross-sectional area. as previously mentioned. The reduction in
area is too small to have a noticeable effect on the calculated value of stress up
to about point 'C', but beyond that point the reduction begins to alter the shape
of the diagram. The true stress is larger than the nominal stress because it is
calculated with a smaller area. In the vicinity of the ultimate stress, the
reduction in area of the bar becomes clearly visible and a pronounced Necking
of the bar occurs (Figure 2-5). If the actual cross-sectional area at the narrow
part of the neck is used to calculate the stress, the true stress-strain curve will
follow the dashed line CE' in Figure 2-4. For most practical purposes.
however, the conventional stress-strain curve OABCDE. which is based upon
the original cross-sectional area of the specimen and is easy to calculate,
provides satisfactory information for use in design.
Materials that fail in tension at relatively low values of strain are classified as
Brittle Materials. Examples are concrete, stone, cast iron, glass, ceramic
materials, and many common metallic alloys. These materials fail with only
little elongation after the proportional limit is exceeded.
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Stress-strain diagrams for compression have different shapes from those for
tension. Ductile metals such as steel, aluminum, and copper have proportional
limits in compression very close to those in tension; and therefore the initial
regions of their compression stress-strain diagrams are very similar to the
tension diagrams. However, when yielding begins the behavior is quite
different. In a tension test. the specimen is stretched, necking may occur, and
fracture ultimately takes place. When a small specimen of ductile material is
compressed, it begins to bulge outward on the sides and become barrel shaped.
With increasing load, the specimen is flattened out, thus offering increased
resistance to further shortening (which means the stress-strain curve goes
upward).
Figure 2-5
2.2 Elasticity and Plasticity:

The stress-strain diagrams illustrate the behavior of various materials, as they
are loaded in tension or compression. Now let us consider what happens when
the load is slowly removed and the material is Unloaded.
Assume that we apply a load to a tensile specimen so that the stress and strain
go from 'O' to 'A' on the stress-strain curve in Figure 2-6a. Suppose further that
when the load is removed, the material follows exactly the same curve back to
the origin 'O'. This property of a material, by which it returns to its original
dimensions during unloading, is called Elasticity, and the material itself is said
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to be Elastic. The stress-strain curve from 'O' to 'A' need not be linear in order
for the material to be elastic.
Figure 2-6a
Now let us suppose that we load this same material to a much higher level, so
that point 'B' is reached on the stress-strain diagram (Figure 2-6b). In this case,
when unloading occurs, the material follows line BC on the diagram. When
point 'C' is reached, the load has been entirely removed, but a Residual Strain,
or Permanent Strain, 'OC' remains in the material. The corresponding residual
elongation of the bar is called the Permanent Set.
Figure 2-6b
The stress at the upper limit of the elastic region is known as the Elastic Limit
of the material. Usually the elastic limit is slightly above or nearly the same as
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the proportional limit. In the case of mid steel, the yield stress is also very
close to the proportional limit, so that for practical purposes the yield stress,
the elastic limit, and the proportional limit are assumed to be equal. This
situation does not hold for all materials. Rubber provides the outstanding
example of a material that is elastic far beyond the proportional limit.
The characteristic of a material by which it undergoes inelastic strains beyond

those at the elastic limit is known as Plasticity. Thus, in Figure 2-6a, an elastic
region is followed by a plastic region. When large deformations occur in a
ductile material loaded into the plastic region, the material is said to undergo
Plastic Flow.
2.3 Creep:
Some materials develop additional strains over long periods of time and are
said to Creep. For example, suppose that a vertical bar (Figure 2-7a) is loaded
slowly by a force 'P', so that the bar elongates by an amount 'δo'. Assume that
this loading and the corresponding elongation take place during a time interval
'to'. After this time, The load remains constant. However, due to creep, the bar
may gradually, lengthen as shown in Figure 2-7b, even though the load does
not change. This behavior occurs with many materials, although sometimes the
change is too small to be of concern.
Figure 2-7a
As a second example of creep, consider a wire that is stretched between two

immovable supports so that it has an initial tensile stress 'σo' (Figure 2-7a).
After the initial loading time 'to', the stress in the wire gradually diminishes
with the elapse of time. Eventually it reaches a constant value, even though the
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supports at the ends of the wire do not move. This process, which is due to
creep, is called Relaxation of the material.
Figure 2-7b
Creep is usually more important at high temperatures than at ordinary

temperatures, and therefore it should always be considered in the design of
engines, furnaces, and other structures that operate at elevated temperatures for
long periods of time. However, materials such as steel. Concrete and wood will
creep slightly even at atmospheric temperatures.
2.4 Linear Elasticity and Hooke's Law:

When a material behaves elastically and also exhibits a linear relationship
between stress and strain, it is said to be Linearly Elastic. It is a property of
many solid materials, including metals, wood- concrete, plastics, and ceramics.
The linear relationship between stress and strain for a bar in simple tension or
compression can be expressed by Hooke's Law, given by the following
equation.
σ = E ε ----------------------(2-3)
'E' is a constant of proportionality known as the Modulus of Elasticity for the

material. The modulus of elasticity is the slope of the stress-strain diagram in
the linearly elastic region, and its value depends upon the particular material
being used. It has relatively large values for materials that are very stiff, such
as structural metals. Steel has a modulus of approximately 200 GPa: for
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aluminum it is approximately 70 GPa. More flexible materials have a lower

modulus: typical values for plastics range from 0.7 to 14 GPa. The modulus of
elasticity is also called Young's Modulus.
2.5 Poisson's Ratio:

When a prismatic bar is loaded in tension, the axial elongation is accompanied
by Lateral Contraction, i.e. normal to the direction of the applied load
(Figure 2-9). It is readily seen in a stretched rubber band, but in metals the
changes in lateral dimensions are usually too small to be visible. However,
they can easily be detected with measuring devices.
Figure 2-9
The Lateral Strain at a point in a bar is proportional to the axial strain at that
same point if the material is linearly elastic. The ratio of the strain in the lateral
direction to the strain in the axial direction is known as Poisson's ratio 'ν'.
lateral strain
ν=− ---------------(2-4)
axial strain
For a bar in tension, the lateral strain represents a decrease in width (negative
strain) and the axial strain represents elongation (positive strain). For
compression we have the opposite situation, with the bar becoming shorter
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(negative axial strain) and wider (positive lateral strain). Therefore, Poisson's
ratio has a positive value for most materials.
2.6 Shear Stress And Strain:

There is another very common type of stress, known as a Shear Stress, that acts
parallel or tangential to the surface of the material.
As an example, consider the bolted connection shown in Figure 2-10. This

connection consists of a flat bar 'A', a clevis 'C', and a bolt 'B' that passes
through holes in the bar and clevis. Under the action of the tensile loads P. the
bar and clevis will press against the bolt in bearing, and contact stresses, called
Bearing Stresses, will be developed against the bolt. In addition, the bar and
clevis tend to shear off the bolt, and this tendency is resisted by shear stresses
in the bolt.
Figure 2-10a Figure 2-10b
To show more clearly the action of these stresses, let us look at the connection
in a side view (Figure 2-10b). Then a free-body diagram of the bolt
(Figure 2-10c) shows the bearing stresses exerted by the clevis and the bar
against the bolt; the stresses on the left hand side (labeled 1 and 3) are from the
clevis and those on the right hand side (labeled 2 are from the bar. The free-
body diagram of shows that there is a tendency to shear the bolt along cross
sections 'mn' and 'pq'. From a free-body diagram of the portion mnpq of the
bolt (Figure 2-10d), we see that shear forces 'V' must act over the cut surfaces
of the bolt. In this particular example there are two planes of shear, and so the
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bolt is said to be in Double Shear. Each of the shear forces V is equal to P/2.
The average shear stress 'τ' on the cross section of the bolt is obtained by
dividing the total shear force 'V' by the area 'A' over which it acts:
V
τ= ----------------(2-5)
A
Figure 2-10c Figure 2-10d
Under the action of shear stress, material is deformed, resulting in Shear Strain.
Shear stresses have no tendency to elongate or to shorten an element. They
produce a change in the shape of the element and it is deformed in such a way
that its opposite faces are moved with respect to one another, measured in
terms of angular deformation. This angular deformation is called Shear
Strain 'γ' and it is measured in radian.
For linearly elastic region of stress-strain diagram, the shear stress and shear
strain are directly proportional, and we have the following equation for
Hooke's law in shear:
τ = G γ -------------------(2-6)
'G' is the constant of proportionality called the Shear Modulus of elasticity

(also called the Modulus of Rigidity).
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Example 2-3
A punch with a diameter of 19 mm is used to punch a hole in a 6 mm steel
plate (Figure 2-11). A force P = 116 kN is required. What is the average shear
stress in the plate and the average compressive stress in the punch?
Figure 2-11
Solution:
The average shear stress is obtained by dividing the force 'P' by the area being
sheared by the punch This area is equal to the circumference of the hole times
the thickness of the plale:
As = π × (19 mm) × (6 mm) = 358 mm 2
Therefore, the average shear stress is
P 116 kN × 10 3
τ= = = 324 MPa
As 358 mm 2
Also, the average compressive stress in the punch is
P 116 kN × 10 3
σc = = = 409 MPa
Ac π × (19 mm) 2 /4
in which 'Ac' is the cross-sectional area of the punch.
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2.7 Allowable Stresses and Allowable Loads:

If structural failure is to be avoided, the loads that a structure actually can
support must be greater than the loads it will be required to sustain when in
service. The ability of a structure to resist loads is called Strength. The actual
strength of a structure must exceed the required strength. The ratio of the
actual strength to the required strength is called the Factor of Safety 'n':
actual strength
Factor of safety = n = ----------------(2-7)
required strength
Of course, the factor of safety must be greater than 1.0 if failure is to be

avoided. Depending upon the circumstances, factors of safety from slightly
above 1.0 to as much as 10 are used.
The incorporation of factors of safety into design is not a simple matter,

because both strength and failure have many different meanings. Failure can
mean the fracture or complete collapse of a structure, or it can mean that the
deformations have exceeded some limiting value so that the structure is no
longer able to perform its intended functions. The latter kind of failure may
occur at loads much smaller than those that cause actual collapse. The
determination of a factor of safety must also take into account such matters as
the following: probability of accidental overloading of the structure by loads
that exceed the design loads; types of loads (static, dynamic, or repeated) and
how accurately they are known; possibility of fatigue failure; inaccuracies in
construction; quality of workmanship; variations in properties of materials;
deterioration due to corrosion or other environmental effects; accuracy of the
methods of analysis: whether failure is gradual (ample warning) or sudden (no
warning); consequences of failure (minor damage or major catastrophe): and
other such considerations. If the factor of safety is too low, the likelihood of
failure will be high and hence the structure will be unacceptable; if the factor is
too large, the structure will be wasteful of materials and perhaps unsuitable for
its function (for instance, it may be too heavy). Because of these complexities,
good engineering judgment is required when establishing factors of safety.
They are usually determined by groups of experienced engineers who write the
codes and specifications used by other designers.
In actual practice, there are several ways in which factors of safety are defined
and implemented. For many structures, it is important that the material remain
within the linearly elastic range in order to avoid permanent deformations
when the loads are removed. Under these conditions, a common method of
design is to use a factor of safety with respect to yielding of the structure. The
structure begins to yield when the yield stress is reached at any point within the
Materials 2-18
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structure. By applying a factor of safety with respect to the yield stress, we

obtain an Allowable Stress, or Working Stress, that must not be exceeded
anywhere in the structure. Thus,
yield stress
Allowable stress =
factor of safety
σy
σ allow = ----------------------------(2-8)
n
Another method of design is to establish the allowable stress by applying a
factor of safety with respect to the Ultimate Stress instead of the yield stress.
This method is suitable for brittle materials, such as concrete and some
plastics, but it also is used for wood and high-strength steels.
σu
σ allow = ---------------------------(2-9)
n
The last method involves the application of factors of safety to loads rather
than to stresses. Ultimate Loads mean the loads that produce failure or collapse
of the structure. The loads that the structure must support in service are called
Service Loads.
ultimate load
Factor of safety = n =
service load
Example 2-4
A short, hollow, circular, cast-iron cylinder (Figure 2-12) is to support an axial
compressive load P = 580 kN. The ultimate stress in compression for the
material is σu = 240 MPa. It is decided to design the cylinder with a wall
thickness 't' of 25 mm and a factor of safely of 3.0 with respect to the ultimate
strength. Compute the minimum required outside diameter 'd' of the cylinder.
Figure2-12
Materials 2-19
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Solution:
The allowable compressive stress is equal to the ultimate stress divided by the
factor of safety, equation 2-9.
σ u 240 MPa
σ allow = = = 80 MPa
n 3.0
The required cross-sectional area can now be found:
P 580 kN × 10 3
A= = = 7250 mm 2
σ allow 80 MPa
The actual cross-sectional area is
π d 2 π (d − 2 t) 2
A= − = π t (d − t)
4 4
in which 'd' is the outside diameter and (d - 2 t) is the inside diameter. Solving
for 'd' and then substituting t = 25 mm and A = 7250 mm2, we get
A
d =t + = 117.3 mm
πt
The outside diameter must be at least this large in order to have the desired
factor of safety.
Materials 2-20
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Atoms. Molecules and crystals
CHAPTER 3
Atoms, Molecules and Crystals
3.0 Introduction:
Atoms are very tiny particles indeed. All truly solid materials consists of atoms
which are arranged in some pattern peculiar to that material. These atoms are held
together by forces of attraction which are due to the electrical charges within each
atom. Altogether there are ninety-two different types of atom which occur
naturally though during the 'nuclear age' scientists have succeeded in producing
some new ones, for example plutonium. of the naturally occurring atoms the
smallest and simplest is that of hydrogen; whilst the largest, some two-hundred
and thirty-eight times as massive, is that of uranium.
There are ninety-two different 'natural' chemical elements of which over seventy
are metals. Some of these metallic elements are extremely rare, whilst others are
useless to the engineer either by virtue of poor mechanical properties or because
they are chemically very reactive. Consequently less than twenty of them
(Table 3-1) are in common use in engineering alloys.
Of the non-metallic elements carbon is perhaps the one which forms the basis of
most engineering materials since it constitutes the "backbones' of all plastics.
Moreover it can be used in strong fibre form and is an essential constituent of all
common heat-treatable steels. Another element silicon has become famous in the
form of the 'silicon chip', but along with oxygen (as silicon dioxide or silica) it is
the basis of many refractory building materials. Oxygen and silicon are by far the
most common elements in the Earth's crust and account for some 75 per cent of it
in the form of clays. sands, stones and rocks like granite.
3.1 Chemical Bonding of Atoms:

We all know the basic structure of atoms and the subatomic particles. The
distribution of electrons in different shells or energy levels is also known to us.
Since the number of protons in the nucleus governs the total number of electrons
in all shells around it, it follows that there are generally insufficient electrons to
complete the final outer shell. At the same time there is electrical attraction
between the outer-shell electrons of one atom and the protons in the nuclei of
neighboring atoms and it is these forces of attraction which cause both chemical
combination and physical changes such as crystallization to take place.
As a result of such reactions strong bonds are formed between atoms so that the
atoms are left with completed outer electron shells. This is achieved by atoms
either losing, gaining or sharing electrons.
Materials 3-21
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Table 3-1
Properties of the important engineering metals.

Metal Chemical Relative Melting-point Tensile strength Elongation
Symbol Density (0C) (Nmm-2) (soft) (%)
Aluminum Al 2.7 660 59 60
Antimony Sb 6.6 630 10 0
Beryllium Be 1.8 1285 310 2.3
Cadmium Cd 8.6 321 80 50
Chromium Cr 7.1 1890 220 0
Cobalt Co 8.9 1495 250 6
Copper Cu 8.9 1083 220 60
Gold Au 19.3 1063 120 30
Iron Fe 7.9 1535 500 10
Lead Pb 11.3 327 18 64
Magnesium Mg 1.7 651 180 5
Manganese Mn 7.2 1260 500 20
Mercury Hg 13.6 -39 Molten at Molten at
ordinary ordinary
temperatures temperatures
Molybdenum Mo 10.2 2620 420 50
Nickel Ni 8.9 1458 310 28
Niobium Nb 8.6 1950 270 49
Platinum Pt 21.4 1773 130 35
Silver Ag 10.5 960 140 50
Tin Sn 7.3 232 11 60
Titanium Ti 4.5 1667 230 55
Tungsten W 19.3 3410 420 16
Uranium U 18.7 1150 390 4
Vanadium V 5.7 1710 200 38
Zinc Zn 7.1 420 110 25
Zirconium Zr 6.4 1800 220 25
Materials 3-22
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3.2 Electrovalent Bond:

The Electrovalent Bond is the attractive force produced by reactions which take
place between metals and non-metals. For example, the extremely reactive metal
sodium combines with the equally reactive non-metallic gas chlorine, to form
crystals of sodium chloride (common table salt).
To have an understanding of the bond, consider the combination which occurs

between the metal lithium and the extremely reactive non-metallic gas fluorine.
An atom of lithium contains only three protons in its nucleus and, therefore, three
electrons in orbit around that nucleus. Two of these electrons complete the first
shell, leaving a lone electron in the second shell (Figure 3-1).
Figure 3-1
The atom of fluorine on the other hand contains nine protons in its nucleus and,
consequently, nine electrons in orbit around it. Two of these fill the first shell so
that there are no less than seven electrons in the second shell (Figure 3-1). If a
lithium atom and a fluorine atom approach each other, the lone electron of the
lithium atom is snatched away so that it joins the outer electron shell of the
fluorine atom. This leaves the lithium particle with a complete first shell
(2 electrons) and at the same time the electron which it has lost goes to complete
the second shell (8 electrons) of the fluorine particle (Figure 3-2). Because the
lithium particle has lost a negatively charged electron it now has a resultant
positive charge; whilst the fluorine particle having gained an electron now has a
resultant negative charge. Charged particles of this type are called ions. Metals
always form positively charged ions whilst non-metals form negatively charged
ions.
Figure 3-2
Materials 3-23
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As these lithium and fluorine ions carry opposite charges they will attract each
other. However, whilst unlike charges attract, like charges repel so that lithium
and fluorine ions arrange themselves in a geometrical pattern in which each
fluorine ion is surrounded by six lithium ions as its nearest neighbours whilst each
lithium ion is surrounded by six fluorine ions (Figure 3-3). This type of strucutre
is called Crystal Structure. For lithium fluoride, it is a relatively simple cubic type
of crystal structure. Other such suits may form more complex crystal patterns
depending upon the relative sizes of the ions involved and the ratio of the
electrical charges carried by each type of ion.
Figure 3-3
3.3 Metallic Bond:

Most metals have one, two or at most three electrons in the outermost shell of the
atom. These outer-shell electrons are loosely held to the atomic nucleus and as a
metallic vapour condenses and subsequently solidifies these outer-shell electrons
get free to form a sort of common pool and are virtually shared between all atoms
in the solid metal. Since the resultant metallic ions are all positively charged they
will repel each other and so arrange themselves in some form of regular (crystal)
pattern in which they are firmly held in position by the attractive force between
them and this permeating 'cloud' of negatively charged electrons (Figure 3-4).
This type of bonding is Metallic Bond.
Figure 3-4
Materials 3-24
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It is due to this metallic bonding, all the metals posses following main
characteristics:
All metals are good conductors of electricity. Since electrons constituting the
'electron cloud' are free to move within the body of the metal.
Metals are good conductors of heat. The application of heat to a piece of metal
causes electrons to vibrate more actively and these vibrations can be passed on
quickly from one electron to another within the electron cloud.
Most metals are ductile because layers of ions can be made to slide over each
other by the application of a shearing force. At the same time metals are strong
because the attractive force provided by the electron cloud opposes the slipping
apart of those layers of ions.
Metals are lustrous in appearance since the free, vibrating surface electrons reflect
back rays of light as these fall upon the surface of the metal.
3.4 Covalent Bond:

The covalent bond is formed between atoms of those non-metallic elements in
which there is a strong attractive force between the nucleus and the outer-shell
electrons. Hence instead of a transfer of electrons from one atom to the other there
is a sharing of electrons between two atoms thus binding them together.
For example. hydrogen atom consists of a single electron in orbit around a

nucleus consisting of a single proton. Two atoms of hydrogen will therefore
combine to form a molecule of hydrogen and in this way the two electrons are
shared between the two atoms thus completing the electron shell for each atom by
this process of sharing the two electrons. The element carbon has the ability to
form long chain-like molecules in which carbon atoms are covalently bonded to
each other and to hydrogen atoms:
An important feature of covalent bonded materials is that, unlike metals in which

the outer-shell electrons can travel freely within the electron cloud so making
metals conductors of electricity, the outer-shell electrons in these covalent
substances are securely held to the atoms to which they belong. These electrons
are not free to move away and so the materials are excellent insulators since they
cannot conduct electricity.
3.5 Polymorphism:
Many solid elements can exist in more than one different crystalline form and are
said to be Polymorphic (the term allotropy is also used to describe this
phenomenon). Generally these different crystalline forms are stable over different
temperature ranges so that transition from one form to another takes place as the
transition temperature is passed. For example, polymorphism of iron which
Materials 3-25
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enables us to harden suitable steels. Another example is tin, which is also

polymorphic existing as 'grey tin', ordinary 'white tin' and as 'brittle tin'. White tin,
the form with which we are generally familiar, is stable above 13°C whilst 'grey
tin' is stable below 13°C.
Materials 3-26
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Crystal Structure of Metals
CHAPTER 4
4.0 Introduction:
All metals - and other elements, for that matter - can exist as either gases,
liquids, or solids. The 'state' in which a metal exists depends upon the
conditions of temperature and pressure which prevail at the time. In a metallic
gas, the particles consist of single atoms, which are in a state of continuous
motion. As the temperature falls condensation occurs and liquid metal is
formed in which atoms are held together only by weak forces of attraction.
During solidification, the atoms arrange themselves according to some regular
pattern, 'Lattice Structure' or 'Crystal Structure'. Each atom becomes firmly
bonded to its neighbours by stronger forces of attraction: so the solid metal
acquires strength.
Most of the important metals crystallize into one of three different patterns as
solidification takes place (Figure 4-1) i.e. Body Centred Cubic (BCC), Face
Centred Cubic (FCC), and Close Packed Hexagonal (CPH).
Figure 4-1
4.1 Body Centred Cubic:

It consists of atom cores (i.e. atoms without the outer electrons) at the corners
of a cube and one atom core in the centre, all being held in position by the
Electron Gas. Iron and Tungsten are BCC at normal temperatures.
4.2 Face Centred Cubic:
It consists of atom cores at the corners of the cube and one atom core at the
middle of each cubic face, all bounded together by the Electron Gas.
Materials 4-27
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Aluminium, Copper, Lead, Gold and Platinum are FCC at ordinary

temperatures.
4.3 Close Packed Hexagonal:

It consists of one atom core at each corner of a solid hexagon, one atom core
on the top and bottom faces and three atom cores on the corners of a triangle in
the middle of the solid hexagon. Although these atoms in the centre of the
hexagon look out of place, they are real part of another close packed plane
displaced in space, overlapping the original one. Zinc, Zirconium, Beryllium
and Cobalt are CPH at ordinary temperatures.
4.4 Dendritic Solidification:

When the temperature of a molten pure metal falls below its freezing-point.
crystallization will begin. The nucleus of each crystal will be a single unit of
the appropriate crystal lattice. For example, in the case of a metal with a body-
centred cubic lattice, nine atoms will come together to form a single unit, and
this will grow as further atoms join the lattice structure (Figure 4-1). These
atoms will join the 'seed crystal' so that it grows most quickly in those
directions in which heat is flowing away most rapidly. Soon the tiny crystal
will reach visible size. and form what is called a 'dendrite' (Figure 4-2).
Secondary and tertiary arms develop from the main 'backbone' of the
dendrite - rather like the branches and twigs which develop from the trunk of a
tree, except that the branches in a dendrite follow a regular geometrical pattern.
The term 'dendrite' is derived from the Greek word 'dendron', meaning a tree.
Figure 4-2
Materials 4-28
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The arms of the dendrite continue to grow until they make contact with the
outer arms of other dendrites growing in a similar manner nearby. When the
outward growth is thus restricted, the existing arms thicken until the spaces
between them are filled, or, alternatively, until all the remaining liquid is used
up. Liquid metal will be drawn in from elsewhere to fill the space formed as a
dendrite grows. If this is not possible. then small shrinkage cavities are likely
to form between the dendrite arms. Since each dendrite forms independently, it
follows that outer arms of neighbouring dendrites are likely to make contact
with each other at irregular angles, and this leads to the irregular overall shape
of crystals (Figure 4-3).
Figure 4-3
4.5 Effect of Impurities:

In pure metals, there will be no hint of the dendritic process of crystallization
once solidification is complete, because all atoms in a pure metal are identical.
If impurities were dissolved in the molten metal, however, these would tend to
remain in solution until solidification was almost complete. In this way, they
Materials 4-29
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would reveal the dendritic pattern when a suitably prepared specimen was
viewed under the microscope. It is due to this concentration of impurities at
crystal boundaries that a small amount of impurity can have such a devastating
effect on mechanical properties, making the cast metal brittle and likely to fail
along the crystal boundaries.
4.6 Influence Of Cooling Rates on Crystal Size:

The rate at which a molten metal is cooling as it reaches the freezing-
temperature affects the size of the crystals which form. A gradual fall in
temperature results in the formation of few nuclei and so the resultant crystals
grow unimpeded to a large size. A rapid fall in temperature, however, will lead
to some degree of undercooling of the molten metal to a temperature below its
actual freezing-point (Figure 4-4). Due to this undercooling and the instability
associated with it, a very large number of nuclei is produced. Due to it, the
ultimate crystals will be tiny. This is an advantage, since fine-grained castings
are generally tougher and stronger than those with a coarse grain size.
Materials 4-30
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Casting Processes
CHAPTER 5
Casting Processes
5.0 Introduction:
Most metallic materials pass through a molten state at some stage during the
shaping process. Much of this molten metal is cast into ingot form prior to
being shaped by some mechanical working process. Some metals and alloys -
and a number of non-metallic products such as concrete - can be shaped only
by casting since they lack the necessary properties of either malleability or
ductility.
A few metallic substances are produced in powder form. The powder is then
compressed and sintered to provide the required shape. This branch of
technology is termed Powder Metallurgy.
Some of the common casting processes are briefly discussed in the following.
5.1 Ingot Casting:

Many alloys, both ferrous and non-ferrous, are cast in the form of ingots which
are then rolled, forged, or extruded into strip, sheet, rod, tube, or other sections.
Figure 5-1
Materials 5-31
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Casting Processes
When produced as single ingots, steel is generally cast into large iron moulds
holding several tonnes of metal (Figure 5-1). There is a reservoir of molten
metal which shall be preserved until solidification of the body of the ingot is
complete. This reservoir feeds metal into the 'pipe' which forms as the main
body of the ingot solidifies and contracts.
5.2 Continuous Casting:

This process is used to produce ingots of both ferrous and non-ferrous alloys
(Figure 5-2). Here the molten metal is cast into a short water-cooled mould. As
solidification begins, the base is withdrawn downwards at a rate which will
keep place with that of pouring.
Figure 5-2
In continuous casting, there is little process scrap, since very long ingots are
produced and consequently there is proportionally less rejected pipe. In
modern steelmaking, pipe is eliminated since the continuous-cast ingot is
conveyed by a system of guide rolls direct to the rolling mill from which the
emerging product is cut to the required lengths by a flying saw.
5.3 Sand Casting:

In sand-casting process, sand mould is made by using a suitable pattern. The
pattern is withdrawn to leave a cavity of the correct shape in the sand. Liquid
metal is poured into the mould which is solidified in the mould shape. Sand-
casting is a very useful process, since very intricate shapes can be produced in
a large range of metals and alloys. Moreover, relatively small numbers of
castings can be made economically, since the necessary outlay on the simple
Materials 5-32
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Casting Processes
equipment required is low. Wooden patterns are also cheap to produce, as

compared with the metal die which is necessary in die-casting processes.
5.4 Die Casting:

In die-casting, a permanent metal mould is used, and the charge of molten
metal is either allowed to run in under the action of gravity (gravity
die-casting), or is forced in under pressure (pressure die-casting). The product
of die-casting is metallurgically superior to that of sand-casting because the
internal structure is more uniform, and the grain much finer, because of the
rapid cooling rates. Moreover, output rates are much higher when using a
permanent metal mould than when using sand moulds. Greater dimensional
accuracy and a better surface finish are also obtained by die-casting. However,
some alloys which can be sand-cast cannot be die-cast, because of their high
shrinkage coefficients. Such alloys would inevitably crack due to their
contraction during solidification within the rigid, non-yielding metal mould.
Die-casting is confined mainly to zinc or aluminium-base alloys.
5.5 Centrifugal Casting:

This process is most commonly used in the manufacture of cast-iron pipes for
water, sewage and gas mains. A permanent cylindrical metal mould, without
any central core, is spun at high speed, and molten metal is poured into it
(Figure 5-3). Centrifugal force flings the metal to the surface of the mould,
thus producing a hoilow cylinder of uniform wall thickness. The product has a
uniformly fine-grained outer surface, and is considered superior to a similar
shape which has been sand-cast.
Figure 5-3
Materials 5-33
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Mechanical Testing
CHAPTER 6
Mechanical Testing
6.0 Properties of Materials:

Various structure materials react differently to the same loads; some fracture,
some stretch greatly, some react very little. The behaviour of a metal under a
load depends upon its certain properties. We have been referring to many of
them throughout but now they are formally discussed under:
6.1 Strength:
For a material to be suitable for use in a structure, it must be able to withstand
the expected forces or loads without rupture, collapse, or undue distortion.
That is, it must have sufficient Strength. Thus, strength can be defined as the
maximum stress which a material can develop in resistance of being
lengthened, shortened, or distorted to the point of failure.
6.2 Stiffness:
If a material changes form only slightly, i.e. small strain, under stress then it is
said to have a high degree of Stiffness. Stiffness of a material is, therefore, its
resistance to strain as measured by its modulus of elasticity.
6.3 Elasticity:
The property of a material which causes it to return to its original shape upon
release of an applied stress is called Elasticity. All materials are elastic below
their elastic limit, however they lose their elasticity when stressed beyond this
point and only partially regain their original shape on release of the load.
6.4 Plasticity:
When a stress beyond the elastic limit is placed on a material, it may become
permanently deformed or plastic. Thus, a plastic material is one which easily
becomes permanently deformed or has a comparatively low modulus of
elasticity.
6.5 Toughness:
Toughness is the property of a material which allows it to withstand a great
deal of deformation together with high stress without rupture. Toughness
Materials 6-34
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Mechanical Testing
actually is a measure of the energy which a material will absorb without

failure.
6.6 Brittleness:
A brittle material is one which can be permanently deformed only to a very
limited extent following which it will beak suddenly. Brittleness is opposite to
plasticity.
6.7 Ductility and Malleability:

Ductility is the property of a material which allows it to be drawn out by
tension resulting in a permanent set. A ductile material is one which may be
stretched considerably before rupture takes place. A malleable material is one
which can be hammered or rolled into thin sheets. Thus, ductility is the ability
of a material to undergo large permanent deformation in tension while
malleability is the ability to undergo large permanent deformation in
compression.
6.8 Hardness:
Hardness is the ability to resist very small indentations, abrasion and plastic
deformation. It is a combination of many properties.
While designing a structure, we are primarily concerned with the balancing of

forces We must therefore know the effects which the application of forces may
have on a material, before we can use it.
Various mechanical tests have therefore been devised over the years, with the
object of comparing the amount of deformation produced in a metal with the
force which was employed to produce it. Thus. in a tensile test we measure the
force required to stretch a specimen of the metal until it breaks; whilst in
various hardness tests we produce a small dent in the surface of a test piece by
using a compressive force. The hardness number is then calculated as the force
used divided by the surface area of the impression produced by it.
In the type of test mentioned above, the test-piece is destroyed during the
testing process. Such tests are therefore known as Destructive Tests, and can
only be applied to individual test pieces. These are taken from a batch of
material and they are therefore assumed to be representative of the batch. Tests
of a different nature and purpose are used to examine manufactured
components for internal flaws and faults; for example X-rays are used to seek
internal cavities in castings. These tests are generally referred to as
Materials 6-35
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Mechanical Testing
Non-Destructive Tests (NDT). In such tests the component is not destroyed

during the test.
6.8.1 Tensile Test:

The tensile strength of a material is the stress required to cause fracture of a
test piece in tension.
A test piece of known cross-sectional area is gripped in the jaws of a

testing-machine, and is subjected to a tensile force which is increased by
suitable increments. For each increment of force, the amount by which the
length of a known 'gauge length' on the test piece increases is measured. This
process continues until the test piece fractures. Force-Extension diagram is
plotted with the data to analyse the behaviour of the material.
Fig. 6-1
Materials 6-36
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Mechanical Testing
Figure 6-1 shows a typical force-extension diagram for an annealed carbon

steel. It shows that at first the amount of extension is very small, compared
with the increase in force. Such extension as there is directly proportional to
the force; that is, 'OA' is a straight line. If the force is released at any point
before 'A' is reached, the test piece will return to its original length. Thus, the
extension between 'O' and 'A' is elastic, and the material obeys Hooke's law. If
the test piece is stressed past the point 'A' (known as the elastic limit or limit of
proportionality), the material suddenly suffers a sudden extension for very little
increase in force. This is called the Yield Point (Y), and, if the force is now
removed, a small permanent extension will remain in the material. Any
extension which occurs past the point 'A' is of a plastic nature. As the force is
increased further, the material stretches rapidly - first uniformly along its entire
length, and then form a 'neck'. This 'necking' occurs just after the maximum
force has been reached, at 'M', and since the cross-section decreases rapidly at
the neck, the force at 'B' required to break the specimen is much less than the
maximum load at 'M'.
6.8.2 Hardness Tests:

A true definition of surface hardness is the capacity of that surface to resist
abrasion.
Earlier, Moh's scale was used to assess the relative hardness of minerals. This
consists of a list of materials arranged in order of hardness, with diamond, the
hardest of all (with a hardness index of 10), at the head of the list and talc (with
an index of 1) at the foot (Table 6-1). Any mineral in the list will scratch any
one below it and in this way the hardness of any 'unknown' substance can be
related to the scale by finding which substance on the scale will just scratch it
and a hardness index thus assigned to it.
Table-1
Moh’s scale of hardness
Material Hardness index
Diamond 10
Sapphire 9
Topaz 8
Quartz 7
Feldspar 6
Apatite 5
Fluorspar 4
Calcite 3
Gypsum 2
talc 1
Materials 6-37
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Mechanical Testing
Modern methods of hardness testing really measure the materials resistance to

penetration rather than to abrasion.
6.8.3 Brinell Test:

It is probably the best known of the hardness tests. A hardened steel ball is
forced into the surface of a test-piece by means of a suitable standard
load (Figure 6-2). The diameter of the impression is then measured, using
some form of calibrated microscope, and the Brinell hardness number (H} is
found from:
Figure 6-2
load (P)
H=
area of curved surface of impression
If 'D' is the diameter of the ball. and d that of the impression, it can be shown
that:
π
(
area of curved surface of impression = D D − D 2 − d 2
2
)
It follows that
load (P)
H=
π
2
(
D D − D2 − d 2 )
'H' is generally found by reference to tables which relate 'H' to 'd', a different
set of tables being used for each possible combination of 'P' and 'D'.
Materials 6-38
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Mechanical Testing
6.8.4 Vickers Pyramid Test:

The Vickers pyramid hardness test uses a square-based diamond pyramid
(Figure 6-3) as the indentor. One great advantage of this is that all impressions
will be geometrically similar, and, within limits, the accuracy of the result will
not vary with depth of the impression. Consequently, the operator does not
have to choose a P/D2 ratio as he does in the Brinell test, though he must still
observe the relationship between depth of impression and thickness of
specimen, for reasons similar to those indicated in the case of the Brinell test.
A further advantage of the Vickers hardness test is that hardness values for
very hard materials (above an index of 500) are likely to be more accurate than
the corresponding Brinell numbers since diamond does not deform under high
pressure to the same extent as does a steel ball, and so the result will be less
uncertain.
Figure 6-3
6.8.5 Rockwell Test:

The Rockwell test is particularly useful for rapid routine testing of finished
material, since the hardness number is indicated directly on a dial, and no
subsequent measurement of the diameter of the impression is involved.
Although the depth (h) (Fig-6-4) of the impression is measured by the
instrument, this is converted (on the dial) to hardness values in which the
surface area of the impression is related to the load in the usual way. The test
piece is placed on the table of the instrument, and the indentor is brought into
contact with the surface under 'light load'. This takes up the 'slack' in the
system, and the scale is then adjusted to zero. Full load is then applied, and
when it is subsequently released (timing being automatic), the test-piece
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Mechanical Testing
remains under 'light load' whilst the hardness index is read direct from the
scale.
Figure 6-4
There are also other methods for hardness testing like the Shore scleroscope,
wear resistance tests, etc.
6.8.6 Impact Tests:

These tests are used to indicate the toughness of a material, and particularly its
capacity for resisting mechanical shock. Brittleness of a material is often not
revealed during a tensile test. In an impact test, however, the unsatisfactory
material would prove to be extremely brittle as compared with the correctly
treated one, which would be tough.
6.8.7 Izod Test:

The Izod impact test employs a standard notched test piece (Figure 6-5), which
is clamped firmly in a vice. A heavy pendulum, mounted on ball-bearings. is
allowed to strike the test-piece after being released from a fixed height. The
striking energy of approximately 163 J is partially absorbed in breaking the
test-piece, and as the pendulum swings past, it carries with it a drag pointer
which it leaves at its highest point of swing. This indicates the amount of
mechanical energy used in fracturing the test piece. To set up stress
concentrations which will ensure that fracture does occur, the test piece is
notched. It is essential, however, that this notch always be standard, for which
reason a standard gauge is supplied to test the dimensional accuracy of the
notch, both in this and the other impact tests.
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Figure 6-5
There is also another very common impact test known as the Charpy impact
test.
6.8.8 Creep Test:

When stressed over a long period of time, some metals extend very gradually,
and may ultimately fail at a stress well below the tensile strength of the
material. This phenomenon of slow but continuous extension under a steady
force is known as Creep. Such slow extension is more prevalent at high
temperatures, and for this reason the effects of creep must be taken into
account in the design of steam and chemical plant, gas and steam turbines, and
furnace equipment.
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Mechanical Testing
Creep occurs generally in three stages (Figure 6-6). At low stress and/or low
temperature (Curve I) some Primary Creep may occur but this falls to a
negligible amount in the Secondary Creep (the creep curve becomes almost
horizontal). With increased stress and/or temperature (Curves II and III) the
rate of secondary creep increases leading into Tertiary Creep and inevitable
catastrophic failure. The Limiting Creep Stress of a material at any given
temperature is the maximum stress it can withstand without showing any
measurable extension.
Figure 6-6
Creep tests are carried out on test pieces which are similar in form to ordinary
tensile test pieces. A test piece is enclosed in a thermostatically controlled
electric tube furnace which can be maintained accurately at a fixed temperature
over the long period of time occupied by the test. The test piece is statically
stressed, and some form of sensitive extensometer is used to measure the
extremely small extension at suitable time intervals. A set of creep curves,
obtained for different static forces at the same temperature, is finally produced,
and from these the limiting creep stress is derived.
6.8.9 Fatigue Test:

Experiments show that a girder which would support a static load of 12 tonf
for an indefinite period, would fail if a load of only 3 tonf were raised and
lowered on it some three million times. Fatigue Failure is associated with the
effects which a fluctuating or an alternating force may have on a member,
orwhen subjected to the action of a 'live load'.
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Mechanical Testing
To find the fatigue limit, a number of similar specimens of the material are
tested by a fatigue testing machine in which alternations of stress can be
produced in a test piece very rapidly (Figure 6-7). Each test piece is tested at a
different value of W, until failure occurs, or, alternatively, until about
20 million reversals have been endured. From these results, an S-N curve is
plotted; that is, stress (S) against the number of reversals (N) endured. The
curve becomes horizontal at a stress which will be endured for an infinite
number of reversals. This stress is the fatigue limit or endurance limit.
Figure 6-7
Fatigue failure will ultimately occur in any member which is stressed above its
fatigue limit in such a way that the operating stress fluctuates or alternates.
Such failure can be due simply to bad design and lack of understanding of
fatigue, but is much more likely to be due to the presence of unforeseen high-
frequency vibrations in a member which is stressed above the fatigue limit.
This is possible since the fatigue limit is well below the tensile strength for all
materials.
Any feature which increases stress concentrations may precipitate fatigue

failure. Thus a fatigue crack may start from a keyway, a sharp fillet, a
microstructural defect, or even a bad tool mark on the surface of a component
which has otherwise been correctly designed with regard to the fatigue limit of
the material from which it was made.
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Mechanical Testing
6.9 Some Other Mechanical Tests:

Most of these tests are designed to evaluate some particular property of a
material which is not revealed adequately during any of the preceding tests.
6.9.1 Erichsen Cupping Test:

Materials of very high ductility are used for deep-drawing. However, a simple
measurement of ductility in terms of percentage elongation (obtained during
the tensile test) does not always give a complete assessment of deep-drawing
properties. Erichsen cupping test is used in such cases. In this test, a hardened
steel ball is forced into the test piece (Figure 6-8), which is clamped between a
die-face and a blank-holder. When the test piece splits, the height of the cup
which has been formed is measured, and this height (in mm) is taken as the
Erichsen value. The most useful aspect of the test is that it gives some idea of
the grain size of the material, and hence its suitability for deep-drawing.
Coarse grain, always associated with poor ductility in a drawing operation, will
show up as a rough granular surface in the dome of the test piece.
Figure 6-8
6.9.2 Bend Test:

Bend tests are often used as a means of judging the suitability of a metal for
bending treatment during a production process. It requires little equipment
other than a vice. The wire is bent through 90° over a cylinder of specified
radius 'R', then back through 90° in the opposite direction (Figure 6-9). This is
continued until the test piece breaks, the number of bending cycles being
counted. The surface affected by the bending process is examined for cracks.
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Figure 6-9
6.9.3 Compression Test:

Compression tests are used mainly in connection with cast iron and concrete
since these are materials more likely to be used under the action of
compressive forces than in tension. A cylindrical block, the length of which is
twice its diameter, is used as a test piece (Figure 6-10(i)). This is compressed
(using a tensile-testing machine running in 'reverse') until it fails.
Figure 6-10
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Malleable metals do not show a well-defined point of failure (Figure 6-10(ii))

but with brittle materials (Figure 6-10(iii)), the ultimate compressive stress can
be measured accurately, since the material fails suddenly, usually by multiple
shear at angles of 45° to the direction of compression.
6.9.4 Torsion Test:

Torsion tests are often applied to wire, steel wire in particular. The test consists
of twisting a piece of wire in the same direction round its own axis until it
breaks or until a specified number of twists has been endured. The simple
machine used (Figure 6-11) consists essentially of two grips which remain in
the same axis and do not apply any bending moment to the test piece. One grip
remains stationary whilst the other is rotated. The test piece is held in the
machine so that its longitudinal axis coincides with the axis of the grips and so
that it remains straight during the test. This is achieved by applying a constant
tensile force just sufficient to straighten it but not exceeding 2% of the nominal
tensile strength of the specimen.
Figure 6-11
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6.10. Significance Of Mechanical Properties:

Hardness is of most interest where wear resistance is needed. Other than this,
its main use is to estimate the tensile strength or as a quick check that a
material meets a specification.
Ultimate tensile strength is of little use to designers since most components

will be hopelessly deformed and usable long before they break.
Yield strength is of great importance, since it is the stress which mustn't be

exceeded if the component is to stay the same size and shape for its whole
working life. Generally, a designer will work to 1/2 or 1/3 of the yield strength
to allow a margin of safety.
Elongation is a measure of difficulty (the ability to be plastically deformed in

tension without failure) and so may be an important factor in the fabrication
cost of many components. In addition, ductility can significantly affect the load
carrying ability of the material. A small surface mark will reduce the fatigue
strength of a brittle material enormously; sharp corners will do the same thing.
A ductile material, on the other hand, will yield locally under a scratch or a
corner and increase its own strength at that location. Elongation is a safety
device given to designers and fabricators by metallurgists to save them from
their own poor work.
Impact resistance is of value in components subject to high rates of loading. It

is also a test for poor heat treatment and can give an indication of a material's
fatigue resistance in high load rate applications.
Fatigue resistance is primarily of importance to designers. It is important to

remember, however, that overloading can cause premature failure and is not
always obvious.
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Non-Destructive Testing
CHAPTER 7
7.0 Introduction:
Those tests described in the previous chapter are destructive tests carried out
on samples which, it is hoped, are rep
resentative of a batch of manufactured material. In many cases such tests will
be adequate, since properties are generally uniform throughout a large batch of
material derived from a single cast ingot. Components which are produced
individually, however, such as castings and welded joints, may vary in quality.
Even with fairly rigorous on-line inspection, faulty components can arise due
to the influences of many variable factors such as working temperature,
surrounding atmosphere, and the operator skill. If the quality of such
components is very important, as for example castings used in nuclear power
plant, it may be necessary to test each component individually using some type
of nondestructive examination, Non-Destructive Testing (NDT). During such
testings, faults and flaws are detected either at the surface or below it. and a
number of suitable methods are available in each case. These tests give an
overall assessment of the quality of the product, therefore, the term
nondestructive testing is often replaced by Non-Destructive Evaluation (NDE).
7.1 Tests for the Detection of Surface Cracks and Flaws:

Surface cracks may arise in a material in a number of ways. Some cracks show
up during inspection using a simple hand magnifier, others may be far harder
to detect. For example, steel tools may develop hair-line cracks which are not
apparent during ordinary visual inspection, Castings may crack due to
contraction during the period of solidification and cooling, etc.
7.1.1 Penetrant Methods:

In these methods, the surface to be examined is first cleaned adequately to
remove grease, and then dried (Figure 7-1). The penetrant liquid is then
sprayed on to the surface, which should be warmed to about 90°C. Small
components may be immersed in the heated penetrant. After sufficient time has
elapsed for the penetrant to fill any cracks, the excess is carefully washed from
the surface with warm water (the surface tension of water is too high to allow it
to enter the fine cracks). Other suitable solvents may also be used to remove
excess penetrant. The test surface is then carefully dried and coated with a
'developer' such as powdered chalk. This developer can be blown on as a
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powder or sprayed on as a solution or suspension. In some cases, the

component is dipped into a suspension or solution of the developer which is
allowed to dry on the surface. The component is then set aside for some time.
As the coated surface cools it contracts and penetrant tends to be squeezed out
of any cracks, so the chalk layer will become stained, thus revealing the
presence of the cracks. Most penetrants of this type contain a coloured dye
which makes the stain immediately noticeable.
Figure 7-1
In some cases, the penetrant contains a compound which becomes fluorescent

under ultraviolet light and thus, the use of chalk becomes unnecessary. When
the prepared surface is illuminated by ultraviolet light, the cracks containing
the penetrant are observed as bright lines on a dark background.
Penetrant methods in general are particularly useful for the examination of

non-ferrous metals and austenitic (non-magnetic) steels. Aluminium-alloy
castings are frequently examined in this way.
7.1.2 Magnetic Dust Methods:

These methods can be applied only to magnetic materials. They provide a very
quick and efficient method of detecting cracks. A further advantage over the
penetrant method is that flaws which are immediately below the surface are
also detected. Thus, the magnetic dust method is particularly suitable for
examining machined or polished surfaces, where the mouth of a crack may
have closed.
The magnetic method involves making the component part of a 'magnetic

circuit' (Figure 7-2(i)). This magnetic field can be induced in the component
either by permanent magnets or by electromagnetic means. It can also be
produced by passing a heavy current at low e.m.f. through the component.
Magnetic lines of force pass easily through a magnetic material than through
air. In air, they repel each other and spread (Figure 7-2(iii)). Therefore, when
there is a gap or other discontinuity at or just below the surface, the lines of
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force spread outwards. If some iron dust is now sprinkled on the surface of the
component, it will stick to the surface where the lines of force break out and
therefore, the fault is observed.
Figure 7-2
The magnetized component can also be observed by placing it in paraffin

containing a suspension of tiny iron particles. The particles will be attracted to
the surface of the component at any points where, due to the presence of a
fault, lines of force cut through.
The sensitivity of this method can be improved by coating the surface to be

treated with a suitable liquid, containing magnetic particles which have been
treated with a fluorescent compound. The surface is then examined under
'black light' in a darkened cubicle.
7.1.3 Acid Pickling Methods:

Surface defects in steel castings can generally be revealed by pickling the
casting in a 10% solution of sulphuric acid at about 50°C for up to two hours.
Another way is to use a 20 to 30% solution of hydrochloric acid at ambient
temperature for up to twelve hours. For stainless steels, mixtures of
concentrated nitric and hydrofluoric acids are used. This mixture is extremely
corrosive and thus, the tests require great care. After removal from the acid
bath, the casting is washed thoroughly and, if necessary, any residual acid is
neutralized by using a hot suspension of slaked lime. Finally, the casting is
washed again and dried quickly. This simple procedure provides a cheap but
effective way of dissolving oxide layers and revealing most surface defects.
7.2 Test For The Detection Of Internal Defects:
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Castings may contain unwanted internal cavities, in the form of gas blow-holes
and shrinkage porosity. Similarly, wrought materials and welded joints may
also contain such flaws for several reasons. These internal flaws are hidden
from us because metals are opaque to light. But high frequency
electromagnetic radiation, like x-rays and gamma rays, may penetrate through
metals. So, these radiations are most widely used in the detection of internal
faults.
7.2.1 X-Ray Methods:

X-rays travel in straight lines like light rays and can penetrate through metal
provided they posses enough energy and the metal is not so thick in cross-
section that the X-rays are completely absorbed. In this way, an x-ray
photograph of the interior of the metal is obtained, with the help of which
faults can be detected (Figure 7-3).
A fluorescent screen may be substituted for the photographic film, so that the
resultant radiograph may be viewed instantaneously. This type of fluoroscopy
is much cheaper and quicker, but is less sensitive than photography, and its use
is limited to the less-dense metals.
Figure 7-3
7.2.2 Gamma-Ray Methods:
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γ-rays can also be used in the radiography of metals. They are more energetic
i.e. 'harder' than X-rays. They can be used for more dense metals and also
when the material is thick. They are particularly useful in the radiography of
steel, which absorbs radiation more effectively than do the light alloys.
Exposure to γ radiation can be extremely dangerous. Originally, radium was

used as a source of γ-rays. Since it is very rare and expensive, now artificially
activated isotopes are used. One of the most useful activated isotopes is
cobalt-60.
γ-ray radiography is in many respects simpler than using x-rays but security
arrangements need to be even more stringent. They are more energetic than
x-rays and unlike X-rays, cannot be 'switched off' because a radioactive isotope
may emit continuously for a period varying from a few seconds to thousands of
years. A lead safe is therefore used to protect against them.
γ-rays radiograph has the advantage over x-rays that it is more mobile and less
cumbersome to transport.
7.3 Ultrasonic testing:

In ultrasonic testing very high-frequency vibrations are used, which are beyond
the acoustic range which can be received by our ears. Frequencies between
500 000 and 10 000 000 Hz are commonly used whereas our ears can detect
sounds at frequencies only between 30 and 16 000 Hz.
A probe containing a quartz crystal, which can both transmit and receive high-
frequency vibrations, is passed over the surface of the material to be tested
(Figure 7-4). The probe is connected to an amplifier, which converts and
amplifies the signal, before it is recorded on the cathode-ray tube.
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Figure 7-4
Under normal conditions, the vibrations will pass from the probe. unrestricted
through the metal, and be reflected from the bottom inside surface at 'B' back
to the probe, which also acts as a receiver. Both the transmitted pulse and its
echo are recorded on the cathode-ray tube, and the distance 'T1', between the
peaks of the pulse is proportional to the thickness 'T' of the test material. If any
discontinuity is encountered, such as the blowhole 'D', then the pulse is
interrupted, and reflected back as indicated. Since this echo returns to the
receiver in a shorter time. an intermediate peak appears on the cathode-ray
tube. Its position relative to the other peaks indicates the distance of the fault
below the surface. This method is particularly suitable for detecting faults in
sheet, plate and strip materials more than 6 mm thick. Its modified equipment
is used for detecting faults in welds.
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Deformation and Recrystallization
CHAPTER 8
8.0 Slip and Work Hardening:

When the shape of a piece of metal is changed by the application of forces,
deformation takes place. At first crystals within the metal are distorted in an
elastic manner and it increases proportionally with the increase in stress. If the
stress is removed during this stage, the metal returns to its original shape. If the
stress is increased further, a point is reached (the yield point) and the layers or
planes of atoms begin to slide over each other. This process of 'slip' is irreversible,
and so, if the stress is now removed, permanent deformation remains in the metal,
called the plastic deformation (Figure 8-1).
Figure 8-1
Slip of this type can occur along a suitable plane, until it is prevented by some
fault or obstacle within the crystal A further increase in the stress will then
produce slip on another -plane or planes, and this process goes on until all
available slip planes in the piece of metal are used up. The metal is then said to be
'work-hardened', and any further increase in stress will lead to fracture.
Microscopic examination will show that individual crystals have become
elongated and distorted in the direction in which the metal was deformed. By this
phenomenon, the metal becomes hard and strong; but it loses its ductility.
Table 8-1 Recrystallization temperature of some metals.

Metal Recrystallization temperature (0C)
Tungsten 1200
Nickel 600
Pure iron 450
Copper 190
Aluminium 150
Zinc 20
Lead Below room temperature; hence they
tin Cannot be ‘cold-worked’
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8.1 Step-Step Movement of Dislocations:

Slip does not occur simultaneously by one block of atoms sliding over another
block across a complete crystal plane. It occurs step-by-step by the movement of
faults or discontinuities within the cystallographic planes. These faults where
atoms are missing within a crystal (Figure 8-2) are known as 'dislocations'. When
the crystal is stressed to its yield point these dislocations will move stopped by
some obstruction such as the atom of some alloy metal which is larger (or
smaller) than those of the parent metal. Movement of dislocation is stopped also
by a crystal boundary or another dislocation moving across its path.
Figure 8-2
The step-by-step movement of a dislocation through the crystal structure of a

metal requires a much smaller force than would the movement of a large block of
ions by simultaneous slip. Therefore, real strength of a metal is much less than
that calculated on the baisi of a perfect crystal. A metal becomes work-hardened
when all dislocations are jammed against each other or against various other
obstacles within the crystals or against the crystal boundaries.
8.2 Deformation by Twinning:

Some metals deform plastically by a process other than slip, known as 'twinning'.
During slip, all ions in a block move through the same distance. But in the case of
twinning (Figure 8-3), ions within each successive plane in a block move through
different distances. When twinning is complete the lattice direction wilt have
altered so that one half of the twinned crystal is a mirror image of the other half.
The stress required to cause deformation by twinning is generally higher than that
needed to produce deformation by slip.
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Figure 8-3
8.3 Annealing:
When a metal is deformed or worked at normal temperature i.e. without the
application of heat, it is said to be cold-worked. A cold-worked metal has
considerable internal stress due to the presence of elastic strains internally
balanced within the distorted crystal structure. Annealing is the process by which
these residual stresses developed as a result of are relieved and the metal regains
its original ductility. It occurs in three stages i.e. the relief of stress,
recrystallization, and grain growth.
8.4 The Relief of Stress:

As the temperature of the cold-worked metal is gradually raised, some of the
internal stresses disappear, as atoms and dislocations move through small
distances into positions nearer equilibrium. At this stage, there is no alteration in
the generally distorted appearance of the structure, and the strength and hardness
produced by cold-working remain high.
8.5 Recrystallization:
When the temperature is further increased, a point is reached where new crystals
begin to grow from nuclei which form within the structure of the existing
distorted crystals. As the new crystals grow, they take up atoms from the old
distorted crystals which they gradually replace. Unlike the old crystals, which had
become elongated in one direction by the cold-working process, these new
crystals are small and regular in shape. This phenomenon, known as
Recrysiallizanon. The minimum temperature at which it will occur is called the
'Recrystallization Temperature' for that metal. The resrystallization temperature
for a metal cannot be determined precisely because it varies with the amount of
cold-work to which the metal had been subjected before the annealing process.
The more heavily the metal is cold-worked, the greater the internal stress, and the
lower the temperature at which recrystallization will begin. Alloying, or the
presence of impurities. raises the recrystailization temperature of a metal.
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8.6 Grain Growth:
If the annealing temperature is well above that for recrysiallization of the metal,
the new crystals will increase in size by absorbing each other, until the resultant
structure becomes relatively coarse-grained. This is undesirable, since a coarse-
grained material is generally less ductile than a fine-grained material of similar
composition. Both the time and temperature of annealing must be controlled, in
order to limit grain growth. Temperature has a much greater influence on grain
growth than does time.
The amount of cold-work the material receives prior to being annealed also
affects the grain size produced. In heavily cold-worked metal, the amount of
locked-up stress is great and so, when heat is supplied during annealing, a large
number of new crystal nuclei will form instantaneously as the recrystallization
temperature is reached. So, the resultant crystals will be small since there will be
less space in which individual crystals can grow. In very light cold-work metal,
very few nuclei are formed, because the metal is not highly stressed.
Consequently the grain size will be large, and the ductility poor.
8.7 Normalizing:
The term Normalizing is used in the engineering industry to denote a similar
treatment to Annealing. The difference is that an annealed metal is usually
allowed to cool in the heat treatment furnace after being heated, while a
normalized metal is taken out of the furnace and allowed to cool in air.
8.8 Cold-Working Processes:

Most metals and alloys are produced in wrought form by hot-working processes,
because they are generally softer and more malleable when hot and consequently
require much less energy to shape them. Hot-working processes make use of
compressive forces to shape the work-piece. The reason for this is that metals
become weak in tension at high temperatures, so their ductility decreases. Any
attempt to pull a metal through a die at high temperature would fail, because the
metal would be so weak as to tear. Consequently, those shaping processes in
which tension is employed are cold-working processes.
Main disadvantage of cold-working is that most metals work-harden quickly

during cold-working operations. Therefore, frequent inter-stage annealing is
required during cold-working which increases the cost of the process. For
example, figure 8-4 shows typical sequence of operations for the manufacture of a
cartridge-case by deep-drawing brass sheet. As far as possible, operations
involving the use of hot-working by compression are used. rather than cold-
working processes.
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Figure 8-4
Some of the reasons for using cold-working processes are:
• To obtain the necessary combination of strength, hardness and toughness for

service. Mild steel and most non-ferrous materials can be hardened , only by
cold-work.
• To produce a smooth, clean surface finish in the final operation. Hot-working
generally leaves an oxidized or scaly surface, which necessitates 'pickling' the
product in an acid solution.
• To attain greater dimensional accuracy than is possible in hot-working
processes.
• To improve the machinability of the material by making the surface harder
and more brittle.
Cold-working processes include:
• The drawing of wire and tubes through dies.

• The cold-rolling of metal plate, sheet, and strip.
• Spinning and flow-turning, as in the manufacture of aluminium kitchenware.
• Stretch forming, particularly in the aircraft industry.
• Cold-heading, as in the production of nails and bolts.
• Coining and embossing.
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8.9 Hot-Working Processes:

A hot-working process is one which is carried out at a temperature well above the
recrystallization temperature of the metal or alloy. At such a temperature,
recrystallization will take place simultaneously with deformation (Figure 8-5). For
this reason, the metal will not work-harden, and can be quickly and continuously
reduced to the required shape. The expended energy is minimum because metals
are more malleable at high temperatures. Metals remain soft, because they are
recrystallizing continuously during the working process. Thus, hot-working saves
both energy used and production time. It also results in the formation of a
uniformly fine grain in the recrystallized material, replacing the original coarse
cast structure. For this reason, the product is stronger, tougher, and more ductile
than was the original cast material.
Figure 8-5
The main disadvantage of hot-working is that the surface condition is generally

poor, due to oxidation and scaling at the high working temperature. Moreover,
accuracy of dimensions is generally more difficult to maintain. Consequently, hot-
working processes are usually followed by some surface-cleaning process, such as
water-quenching, shot-blasting and/or acid pickling prior to at least one
cold-working operation which will improve the surface quality and accuracy of
dimensions.
The principal hot-working processes are:
• Hot-rolling, for the manufacture of plate, sheet, strip, and shaped sections.
• Forging and drop-forging, for the production of relatively simple shapes, but
with mechanical properties superior to those of castings:
• Extrusion, for the production of many solid and hollow sections (tubes) in
both ferrous and non-ferrous materials.
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Mechanical Shaping of Metals
CHAPTER 9
9.0 Hot-Working Processes:

Now we know that a hot-working process is one which is carried out at a
temperature above the recrystallization temperature of the material.
Deformation and recryslallization take place at the same time. so the material
remains malleable during the working process. Intermediate annealing
processes are therefore not required, so working takes place very rapidly. Some
of these processes are as under:
9.1 Forging:
The simplest metal-working process is that of hand-forging. With the aid of
simple tools called 'swages', the smith can produce relatively complex shapes,
using either a hand- or a power-assisted hammer.
9.1.1 Drop-Forging:
If large numbers of identically shaped components are required, then it is
convenient to mass-produce them by drop-forging.
A shaped two-part die is used, one half being attached to the hammer, whilst
the other half is carried by a massive anvil. For complicated shapes, a series of
dies may be required. The hammer, working between two vertical guides, is
lifted either mechanically or by steam pressure, and is then allowed to fall or is
driven down (Figure 9-1) on to the metal to be forged. This consists of a hot
bar of metal, held on the anvil by means of tongs. As the hammer comes into
contact with the metal, it forges it between the two halves of the die.
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Figure 9-1
9.2 Hot-Pressing:
This is a development of drop-forging and is generally used in the manufacture
of simpler shapes. The drop hammer is replaced by a hydraulically driven ram,
so that. instead of receiving a rapid succession of blows, the metal is gradually
squeezed by the static pressure of the ram. The downwards thrust is sometimes
as great as 500 MN.
The main advantage of hot-pressing over drop-forging is that mechanical

deformation takes place more uniformly throughout the work-piece, and is not
confined to the surface layers, as it is in drop-forging, This is important when
forging large components, which may otherwise have a non-uniform internal
structure.
Materials 9-61
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9.2.1 Hot-Rolling:
Traditionally a steel-rolling shop consists of a powerful ' reversing mill
(Figure 9-2) to reduce the section of the incoming white-hot ingots, followed
by trains of rolls which are either plain or grooved according t0 the product
being manufactured. Now that the bulk of steel is produced from continuous-
cast ingots, which leaves the casting unit via a series of guide rolls which
convey it to a train of reduction rolls followed by a set of finishing rolls. The
finished strip passes into. a coiling machine and is cut by a flying saw as
required.
Figure 9-2
Hot-rolling is also applied to most non-ferrous alloys in the initial shaping

stages but finishing is more likely to be a cold-working operation.
9.3 Extrusion:
The extrusion process is used for shaping a variety of both ferrous and
non-ferrous alloys. The most important feature of the process is that, in a single
operation from a cast billet, quite complex sections of reasonably accurate
dimensions can be obtained. The billet is heated to the required temperature
and placed in the container of the extrusion press (Figure 9-3). The ram is then
driven forward hydraulically. with sufficient force to extrude the metal through
a hard alloy-steel die. The solid metal section issues from the die in a manner
similar to the flow of toothpaste from its tube.
Materials 9-62
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Figure 9-3
9.4 Cold-Working Processes:

The surface of a hot-worked component tends to be scaled, or at least heavily
oxidized, so it needs to be sand-blasted or 'pickled' in an acid solution if its
surface condition is to be acceptable. A much better surface quality is obtained
if the workpiece is cold-worked after being pickled. Therefore, some degree of
cold-work is applied to most wrought metallic materials as a final stage in
manufacture. Cold-working is also a means of obtaining the required
mechanical properties in a material. By varying the amount of cold-work in the
final operation, the degree of hardness and strength can be adjusted. Some
operations which involve drawing or pulling the metal can be carried out only
on cold metals and alloys, since ductility is usually less at high temperatures.
Some cold-working processes are as under:
9.5 Cold-rolling:
Cold-rolling is used during the finishing stages in the production of both strip
and section, and also in the manufacture of foils (Figure 9-4). To roll very thin
material, small-diameter rolls are necessary; and. if the material is of great
width, this means that the working rolls must be supported by backing rolls,
otherwise they will bend to such an extent that reduction in thickness of very
thin material becomes impossible. For rolling Thicker material, ordinary two-
high mills are generally used. The production of mirror-finished metal foil
necessitates the use of rolls with a highly polished surface.
Materials 9-63
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Figure 9-4
9.6 Drawing:
Drawing is exclusively a cold-working process, because it relies on high
ductility of the material being drawn. Rod, wire and hollow sections (tubes) are
produced by drawing them through dies. For example, in the manufacture of
wire (Figure 9-5), the material is pulled through the die by winding it on to a
rotating drum. In all the cases, the material is lubricated with oil or soap before
it enters the die aperture.
Materials 9-64
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Figure 9-5
9.7 Stretch-forming:
In any forming process, permanent deformation can only be achieved in the
workpiece if it is stressed beyond the elastic limit. In stretch-forming, this is
accomplished by applying a tensile load to the work-piece such that the elastic
limit is exceeded, and plastic deformation takes place. The operation is carried
out over a form-tool or stretch-block, so that the component assumes the
required shape. In the 'rising-table' machine (Figure 9-6), the workpiece is
gripped between jaws. and the stretch-block is mounted on a rising table which
is actuated by a hydraulic ram. Stretch-blocks are generally of wood or
compressed resin-bonded plywoods, though other materials, such as cast
synthetic resins, zinc-base alloys, or reinforced concrete, are also used. Proper
lubrication of the stretch-block is necessary.
Figure 9-6
Materials 9-65
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9.8 Coining and Embossing:

Coining is a cold-forging process in which deformation takes place entirely by
compression. It is confined mainly to the manufacture of coins, medals, keys,
etc. High pressures are necessary to produce sharp impressions. and this limits
the size of work which is possible.
The coining operation is carried out in a closed die (Figure 9-7). Since no
provision is made for the extrusion of excess metal, the size of the blanks must
be accurately controlled to prevent possible damage to the dies, due to the
development of excessive pressures.
Embossing differs from coining in that virtually no change in thickness of the

workpiece takes place during pressing. Consequently, the force necessary to
emboss metal is much less than in coining. The material used for embossing is
Figure 9-7
generally thinner than that used for coining, and the process is affected by
using male and female dies (Figure 9-8).
Figure 9-8
Materials 9-66
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9.9 Powder Metallurgy:

Powder-metallurgy processes were originally developed to replace melting and
casting for those metals, called 'refractory' metals, which have very high
melting-points. For example, tungsten melts at 3410 °C. and this is beyond the
softening temperature of all ordinary furnace-lining materials. Hence tungsten
is produced from its ore as a fine powder. This powder is then 'compacted' in a
die of suitable shape at a high pressure Under the high pressure, the particles of
tungsten become joined together by 'cold-welding' at the points of contact
between particles.
The compacts are then heated to a temperature above the recrysiallization

temperature. This treatment causes recrystallization to occur and in this way
the crystal structure becomes regular and continuous as grain-growth takes
place across the original boundaries where cold welds have formed between
particles. This heating process is known as Sintering.
Although powder-metallurgy was originally used to deal with metals of very

high melting-point, its use has been extended for other reasons, such as:
• to produce metals and alloys of controlled porosity, e.g. stainless steel

filters to deal with corrosive liquids, and also oil-less bronze bearings.
• to produce alloys of metals which do not mix in the molten state, e.g.
copper and iron for use as a cheap bearing material.
• for the production of small components such as the G-frame of a

micrometer screw gauge where the negligible amount of process scrap
makes the method competitive.
Materials 9-67
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Metals
CHAPTER 10
Metals
10.0 Pure Metals:

Pure metals are chemical elements that are usually solid at normal
temperatures and become liquids when heated to very high temperatures.
When a very hot liquid metal is allowed to cool, it begins to crystallize. These
crystals grow as the liquid metal cools until a solid metal mass results. This
solid mass is made up tiny crystals. These crystals may form in different sizes
and shapes, and from this crystal formation the metal gains its properties of
strength, hardness, ductility, etc.
10.1 Alloys:
To some extent different hot molten metals will dissolve in wach other. When
a liquid containing two or more metals dissolved in each other cools, it forms
crystals containing all these elements and this is termed as an Alloy. Thus, if
we control the crystal structure by carefully choosing such items as alloying
elements, rate of cooling and mechanical treatment, we can closely predict the
final properties an alloy will have.
10.2 Ferrous Metals:

All metals may be divided into two general classes, the ferrous metals covering
the many varieties of iron and steel and the non-ferrous metals covering all
other types.
In the extraction of iron from iron ore, the ore is burned in a fuel, usually coke.
The carbon in this coke will dissolve in the molten iron upto a maximum of 5%
and the liquid cools to form a carbon-iron alloy, the basic ingredient of all
ferrous metals.
This carbon-iron alloy may be produced with an extensive variety of crystal

structure but basically they all fall into two general categories; the steels,
where the carbon content is less than 1.7% and the cast irons, where the carbon
content is over 1.7%. Generally, the more carbon contained in the alloy, the
harder, more brittle and less ductile it will be.
Cast iron is strong in compression and brittle. It can be produced in a variety of

strength and hardness by varying the cooling rate. Generally, this material is
Materials 10-68
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Metals
used where weight and toughness are less important than cost, hardness and
strength in compression. As an example, pump casings in conventional areas of
an NPP are made of cast iron.
Steels are produced in varying amount of carbon content. in addition to it, they
are often produced with other alloying elements e.g. with chromium and nickel
which results in stainless steel, a very corrosion resistant metal. Stainless steels
are used for moderator components, such as valves and pumps, and turbine
blades where the properties of hardness and strength together with good
corrosion resistance are essential.
Low carbon steels are generally used for fabricating steel plates, medium
carbon steels are used for such items as shafts, whereas high carbon steel is
used for springs, tools, etc.
10.3 Non-Ferrous Metals:

Some of the more important non-ferrous metals are copper, nickel, zinc, tin,
lead, zirconium and aluminium. These are produced both as pure metals and as
alloys of different non-ferrous elements. The non-ferrous alloys contain neither
iron or carbon. Since they are generally more expensive than ferrous metals,
they are commonly used where their distinctive properties such as light weight,
corrosion resistance, electrical conductivity etc. are important.
Aluminum has high corrosion resistance and can be produced as an alloy with
such elements as copper, silicon, manganese so that it has strength approaching
that of mild or low carbon steel. Of considerable importance are the properties
of aluminium being light in weight and having a comparatively small tendency
to capture neutrons.
Zirconium is an expensive metal. It shows greater strength than aluminum

under conditions of high temperature and pressure and also has good corrosion
resistance and low neutron capture probability.
Materials 10-69
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Soldering and Brazing
CHAPTER 11
11.0 Introduction:
Apart from purely mechanical methods, such as riveting, the chief methods
available for the joining of metals are soldering, brazing, and welding.
Industrial applications of these processes are many and varied. In soldering,
complete or incipient fusion takes place at the surfaces of the two pieces of
metal being joined, so that a more or less common crystal structure exists as
we pass across the region of the joint.
11.1 Soldering:
A solder must be capable of "wetting", that is, alloying with the metals to be
joined, and at the same time have a freezing range appreciably lower, so that
the work itself is in no danger of melting. The mechanical strength of the
solder must also be adequate.
Alloys based on tin or lead fulfil most of these requirements for a wide range
of metallurgical materials which need to be joined, since tin will alloy readily
with iron, copper, and lead. At the same time tin-lead alloys possess
mechanical toughness, and melt at temperatures between 183°C and 250°C,
which is comfortably below the point at which deterioration in properties of
the metals to be joined will take place.
Plain tin-lead solders are of two main types, depending upon whether they are
to be used by the tinsmith or the plumber. Best-quality tinman's solder contains
62% tin and possesses distinct advantages in that it will pass quickly from
complete liquid to complete solid without any intermediate pasty stage, during
which a joint might, if disturbed, be broken. Nevertheless, since tin is an
expensive metal compared with lead, the tin content may be reduced to 50%
("coarse" tinman's solder) or even less.
Plumber's solder contains about 67% lead, and will consequently be pasty
between 183°C and about 265°C. This extended range over which the alloy
will be in a pasty state is of advantage to the plumber, since it enables him to
"wipe" joints in lead piping, a feat which would be almost impossible to
accomplish with an alloy melting or freezing over a small range of
temperatures.
Materials 11-70
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Solders are sometimes strengthened by the addition of small amounts of

antimony which, within the limits in which it is added, remains in solid
solution. When copper alloys are soldered it is always possible that at some
point in the joint the concentrations of copper and tin will be such that a hard
brittle copper-tin intermetallic compound such as Cu31Sn8, or Cu6Sn5, will be
formed and cause brittleness in the joint. This difficulty can be overcome by
soldering copper with an alloy consisting of 97.5% lead and 2.5% silver, for,
whilst lead and copper are insoluble in each other, silver alloys with each, and
thus acts as a metallic bond between the two. A list of representative solders is
given in Table 11-1.
Table 11-1
Tin-Lead –Base Solders

Composition (%) Solidification Types and uses
Range
(0C)
Sn Pb Sb Ag
62 38 - - Solidification Tinman’s solder
Begins and
Ends at 183 0C
50 50 - - 220-183 Coarse tinman’s solder
33 67 - - 260 – 183 Plumber’s solder
31 67 2 - 235 – 188 Plumber’s solder for wiping joints
43.5 55 1.5 - 220 – 188 General-purpose solder
30 69.35 - 0.65 250 – 180 Substitute solder for general purposes
18 80.8 0.8 0.4 270 – 180 Substitute plumber’s solder
12 80 8 - 250 – 243 For soldering iron and steel
- 97.5 - 2.5 Solidifies at For soldering copper and its alloys
205 0C
In order that the solder shall "wet" the surfaces of the metals to be joined, the
latter must be clean and free from oxide. (This makes it very difficult to solder
alloys containing aluminium.) To clean the metal surface a flux is used which
will dissolve the thin oxide layers which might form before the surface can be
wetted by the solder. Possibly the best known flux is hydrochloric acid ("spirits
of salts"), or the acid-zinc chloride solution which is obtained when a piece of
zinc is dissolved in hydrochloric acid. Whilst being most effective in action,
these fluxes have the disadvantage that the residue they leave behind is likely
to lead to corrosion of the metal near to the joint. If it is inconvenient,
therefore, to wash the finished joint, an organic type of flux is safer to use.
Such fluxes usually have a resin base and are almost completely non-corrosive,
Materials 11-71
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though only really effective on copper and tin-plate. Fig. 1 illustrates the action
of a suitable flux during a soldering operation.
At (A) the oxidised metal surface is covered by a layer of flux solution,

which begins to boil as the soldering bit moves towards it. The boiling flux
rapidly becomes more concentrated and dissolves the oxide film (B), leaving a
clean metal surface covered by a layer of protective flux (C) . Immediately the
molten solder wets this clean surface and begins to alloy with it (D). As the
soldering bit-moves away- the film of solder cools and solidifies (E) .
Figure 11-1
11.2 Brazing:
Although the technique of this process may vary to some extent,
metallurgically it is similar to soldering. Brazing is used when a tougher,
stronger joint is required, particularly in alloys of higher melting point than
those usually joined by soldering. Most ferrous materials and non-ferrous
alloys of sufficiently high melting point can be joined by brazing. A borax-
type flux is generally used, though for lower temperatures involved in high-
grade silver soldering, a fluoride type of flux may be used. Ordinary brazing
solder contains about 50% copper and 50% zinc. Higher-grade brazing
compounds, or silver solders, contain over 50% silver. Cheaper grades of
silver solder contain between 10 and 20% silver and about 50% copper.
Typical brazing alloys are shown in Table 11-2 .
Materials 11-72
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Table 11-2
Brazing Solders and Silver Solders
Composition (%) Freezing Type
Range
(0C)
Cu Zn Ag Cd Sn
50 50 - - - 870 – 880 Ordinary brazing alloys for
50 45 - - 5 750 Ferrous materials
16 4 80 - - 740 – 795 High-grade silver solders for use on
20 15 65 - - 695 – 720 brass and light-guage copper, monel
15.5 16.5 50 18 - 625 – 635 and stainless steel
45 30 20 5 - 775 – 815 Lower – grade silver soldering
52 38 10 - - 820 - 870
Shows example of four common types of brazed joint.
Figure 11-2
Materials 11-73
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Welding
CHAPTER 12
Welding
12.0 Welding:
Some welding processes resemble both soldering and brazing n that molten
metal is applied to produce a joint between the two pieces. However, in
welding the added metal is, more often than not, of similar composition to the
metals being joined, and .he joined pieces are melted locally so differences
between the weld metal and the pieces being joined are structural rather than
compositional.
Welding calls for rather different techniques to those employed in brazing and
soldering. The speed of working is particularly important if complete melting
of the metal near the joint is to be avoided. Some welding processes rely on
pressure to effect joining of the two halves and in such cases no metal is added
to form a joint, the weld metal being provided by the two parts being joined.
Thus we have both fusion and pressure-welding processes, as indicated in
Figure 12-1.
Figure 12-1
Materials 12-74
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Welding
12.1 Fusion Welding Processes:

In all fusion welding high temperatures are employed in or to melt the parts
quickly. In this way damage to the unmelted metal near the weld is minimized
since the time at high tempera is reduced. Also heat must be supplied fast
because the pieces being joined will conduct heat away from the weld area at
quite high rate.
Fusion welding can be classified according to the source o! heat. The most
common sources are gas flame and electric arc,1 chemical reaction, laser
beams, and electron beams are also used in special applications.
Gas flames usually use acetylene and oxygen, since both gases are readily
available and very high temperatures are easily attained Hydrogen and oxygen
can be used to get even higher temperatures the atomic hydrogen welding
torch, which uses an electric arc to supplement the heat of combustion.
Electric arcs can be struck between two non-consumed elect a non-consumed

electrode and the work, or between a consumed electrode and the work. The
third is, perhaps, the most common; the electrode is continually melted to
supply the weld metal nee to fill the weld. When non-consumable electrodes
are used (carbon and tungsten are common),a separate filler rod is melted in
the arc to fill the weld.
In all welding the molten metal is shielded by non-reactive gas to prevent

oxidation. In gas flame welding the combustion products form this shield, but
in electric arc methods it must h provided either by a continuous supply of gas
(such as argon or helium) from a cylinder or by including a combustible
material ii the flux.
Flux is used in most welding processes to slag off oxides and impurities in the
molten metal as well as to burn and provide an unreactive gas shield around
the molten metal. While flux is usually supplied to the joint by coating it on
filter rods, it sometimes applied as a loose powder which is piled on the area be
welded.
Common welding methods are illustrated for your information in Figures 12-2
to 12-6.
Materials 12-75
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Welding
Fig. 12.2
Fig. 12.3
Materials 12-76
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Welding
Figure 12-4
Figure 12-5
Materials 12-77
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Welding
Figure 12-6
12.2 Pressure Welding Processes:

In pressure welding no extra metal is added to the joint. These processes can be
divided into two classes according to whether r not the joint is ever molten.
The blacksmith's forge is the most common example of pressure welding

without melting. The pieces to be joined are heated above their
recrystallisation temperature and forced together by hammering. At the joint
any oxide on the surface gets broken up, and direct metal to metal contact is
established. A metallic bond is formed wherever there is direct contact, and the
metal recrystallises across the joint forming a continuous crystal structure. A
more modern version of this is ultrasonic welding, where the two surfaces to
be joined are rubbed together by high frequency sound waves. This rubbing
breaks up the oxide film and friction supplies the heat. Fine wires are welded
to microscopic electronic circuits in his way.
Other common pressure welding processes depend on electric current to heat

the weld area until it is soft or even molten. The parts to be joined are then
pushed together and the hot met cooled. All such methods rely on the
electrical resistance of weld area (caused by oxide on the surfaces and the
irregularity the surfaces) to localize the heating. Such processes include spot
welding, seam welding and butt welding (which is used to end caps onto
CANDU fuel elements). These resistance welding methods are illustrated in
Figures 12-7 to 12-10.
Materials 12-78
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Welding
Figure 12-7 Figure 12-8
Figure 12-9 Figure 12-10
12.3 Consequences of Welding:

A welder may boast that his weld is stronger than the parent metal. He backs
up this statement by the fact that welds seldom fail before metal near a weld.
The fallacy is that the metal at ' point of failure may be much weaker or more
brittle than the bulk of the material as a direct result of his welding. You will
recall from previous lessons that heat can have quite severe effects the grain
structure; uncontrolled heating is almost always detrimental.
In steel the metal very close to the weld has been heated high in the austenite
region and so the austenite may have suffered grain growth before
transforming, on cooling, to pearlite or martensite. Further from the weld the
steel would have been transformed to austenite but the temperature would not
have been high enough to cause grain growth. Heat conduction through the
steel to the cold surrounding metal might have cooled the austenite fast enough
to form martensite. Further out yet, the steel would not re been transformed but
will have been held in the pearlite grain growth region and considerably
Materials 12-79
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Welding
softened. Thus the metal surrounding a weld could have a wide variety of
structures. Since most steel plate is supplied hot rolled (a fine pearlite structure
which is very tough, fairly strong and quite ductile), most of the welding
induced structures will have worse properties in one way or another i.e. the
region around a weld will have soft patches an brittle patches. These structures
might lead to tensile failure creep (lower U.T.S. of the softened material) or
fatigue or brit failure (low ductility of martensite).
The degredation described above applies to steel; other problems arise when
welding other materials. Aluminum alloys are very susceptible to high
temperatures which can leave them very soft. Stainless steel can suffer a great
loss in corrosion resistance near a weld (this is called weld decay). Any metal
is liable to be softer and less ductile owing to grain growth.
These are all failures due to the alteration of the metal' s crystal structure.
Other failures happen for different reasons. Welds may fail because of the
existance of slag or blow holes in the weld material itself. The weld may not
have penetrated right through the area to be joined or there may be incomplete
melting of the parent metal leaving the weld unjoined to the component in
some places. These and other faults such as cracking of the well or adjacent
metal can be detected in several ways, such as X-ray; gamma radiography,
ultrasonic testing, and crack detection and so will usually be detected before
the weld is put into nuclear service. Structural changes can not be easily
detected without destroying the component and so are far more dangerous.
Materials 12-80
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Concrete
CHAPTER 13
Concrete
13.0 Concrete:
Concrete consists of a mixture of cement, water and an inert matrix of sand,
and gravel or crushed stone. Although all the components of concrete are
essential, the cement is the most important because it is the "weakest link in
the chain". The cement binds the sand and stone together and fills up the voids
between the sand and stone particles.
13.1 Cements:
Cements or cementing materials are substances which, when mixed with water
to form a paste, possess the ability to harden into a solid. It is important to
realize that this hardening is the result of a chemical reaction between the
cement and the water, and not the result of an evaporation process. Most
cementing materials in fact will harden either in air or under water. Such
materials are termed hydraulic cements, and concretes made up with hydraulic
cements are said to possess the property of hydraulicity, or the ability to harden
under water.
In common use are the non-hydraulic cements, gypsum and hydrated lime, and
their hydraulic counterparts, natural cement and Portland cement.
13.1.1 Gypsum:
Gypsum is a non-metallic rock found in many section of the world, and widely
distributed throughout the United States. Chemically it is CaSO4.2H20.
Commercially it is used as "plaster of par is", with the chemical formula,
CaSO4.1/2H2O. On the addition of water to plaster of paris, a mixture results
which has the property of setting by the action of recombination of some of the
mixing water with the plaster of paris (CaSO4.1/2H2O) to bring it back to the
original chemical composition of gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O. This action causes the
mixture to harden, and subsequent removal of excess water by evaporation
leaves a hard, rock-like mass.
13.1.2 Lime:
Common lime, known commercially as "quicklime", is composed largely of
calcium oxide (Ca0), a small amount of magnesium oxide (Mg0) , and a trace
of clay. It is made by calcining* natural limestone (largely calcium carbonate,
Materials 13-81
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Concrete
CaC03.). Upon the addition of a limited amount of water, the calcium oxide is
converted to calcium hydroxide, Ca (OH)2 with consider able evolution of heat
and change in volume. This is then referred to as slaked or hydrated lime.
Commercially, all quicklime is slaked in a kiln. Hydrated lime hardens upon
the addition of water in the presence of air, by absorbing carbon oxide from the
air to become calcium carbonate. It is used as the cement component in
mason's plaster, mortar and stucco.
13.1.3 Natural Cements:

Natural cement is the finely pulverized product of the calcination of a clay-
bearing limestone, and is of variable quality. It is not normally recommended
for placement under water. In addition, natural cements normally set so rapidly
that it becomes necessary to add a considerable amount of gypsum in order to
control the set within desired limits. Thus, since rigid product control is
difficult, natural cement has nowadays been almost entirely displaced by
portland cement.
13.1.4 Portland Cement:

Portland cement is an artificial mixture of lime-bearing and clay-bearing
materials which is kiln-dried and subsequently ground to a fine power. This
power is then fed into the elevated end of a long, slightly-inclined, slowly-
rotating heated kiln, from which it emerges as a hard lumpy clinker, which is
then coarse-ground. A calculated amount (2-3%) of raw gypsum is added to
retard its rate of setting, and the whole mixture is subjected to further grinding
to a fine powder.
Unlike the cements discussed previously, there are two distinct stages in the
setting of a portland cement: the initial set, which usually requires anything
from about 45 minutes to 10 hours, depending upon the composition of the
cement and the ambient conditions; and the final set, which may take days and
even weeks to become complete. It is interesting to note that in a huge
structure such as a dam, it is usually necessary to incorporate pipes for cooling
water inside to remove the heat of reaction with the water of the concrete.
All portland cements are hydraulic, have high strength and durability, and are
used in making concrete for all aspects of modern constructional work.
* Calcining is roasting a more or less finely-divided substance in a kiln or

drum; the product is normally a metal oxide.
Materials 13-82
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Concrete
13.2 Concrete Aggregates:

The inert materials such as sand, gravel, and crushed stone which are mixed
with cement and water in making concrete are referred to as aggregates.
Aggregates are classified into two groups, according to their size. Those
retained on a ^ inch or No. 4 sieve are coarse. All particles which pass through
this sieve are referred to as fine.
The coarse aggregate is used primarily for the purpose of providing bulk to the
concrete, whereas the fine aggregate assists the cement paste in holding the
concrete together by filling in the voids between the coarse aggregate particles.
Although the quality of a concrete mix is determined principally by the quality

of the cement paste, the aggregates in general must possess physical properties
at least equal to the properties desired in the concrete. For instance, one could
not reasonably expect to make a high density concrete from low density
aggregates, cement and water. Properties of concrete which are partly
attributable to aggregates include density, strength, modulus of elasticity,
creep, fire resistance and resistance to wear and abrasion.
13.3 Admixtures:
Any material in concrete other than cement, aggregates and water that is added
in the mixer, or to one of ingredients before mixing, is termed an admixture.
For instance, calcium chloride can be used in amounts up to 2% of the weight

of the cement to accelerate its setting. It is extremely deliquescent (attracts
water from its surroundings), and its reaction with water (hydration) is quite
exothermic (gives off heat). By using this material in cold weather, the length
of time required for protection with covers and artificial heat can be reduced. It
is not safe, however, to expose freshly poured concrete to temperatures below
freezing even though calcium chloride has been added, since in the small
percentages used, the freezing point is not appreciably lowered.
Prevention of freezing of concrete during setting is possible by the addition of

sufficient amounts of certain compounds. The amount of compound necessary
to lower the freezing point of water, however, also causes serious loss of
strength and durability. Such anti-freeze compounds are therefore not normally
used unless their addition in the required amounts can be shown by tests not to
adversely affect the properties desired in the concrete. When frequent freeze-
thaw cycles are likely, entrained air can be incorporated to provide space for
expansion. This was done at NPD.
Materials 13-83
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Concrete
Similarly, finely-ground gypsum (not exceeding 3% by weight of the cement)

is commonly used as a "retarder" to overcome the acceleration in set caused by
hot weather, or to delay stiffening in difficult placing jobs.
Admixtures used as waterproofing agents in concrete include soap, oils and

hydrocarbons. In concrete, soap functions as a water repellent and is of use in
situations where exposure to moisture is at worst only moderate. Under more
adverse conditions, certain oils and hydrocarbons are more effective.
13.4 Proportioning of Concrete:

The proportions of the component materials (cement, water and aggregates) in
a concrete mix directly affect the properties of both the mix and the hardened
concrete. The cement-water paste is the major active ingredient in the mix and
the quality of the concrete, in so far as proportioning is concerned, is
determined by the quality of the paste. As water is added to cement, the paste
so formed becomes increasingly more dilute, with a corresponding decrease in
the ultimate strength of the hardened concrete. This is illustrated in Figure 13-
1, which shows the relationship between compressive strength and the water-
cement ratio.
Figure 13-1
Materials 13-84
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Concrete
Of all the water added to the cement to form the paste, only a small percentage
is necessary for the hydration of the cement; the remainder, though it decreases
strength, is necessary to provide the proper workability in the mix. As a
general rule, therefore, the amount of mixing water used should be kept to a
minimum.
From a purely economic standpoint it is desirable to use as little cement as

possible, since this is the most expensive constituent of concrete. To achieve
this objective it is important to choose a suitable ratio of coarse to fine
aggregates, as the greater the percentage of fines in a mix, the larger will be the
surface area to be covered by the cement paste. In addition, economy can be
further improved by using larger sizes of coarse aggregate since such a mix
would have fewer voids to be filled, thus required a reduced amount of cement
paste. This is illustrated in Fig. 13-2.
Figure 13-2
A fairly typical mix for a normal type concrete would be 1: 3: 5: by volume (ie,
1 part Portland Cement; 3 parts fine aggregate; 5 parts coarse aggregate; all by
volume). Any voids or air pockets existing between pieces of aggregate in the
mix can be eliminated by careful mixing and the use of a vibrator-compacting
process as the concrete is poured.
13.5 Reinforced Concrete:

Concrete used alone is generally referred to- as plain concrete. Such concrete
is suitable only for use in situations where the loads or stresses to which it may
Materials 13-85
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be subjected are of a purely compressive nature. Reinforcement is necessary

whenever the concrete is to be subjected to tensile stresses*; this is achieved by
embedding in the concrete steel bars which have high tensile strength. Typical
strengths for concrete (2400 kg/m3 are 20MN/m2 in compression and
2.4MN/m 2 in tension, while for steel the corresponding values are 185MN/m
for both tension and compression. From this we can see how reinforcement
works (Figure 13-3)
Figure 13-3
*This includes bending stresses (beams) and buckling (columns).
F is the load and R1 and R2 are supports. Here the top fibres are in
compression and the bottom ones in tension. This is why reinforcing rods are
placed as close to the bottom as possible, ie, to resist the tensile stresses.
In addition to enabling the concrete to resist the application of tensile stresses,

reinforcement also serves to limit the size of any cracks caused by shrinkage
during setting or changes in length by temperature variations.
13.6 Uses and Properties of Concrete:

Plain concrete, as used in construction work, will support considerable
compressive loads, and if reinforced with steel bars will in addition resist the
application of moderate tensile stresses. As a structural material its uses are
further enhanced by its good wear resistance, durability and resistance to
corrosion, which, as you might have expected, are dependent upon the choice
of suitable aggregates. Similarly, the fire resistance of a concrete is directly
related to the properties of its associated aggregates. Fortunately, the majority
of concretes exhibit excellent resistance to fire - the main exception being
those concretes which employ flint aggregates, as these become badly
disrupted on exposure to fire.
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All in all, it is true to say that reinforced concrete is, for most applications, the
least expensive fully fireproofed construction material available. It is
particularly suited for use in the construction of multi-storey buildings,
although its relatively high density, (around 2400kg/m3 ), will usually limit the
number of storeys to seven, since above this, the size of the columns required
and their associated dead weight becomes unduly excessive.
Apart from its bulk, however, the only significant limitation of concrete as a
construction material is the difficulty in altering a concrete column, as
compared with, say, a steel girder or a wooden beam.
13.7 Pre-stressed Concrete:

By passing steel cables through ducts in concrete, and putting these under
considerable tensile stress in such a manner that the stresses will oppose any
subsequent loads, "pre-stressed"concrete can be made. There are two methods
of pre-stressing:
1. "pre-fab" at the factory (pre-tensioning)

2. gradual on-site (post-tensioning)
The first is more economical, and is more widely used in conventional

construction projects. It consists of stretching tendons (cable) near the base of
the form and then pouring the concrete on top. When the concrete has set
sufficiently (normally 28 days), the clamps holding the tendons are released,
transferring the load to the concrete (Figure 13-4):
Tendon
Figure 13-4
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The solid lines represent the initial state, and the dotted lines the final pre-
tensioned state. The bending shown here is greatly exaggerated but the bending
in actual beams can be observed I with the eye. From this it can be seen that
when such a beam is put into use, the forces already present have to be
overcome (reversed) before any further stresses are exerted. In other words,
when the beam is loaded the compressive forces in the bottom concrete fibres
have to be overcome before they can go into tension.
On-site pre-stressing consists of applying the design load gradually to already-

cast concrete while increasing the stress on the tendons. This prevents possible
failure from tension (buckling) which might occur if complete pre-stressing
was done at the beginning. This type of pre-stressing has the feature that the
structure can be designed for the removal of the tendons (if they are likely to
corrode, for instance), one at a time, and replacement with fresh ones. This has
been done in the giant pre-stressed concrete pressure vessels of Britain's
advanced gas-cooled reactors.
13.8 Failure of Concrete:

Like any other structural material, concrete is liable to fail if it is overloaded;
as previously pointed out, it is more vulnerable to tensile (and shear) stresses
than compression. For brief discussion here, however, are the effects of heat
and radiation on the one hand, and some chemicals on the other.
Gamma rays which do not penetrate concrete interact with the atoms there; the
energy of the rays is converted finally to heat. The chemical identity of the
atoms is unchanged. Neutrons, on being slowed down by either elastic or
inelastic collisions, give up their lost energy directly or indirectly as heat. We
will ignore the effect of the relatively few neutrons which are captured (and
thereby produce new atoms).
Heat drives water out of the concrete, which can result in cracking and spall
ing (pieces of concrete separate from the surface) . There are two types of
water in concrete: chemically bound (water of hydration) Heat drives water out
of the concrete, which can result in cracking and spalling (pieces of concrete
separate from the surface) . and physically trapped (the excess over that
required chemically which had to be added for workability) . Heat tends to
drive away both particularly, as regards the interior, the latter. The internal
stresses resulting from this inner water trying to get out cause cracking. In the
case of concrete as a neutron shield, there is another ramification of this water
loss: the shielding efficiency decreases. An important contributor to the
slowing down of neutrons is elastic scatter, which is done by light nuclei. In
concrete this is mainly done by the hydrogen atoms in the contained water.
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On the chemical side, the worst offenders are chlorides and strong acids. The
acids (particularly nitric and hydrochloric) dissolve the cement, with the result
that the remaining aggregate just crumbles away. Chloride and nitrate salts act
in a similar albeit much less vigorous way: they render the cement component
somewhat water soluble. Acid spills on concrete should be treated with an
alkali along with the flushing with water; sodium carbonate. (washing soda) or
bicarbonate (baking soda) are safer to work with than aqueous ammonia and
especially sodium hydroxide (caustic soda, lye). Concrete sidewalks, etc. can
be de-iced just as cheaply using either ammonium phosphate or urea fertilizers
as with the highly deleterious common salt (sodium chloride).
13.9 Special Applications of Concrete in a Nuclear Station:

In a nuclear station, concrete serves not only as a structural material but also as
a shielding material for gamma-neutron radiation fields. In this respect the
dense aggregate materials in the concrete are responsible firstly for reducing
the intensity of any gamma radiation fields, and secondly for slowing down
any fast neutrons by the process of "inelastic scatter". Subsequently, the
hydrogen content of the water of hydration in the cement is responsible for
further slowing down these neutrons to thermal energies by the process of
"elastic scatter". These thermal neutrons are then readily captured by nearby
nuclei, unfortunately with the release of "capture gamma radiation", which of
course presents an additional gamma field for aggregate shielding.
The effectiveness of concrete as a shielding material depends principally,

therefore, upon the densities of its aggregates, since the most effective gamma-
absorbing materials consist of high atomic weight elements having high
densities. In other words, enhancing the shielding ability of a concrete by using
high density aggregates will permit the use of reduced concrete thicknesses
without any reduction in shield effectiveness. This fact is advantageous, firstly,
in that it permits the use of concrete shields in areas where available space is
limited and secondly in that it can reduce heavy water holdup at points where it
is necessary for heavy water lines to pass through the shielding.
The density of ordinary concrete (2400kg/m3) can be increased by replacing

the usual fine and coarse aggregates with high density ores such as ilmenite,
barytes, or magnetite. A heavy concrete employing such aggregates would
have a density of around 3500kg/m3. Even higher densities (4800kg/m3) can
be obtained by using ferrophosphorus ore and iron shot as the aggregate
materials. It should be noted, however, that the 4800kg/m3 concrete is weaker
in tension, compression and shear than the 2400kg/m3 material.
Materials 13-89
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Figure 13-5 illustrates some of the locations in which the various density
concretes have been utilized in the construction of NPD.
In conclusion it should be borne in mind that although concrete is by no means

the best shielding material available, it is, on account of its excellent structural
qualities, the most economic. Lead, for instance, is a far better gamma shield
than concrete, since only a quarter of the thickness is required for a given
effectiveness. This is more than offset, however, by the cost, and the fact that
being such a poor structural material lead shielding requires some sort of
supporting frame.
Likewise steel also makes an excellent gamma shield, and ^ such is useful in
shielding doors that would be difficult to fabricate from concrete.
Unfortunately, steel is also relative expensive, and if neutron shielding is
required, then laminations of some hydrogenous material such as masonite
must be included. (See Figure 13-5).
Experience has shown that the weight of material required for given shield is
generally the same, regardless of the material used. Thus the use of dense
materials such as lead and steel, or for that matter the heavier concretes, can
only be justified economically when space is restricted, or when pipes
containing heavy water have to be as short as possible.
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Figure 13-5
Materials 13-91
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Lubricants
CHAPTER 14
Lubricants
14.0 Lubricants:
There are basically two types of lubricants in common usage: oil, which is
always a liquid at operating temperature, and grease which is generally a solid.
Table 14-1 gives a comparision between the two types of lubricants.
Advantages of Grease Advantages of Oil

1. Maintenance may be reduced ; no oil 1. Oil is easier to drain and refill.
level to maintain, and regreasing is This is important if lubricating
infrequent intervals are close together
2. Proper grease quantity is easily 2. Use of oil makes it easier to

confined in housing which control the correct amount of
simplifies bearing design lubricant.
3. Freedom from leakage is important 3. Same lubricant may be used on

in food, textile and chemical other types of bearings on the
industries same machine
4. Improved efficiency of labyrinth 4. If bearing must operate under

enclosures gives better bearing high temperatures, conditions
protection favour oil,
Table 14-1. Comparative Advantages of Grease and Oil in Bearings
14.1 Oils:
The three general types of oil are as follows: (1) Mineral oils, which are the
most common type and are produced by refining petroleum crude; (2) Fixed
oils are produced from plants, such as castor shrub and rape seed, and animals.
These oils are generally used with mineral oils to improve the oiliness of the
resulting mixture; (3) Synthetic oils are man-made chemical compounds with
better properties than mineral oils. An example of a synthetic oil is phosphate
ester which will be used in the power control system at Bruce,. because of its
fire-resistant properties.
The properties of an oil may be divided into six main groups:
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Lubricants
1. Flow properties - viscosity, viscosity index, pour point

2. High temperature properties - volatility, thermal stability, evaporation
residue, decomposition products and residues.
3. Oxidation characteristics " inhibitor susceptibility / resistance to oxidation.
4. Hydrolysis - resistance to bases, acids, water or steam
5. Solubility - in water, in hydrocarbon solvents
6. Miscibility - how well it mixes with petroleum products.
Now that the properties of oils have been grouped let us examine the properties
in greater detail.
Viscosity - is basically a measure of the ability of an oil to resist shear stress or

in other words an oil of low viscosity flows more easily than an oil of high
viscosity. An oil's viscosity is its most important property, as it is this property
that ' most affects its load bearing capacity and the amount of internal heat
generated. Hence in deciding which oil to use for a particular application, the
viscosity must be high enough to maintain the required lubrication film, but
not so high that undue friction losses might occur. Fig 14-1 indicates how
viscosity is affected by various factors.
Viscosity Index - indicates how viscosity depends on temperature; thusan oil

of a high viscosity index will show little change in viscosity as temperature
varies. The V-I can be improved by the addition of a colloid.
Temperature Stability - is the ability of a lube oil to maintain its load bearing
capacity over the range of temperature variations under which it is likely to be
used. As the temperature increases an oil may begin to decompose into
carbonaceous and tarry products, especially if oxygen or metallic oxides are
present in the system.
Flash Point - is the temperature to which a lubricant must be heated before its
vapour, when mixed with air, will ignite but not continue to burn. At its fire
point a lubricant will keep on burning.
Temperature
Increasing temperature lowers oil viscosity. A high-viscosity oil can support a
heavy load, especially at low temperatures. High-viscosity oils also have more
internal friction.
Pressure
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Lubricants
Increasing pressure increases oil viscosity. However, this only becomes

important when pressures are in the neighborhood of many megapascals.
Load Capacity
Viscosity of an oil must be matched to the application. The oil must have
enough viscosity to handle the load, yet increasing the viscosity causes an
increase in fluid friction, which heats the oil and lowers the viscosity.
Shaft Speed
High speed means faster shearing of oil layers/ and more fluid friction. As
temperature goes up/ viscosity goes down to decrease load capacity. However,
a high speed helps to form a hydrodynamic wedge in bearings.
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Lubricants
Increasing temperature lowers oil viscosity, A high-

viscosity oil can support a heavy load, especially at low
temperatures. High-viscosity oils also have more internal
friction.
Increasing pressure increases oil viscosity. However, this

only becomes important when pressures are in the
neighborhood of many megapascals.
Viscosity of an oil must be matched to the application.

The oil must have enough viscosity to handle the load,
yet increasing the viscosity causes an increase in fluid
friction, which heats the oil and lowers the viscosity.
High speed means faster shearing of oil layers, and more

fluid friction. As temperature goes up, viscosity goes
down to decrease load capacity. However, an high speed
helps to form a hydrodynamic wedge in bearing.
Oil Viscosity Characteristics

Figure 14-1
Materials 14-95
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Lubricants
Pour Point - is the temperature at which an oil just barely flows, under certain
prescribed conditions. This quantity is important in refrigeration applications
or in any equipment which is intended for operation at low temperatures.
Oiliness - is the ability of a lube oil to cling to the surface of a material.

Usually a fixed oil is added to a mineral oil to increase its oiliness. This
property is of prime importance in thin film lubrication.
In addition to the above properties of an oily a number of additives are

available to enhance existing or add further properties to an oil. Some of the
more usual additives will be discussed below.
Anti-oxidants - deter the reaction of oxygen with oil and also inhibit the
catalytic action of metals upon the oil-oxygen reaction and hence extend the
useful life of the oil. If oxidation is not prevented, the oil will become acidic
and form sludges and may promote corrosion. The effect of heat, especially if
"hot spots" are present, on entrained air is primarly responsible for oxidation.
Detergents - aid in maintaining cleanliness in internal combustion engines. In

the crankcase the detergent keeps solids sus-pended in the oil so that they can
be filtered out elsewhere, while I in the area swept by the rings' the detergent
prevents sludge or lacquer from building up.
Rust Inhibitors - enable the oil to protect steel surfaces from rusting when in
contact with water or moist air within the oil circulating system. These
additives act by either forming an adsorbed film which prevents moisture from
making contact with the metal or by forming a surface coating by chemical
action.
Emulsifying Agents - are used to enable the oil to surround each particle of
water to prevent metal corrosion.
Demulsifiers - aid in the separation of an oil-water emulsion which is usually

caused by the presence of contaminants such as rus and sludge. An emulsion
can generally be broken by heating to 75°-100°C then allowing adequate
settling time. If water is allowed to accumulate in the circulating system it
may lead to the formation of an oil-water emulsion which may lead to oil
breakdown or corrosion or both.
Anti-foaming Agents - are used to prevent entrained air from being turned
into foam by turbulence in the system. Foam is undesirable because it can lead
to oxidation, interfere with heat transfer, cause spillage at vents as well as
creating difficulties in regulatory systems.
Materials 14-96
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Lubricants
14.2 Greases:
There are four types of grease in use: ie, water resistant, water soluble, multi-
purpose, and synthetics. Water resistant grease is generally used in low
temperature applications (below 80°c) since above this temperature the water
in the grease, which acts as a binder, evaporates allowing the oil to separate
and "bleed" 3Ut of the bearing leaving a sticky soap mass which can lead to
failure. These greases are usually made by cooking tallow or fatty acids with
lime and water thus forming the base or "soap',' then a definite amount of water
and oil are added to get the required emulsion of base and oil. The amount of
oil added determines the consistency of the grease.
Water soluble (soda based) greases are made from fatty acids, water and lube
oil, but caustic soda (Na0H) is used instead of lime. The main difference
between these greases and the calcium based (water resistant) greases lies in
the fact that the former are more nearly a chemical mixture of soap and oil and
don't depend entirely on water content to stay jelled. In general in soda based
greases a lower water content means a better products as excessive water
causes the grease to lose consistency. At low temperatures these greases
become stiff and hence cause high starting torques; also as they are water
soluble they cannot be used in contact with water or steam.
Multipurpose greases are so named because their worked and unworked

properties are similar. They are formed with a barium or lithium base
depending on the temperature they are to be used at. The barium base is
suitable for use at temperatures up to 200°c and beyond if regreasing is
frequent enough to remove by-products that will form at these elevated
temperatures, while the lithium base has a dropping point about 175 °C but its
low temperature characteristics are far better. The water resistance of a lithium
base grease is between a good soda-base grease and a calcium-base grease.
Because of their good properties it is often possible to meet all the grease
requirements of a large plant with one high quality lithium-base grease.
Synthetic greases are made from standard soaps with a synthetic lubricant
substituting for mineral oil or are made entirely from silicone. These greases
are produced in both water soluble and insoluble types of many consistencies
and most types have little or no effect on natural or synthetic rubber. Generally
silicone greases are highly resistant to water and oxidation as well as chemical
fumes. The synthetics are expensive but useful in applications where there is a
wide temperature variation , rapid oxidation or gumming.
Materials 14-97
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Lubricants
14.3 Solid Lubricants:

In certain solids the interatomic bonds are strong in two directions but weak in
the third, hence the material forms layers which can easily slide upon each
other. Among these solids are graphite and molybdenum disulphide.
Graphite is used in two forms: natural graphite, a mineral which is used as a

lubricant and conductor in electrical brushes and also may be used in a dry
form or mixed with solvents for use in such places as oil-less bearings;
colloidal graphite is manufactured in an electric furnace from anthracite coal
plus petroleum coke forming a soft greasy material, almost chemically pure,
then mixed with a solvent. This second form of graphite is good for high
temperature applications.
Molybdenum disulphide closely resembles graphite in appearance but has

twice the density of graphite. This substance starts to slowly oxidize at 400°C
but can be used at temperatures up to 565 °C at which it rapidly oxidizes.
Molybdenum disulphide is used in the machine tool industry for lubrication.
Materials 14-98
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Plastic, Rubber and Protective Coatings
CHAPTER 15
15.0 Plastics:
The definition given by the American Society for Testing Materials is that " a
plastic is a material that contains as an essential ingredient an organic*
substance of large molecular weight, is solid in its finished state, and at some
stage in its manufacture or in its processing into finished articles, can be
shaped by flow. What this means in English is that it is an organic polymer
which is or was moldable.
Plastics in fact usually consist principally of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and

nitrogen. The raw materials normally originate from petroleum and/or coal,
whence the monomers are extracted. The monomer is reacted either with itself
or with other monomers, usually under the influence of one or more of heat,
pressure or a catalyst. Perhaps the most widely known plastic is polyethylene,
which is made by reacting ethylene (a low boiling gas manufactured from
natural gas) with itself in the presence of heat, catalyst and high pressure:
n C2H —> (C2H4) n n typically 100-1000
ethylene polyethylene
(monomer) (polymer)
The properties of the plastic depend on the structure of its molecule. Most
polyethylene, for example, is flexible and quite soft and tough; this is due to
the fact that the molecules are for the most part long straight chains which are
not bonded to each other in very many places. Such "sideways-bonding"
(known as cross-linking) imparts hardness and higher softening point, but also
rigidity and brittleness. Increased cross-linking can be incorporated by
gamma, beta or neutron irradiation; this is done with polyethylene, for
example, to raise its softening point above the boiling point of water (eg for
kitchen utensils). One place where this versatile material is found in the Plant:
the high density concrete beams on either side of the hatches above the reactor
at NPD contain a layer of polyethylene to aid in neutron shielding. Besides the
shape of the
* An organic substance is considered to be any compound containing carbon

(with the exception of carbonate (CO3) and cyanide (CN) groups). Plastic
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molecules, the properties depend also on the nature of the chemical groups
found in the plastic.
The term "plastic" covers as wide a field as does "metal" ; there are, however,
two broad classifications:
1. Thermoplastic:
Thermoplastic describes plastics that may be softened by heat, and which upon
cooling regain their solid state, even if the process is repeated. Typical of this
group are polystyrenes, acrylics and vinyls (Table 1 in the Appendix).
2. Thermosetting:
Thermosetting describes plastics that solidify or set on heating and cannot be
remelted. In general, thermoset materia1 cannot be reshaped once they have
been fully cured. Typical of this group are the phenolics (bakelite)and epoxies.
(Appendix 2)
Plastics are light but for their weight are fairly strong. They can be shaped by
relatively simple means (such as die casting, pre"* extrusion). Compared to
other materials they have a wide range of colours, are adaptable to mass
production methods, have useful physic properties and excellent chemical
resistance. The overall cost is usually low.
Their primary disadvantage is susceptibility to heat. Most of the

thermoplastics are limited to about 150°C, and even at this temperature the
strength begins to deteriorate. Thermosetting plastics will eventually char or
even burn, and again when compared to metals have low strengths. The
strength problem can be overcome in some respects by fibre reinforcement.
Fibre reinforcement most commonly entails glass, because of the ease with
which long, strong fibres can be obtained. In fact/ fibres can be obtained
which match the tensile strength of the strongest steels. Glass fibre reinforced
plastics find extensive use in aviation.
An important application of plastics is as insulators. Whereas the atoms in a

piece of metal are held together by a Free-Flowing electron "sea", giving rise
to good electrical conductivity, a piece of plastic has no such mobile electrons.
All the electrons are held within the individual molecules (most of the valence
(outer shell) electrons are involved in covalent bonding)/ and cannot leave
____ unless of course the rated voltage is sufficiently exceeded. If this
happens, conduction (with some decomposition) can occur either across the
surface or through the bulk of the material.
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Believe it or not, plastics can be springy, especially when glass fibre reinforced
(Fibre glass re-wrote the pole vault record books). A most odd and valuable
property of many plastics and resins, in fact, is their behaviour under strain.
Unlike -metals, in which strain is induced in proportion to the stress applied,
plastics show a stress-strain relationship which depends on the rate at which
the stress is applied; moveover they deflect much more for a given load.
Research is continually working towards the development of better and better

plastics. Two excellent examples are duPont's Teflon and Kapton. The former
features almost universal chemical resistance while possessing the added
property that few things stick to it; the latter is good for continuous service at
temperatures up to 4000C, and shows an astonishing capacity to cope briefly
with far higher temperatures, red-heat and beyond.
15.1 Rubber composition:

Rubber was discovered by early Spanish explorers of America, and received its
name when it was used by an inspired individual to erase pencil marks.
Contrary to popular belief, its occurrence, rather than being limited to the
rubber tree, is widespread in the plant kingdom. It usually occurs as a colloidal
solution in a white fluid known as latex. (If "the milky" fluid from goldenrod
or dandelion is rubbed between the fingers, a little ball of rubber will result).
This latex is not the sap of the rubber tree. It occurs "in microscopic tubules
distributed throughout the plant and is obtained from those in the cortex layer
between the bark and the cambium layer," which roughly translated means that
although the latex is found in little tubular cells throughout the plant, we draw
it out from the layer between the bark and the layer containing the sap. It
contains 35% rubber. After tapping, it is usually diluted, coagulated, rolled into
sheets, and washed.
Rubber consists mainly of a hydrocarbon polymer, (C5H8)x; the monomeric

compound CSHB is called isoprene. The molecular weight of rubber
hydrocarbon is not definitively known; one investigation indicates a range of
50,000 to 3,000,000, with 60% of the molecules having molecular weights >
1,300,000.
15.2 Vulcanization:
Because there is little or no cross-linkage of the chains of the molecules,
rubber from the tree is thermoplastic and becomes soft and sticky on heating.
When cooled to low temperatures it becomes hard and brittle. These properties
were undesirable even in the • early use of rubber, which was chiefly for the
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waterproofing of textiles. And then one day in 1839 a New England inventor
by the * name of Charles Goodyear, in the course of trying to ameliorate the
rubber situation, accidently dropped one of his brews on a hot stove and
discovered what he called vulcanization.* Development of the process led to
the production of a material with much greater toughness and elasticity, and
one which withstood relatively high temperatures without softening and which
retained its elasticity and flexibility at low temperatures.
Vulcanization is a chemical reaction of the rubber hydrocarbon with sulfur: the

chains of rubber molecules are tied together by sulfur atoms giving a huge
cross-linked macro-molecule. So what does this accomplish? These (few)
cross-links that we introduce prevent the original rubber molecules from
slipping pass one another ie. plastic deformation cannot occur ? the paucity of
the cross-links,! however, does permit the original molecules to be aligned and
elongated to a considerable extent by stretching ______ the stuff is now elastic.
When the tension is removed, the molecules spring back to the original
alignment. Pictorially the situation is as follows:
Figure 15-1
Commercial rubber is either low in sulfur (1-3%) for soft rubber, on high in
sulfur (23-35%) for hard rubber or ebonite. Rubbers containing intermediate
amounts are useless. Why?
• Although he (to an extent) fluked this one, he was genuinely talented. He

ended up with over 60 patents and many bestowed honours, although he
was kept in poverty by infringements of his patents.
Materials 15-102
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15.3 Bits and Pieces:

(a) One of the outstanding developments in the rubber industry has been
the use of anti-oxidants to prolong the life of rubber articles. The aging
of rubber is due to reaction with oxygen. The net result chemically is
that the macro-molecules get chopped up somewhat; the lower
molecular weight is manifested in reduced elasticity and tensile
strength, and eventually crumbliness and even stickiness. Other
additives include carbon black and "carbon white" (finely divided
silica) to increase stiffness and tear and abrasion resistance, fillers to
reduce cost where strength is not important, and softeners such as pine
oil.
(b) Rubber articles are usually formed in either of the following two ways:
(i) The ingredients are compounded on a rolling mill, after which

the sheeted material is used to line molds which are then
subjected to heat and pressure.
(ii) The additives are simply mixed into the latex, after which the
articles are shaped by gelation on a mold and then vulcanized.
(c) Did you know that those old, worn-out, non-recappable, fabric-filled,
insoluble-in-everything tires are reclaimable? It is done on a large
scale. The tire is shredded and stewed in dilute caustic soda at 180-
200°C; this softens the rubber and disintegrates the fabric. Pine oil is
added and after straining, the mixture is pressed into sheets. This
reclaimed rubber can be revulcanized, and costs only a fourth to a third
as much as natural rubber. Most rubber articles contain some reclaim.
(d) Two other naturally occurring rubber-like materials are gutta-percha

and balata. Their hydrocarbons are indentical to each other and have
the same chemical composition of rubber. The atoms are arranged
somewhat differently, however, with the result that these two are hard
at room temperature. One vitally important application is in the
manufacture of golf balls. Chicle is a resin containing polyisoprenes
along with carbohydrates. Its chief use is in the manufacture of, you
guessed it, chewing gum.
(e) There is such a thing as synthetic rubber, but it was slow in coming
because it costs more than natural rubber, and for most uses its
properties have been inferior. Two products which emerged after
World War I are Buna rubber (European) and Neoprene (American).
Because of the loss the East Indies and Malay Peninsula during World
Materials 15-103
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War 11, great impetus was given the synthetic rubber industry in the
United States, with the result that the synthetic product is now firmly
established. Although a synthetic true rubber is unknown, many
different synthetic products are made, each of which has its own
desirable characteristics that frequently are superior to those of natural
rubber. The synthetics produced in largest amounts are manufacture
from butadiene (C4He), which in turn is made from alcohol petroleum
or acetylene. The butadiene is usually co-poly-merized with another
compound, such as styrene. Neoprene is a good general purpose
rubber, but its relatively high cost of manufacture has limited its use to
those applications that require its unique properties, such as resistance
to oil, chemicals, air, light and heat.
15.4 Protective Coatings:

Everybody knows of the word "unsaturated" being used to describe fats and
vegetable oils. What it refers to can most simply be described as latent or
unused reactivity*. A fully saturated fat has I no unused reactivity. In the
body, this latent reactivity aids in the breaking up of the otherwise nearly inert
molecules, thus reducing accumulation of body fat (and cholesterol). This
same unsaturation, if present to at least a moderate degree, enables a thin layer
of a vegetable oil to react with the oxygen of the air, and polymerize somewhat
to become a solid, ie. a dry film. Although linseed oil is the classic example,
many edible oils can "dry" in this way___if you happen to be using one of
these in the kitchen and the bottle has been around for quite a while, chances
are it will have a visible dried film on the outside, or at least be sticky Such an
oil is called a drying oil. Mineral (e.g. lubricating) oils do not possess this
property. Table 1 below lists some common vegetable oils in order of
increasing unsaturation. The division into the three categories is somewhat
arbitrary; the semi-drying oils leave a more or less tacky film.
Table 1 Order of Drying Ability of Some Common Vegetable Oils
Non- 1. Olive
Drying 2. Castor
* Chemically described, unsaturation refers here to covalent bonds involving

more than one pair of electrons per carbon-carbon bond.
Materials 15-104
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Non- 3. peanut
Drying 4. Rape
Semi- 5. cottonseed
Drying 6. sesame
7. corn
8. sunflower
Drying 9. soybean
10. linseed
"Boiled" linseed oil, which was used a lot in the olden days, is really just
ordinary linseed oil to which driers have been added. Driers are metallic salts
of organic acids;* they catalytically accelerate the reaction with atmospheric
oxygen.
Varnish is a mixture of drying oil, thinner and rosin (pine tree resin). The
thinner is called mineral spirits and is what you get when you buy "paint
thinner" or "solvent". It is essentially identical to kerosene, solvent naphtha
and coal oil, and turpentine may be substituted for them. The drying of varnish
then, entails first the evaporation of the solvent (giving the tacky stage),
followed by oxidative curing of the remaining film. The dried film from
drying oils will not dissolve in anything, so if you forgot to clean your brush,
heave it in the garbage. The rosin imparts hardness and high gloss to the film;
it may be replaced by natural or synthetic resins. There are basically two
categories of varnish: indoors and outdoors. The former features better
resistance to abrasion, while the latter can better withstand sunlight. One
component (poly) urethane is a modern synthetic indoors varnish (requires
only paint thinner for cleanup).
Paint is a mixture of drying oil, pigment, thinner (again mineral spirits), and
driers• The pigment (very finely ground after blending) provides colour and
covering power; it is normally either a metallic oxide (Ti02 for white) or salt,
or an organic dye. The latter provide most of the bright colours, but are rarely
colour-fast to sunlight. The drying oil is called the vehicle because after dry-
ing it holds the pigment. Modern paint vehicles now contain, or are entirely
composed of, alkyd resins, which are synthesized from medium molecular
weight polyhydric alcohols and unsaturated acids. The alkyds dry much faster
and may give superior films.
Materials 15-105
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Oridinary paint is manufactured in three classifications of gloss: the shiniest is

called "enamel", the dullest is "flat", while the one in between is "semi-gloss".
The difference is achieved by loading up the paint with what is called an inert,
or extender.
• usually naphthenates of Co, Mn, Pb, Ca

** more than one OH group per molecule
This is a finely-divided inorganic compound, usually magnesium sil; (talc),

which disrupts the otherwise smooth film of the vehicle, ir addition to its virtue
of being cheap.
Specialty paints include primers, which are used as undercoats when painting
new metal (to minimize corrosion); stains, which are essentially ordinary paint
thinned way down to penetrate new wood well to colour it; latex, a finely-
dispersed emulsion of paint in v (the droplets are so small that they can be seen
only under a microscope), which permits water thinning and clean-up of the
undried material; expensive two-component protective coatings such as
epoxies, polyurethanes and polyesters/ which feature superb adhesion and/or
resistance to abrasion, acid, caustic and/or solvents.
All of the coatings discussed so far produce dried films which will not
dissolve in anything. The only way to remove these dried films is by scraping
or sanding. The commercial paint removers can greatly aid scraping; they do
this by loosening and wrinkling the old film.
Shellac and Lacquer differ from all the proceeding coatings in one basic
respect: they dry by evaporation only; there is no oxidation or polymerization
of the remaining film. This means that the dried film can be removed from
equipment, and the coated article itself, by a simple dissolving action. Shellac,
not used much any more is a solution of a resin called lac* in alcohol (methyl
hydrate at the hardware store). It is orange-brown in colour, used for coating
wood.
Lacquer in theory takes in any protective coating which dries by evaporation

only, but by far the most widely used lacquer is that based on nitrocellulose,
which is made by treating cotton with a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids.
The lacquer, which often contains pigment, consists of the nitrocellulose
dissolved in a mixture of low and medium molecular weight esters (eg.butyl
acetate) and/or ketones (eg. acetone), alcohol, and toluene, along with a
placticizer to give flexibility to the film. The solvent mixture comprises
"lacquer thinner," which must be used for thinning and clean-up.
* secreted on trees by certain insects in Southern Asia.
Materials 15-106
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APPENDIX
Table 1
Term Features Some Trade Name
ABS* Excellent toughness Kralastic-Naugaturc
Acetal Extremely riged Kralastic-Naugatuck

Acetates Tough, hard, easily Chemical Division Delrin-Dupont
Coloured Lumarith-Celances Plastacele-
Depont
Vuepak-Monsanto
Butyrates Tough, good weather-ability Tenite Butyrate-Eest-man
No odor, stable, bright finish

Cellulose propionate Forticel-Celances
Tough, hard surface, inflammable
Cellulose nitrate Tough, stands hard treatment Nixon C/N-Nixon Nit-ration

Herculoid-Hercules Powder
Ethyl cellulose Highly chemical resistant Hercocel E-Hercules powder

Nixon E/C-Nixon Nit-ration
Strong and extra temperature
Fluorocarbon High impact strength Teflon-Dupont
Polyamides (nylon) Excellent chemical resistance Zytel-Dupont
Light weight and squeezable Lexan-General Electric

Polycarbonate
Light weight, un-usual chemical
Polyether (chlorinated) Penton-Hercules
Brilliant, rigid colorful
Polyethylene Polyeth-Spencer
Versatile, multipurpose, colourful Alathon-Dupont
Polypropylene Escon-Humble Oil
Polystyrene Styron-Dow
Lustrex-Monsanto
Vinyls Exon-Firestone
Marvinol-Naugatuck
* Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene
Materials 15-107
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Table 2
Term Features Some Trade Name

Alkyds Good electrical properties Plaskon-Allied
Allyls Low electrical loss Dapon-FMC Corp
Caseins Good colour range Cascoloid-Borden
Epoxies Excellent adhesion Epon-Shell Chemical
Melamines Strong and light-fast Melmac-Americal Cyanamid
Phenolics Hard, rigid, strong Resinox-Monsanto
Polyesters Tough hard surface Mylar-Dupont
Silicones Resistant to 590 F Silastic-Dow Corning
Ureas Colourful, dimensionally stable Lauxite-Monsanto
Urethanes Tough, tear resistant Mondeur-Mobay Chemical
Materials 15-108
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Adhesives
CHAPTER 16
Adhesives
16.0 Adhesives:
An adhesive is a substance applied as a thin intermediate layer which is capable of
holding materials together in a useful manner by surface attachment. Two basic
but important facts about adhesive materials are:
1. An adhesive does not perform its function independently of its environment

or context of use.
2. An adhesive does not exist which will bond anything to anything with equal
utility.
In other words, adhesives influence and are influenced by the materials with
which they come in contact. For this reason it is virtually impossible to compile a
selection guide. These would at best remove grossly unsuitable materials from
consideration or at worst they could be misleading. Table 1 (appendix) lists
general comments which may be useful as a preliminary guide.
16.1 Principles of Adhesion:

Chemically adhesives are with few exceptions derived from* materials which
contain carbon and other elements in combination. These are what are known as
organic compounds, examples of which are gasoline, alcohols and all living
organisms.
Although not usually used as an adhesive, ethylene (C2H4) can be used

to illustrate how the bonding works. Structurally it can be represented as H
H and this is called a monomer.
1 1
C = C
1 1
H H
Since in this form it exists independently. When linked with others in a chain,
these molecules are called Polymers.
H H H H
1 1 1 1
C C C C
1 1 1 1
H H H H
Materials 16-109
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Adhesives
• One inorganic adhesive is silicate of soda-the solution is called waterglass.
Now if the hydrogen atoms are removed there will be bonds available for
adhesion. This can be visualized as:
Figure 16-1
It is the primary bonds which link the monomer into chains, while the secondary
bonds provide the adhesive force by linking the polymer chains and ultimately the
adherents. This type of bonding is termed specific adhesion, that is, it is
essentially chemical in nature.(molecular forces)
The second type of adhesion is mechanical. This occurs where porous, penetrable
surfaces are involved, such as wood, paper "and cloth, and as a result the adhesive
is able to enter crevices of the material and flow around fibres to provide an
effective mechanical anchorage.
16.2 Functions:
In many situations/ adhesives are more practical or essential than conventional
bonding. A glued joint produces a distributed stress over the whole adhesive and
thus eliminates the local stress concentration attendant upon screws, rivets, spot
welds etc. For example, adhesives can join thin metal sections to thick sections so
that the full strength of the thin section is utilized. Conventional mechanical
fastening or spot welding produces a structure whose strength is limited to that of
the areas of the thin section in contact with the fasteners or the welds.
Some applications such as bonded honeycomb structures rely exclusively on

adhesives the thin metal facings could not be bonded to the core without them.
Materials 16-110
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Adhesives
16.3 Sealing and insulating:

Since the adhesive provides full contact with mating surfaces of the joint, it forms
a barrier to fluids which do not attack or soften it. This property is used to
advantage in nuclear operations At Pickering G.S. a fill (thiokol) is used as a
semi-permanent seal and fill above the steel wedge in the seal plate of the boiler
room hatch, (Figure 16-2).
Figure 16-2
This fill effectively prevents any movement of the wedge as well as completing
the seal.
Further use of thiokol is made in the other hatch covers. A clearance space is
allowed between adjacent covers to permit easier handling, and when they are
closed the space is filled to provide continuity.
16.4 Other uses:

Bonded joints can serve as insulation, damp out sound and vibration, and
minimize contact corrosion in metals. Their smooth appearance can also be an
aesthetic advantage.
There are disadvantages of bonded structures which have limited their use in
engineering. These include the need for long processing times for curing and the
dependence of joint durability on the quality of the bonding process. As well, they
have limited resistance to extreme temperatures and humidities. The need for
special joint design to prevent cleavage is another. very important factor and this
is outlined in the appendix.
Materials 16-111
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Adhesives
16.5 Chemical forms:

Adhesives are available as liquid, paste or dry, but they can be further classified
as solutions or emulsions depending on their behaviour with water. In a solution,
the polymeric molecules are "water-loving', that is, they are very soluble in water
as are suqar and salt. In emulsions on the other hand, the molecular chains are
"water-hating". The particles do not dissolve in water but disperse discretely as
droplets. They are usually very sticky and will attach themselves to many
surfaces or bunch together unless a buffer is placed between them and the water.
The buffers are "water-loving" and are called emulsion agents.
16.6 Types of Adhesives:

Many kinds of adhesives are being used, depending largely on the type of
materials being bonded and also on the service conditions of the bonded
assembly. Something like 5000 products are available today, based on 200 basic
polymers, which precludes any intensive study at this stage. However, the most
widely used ones can be grouped under a few broad headings.
Adhesives are classed as Thermoplastic or Thermosetting depending on whether

they do or do not revert to a fluid state upon application of heat. Thermoplastic
adhesives (also plastics) have this property while thermosetting ones are
insensitive to heat once they have been subjected to heat treatment or to some
agent -which- promotes the development of polymers.*
For Engineering applications the majority of structural adhesives are of the

thermosetting type, cured under heat and pressure. Epoxies and their
modifications find the widest use for bonding metals, because they do not contain
solvents and are true liquids Single component epoxy resins have become
available in the last few years as liquids or films which avoid the need for critical
premixing of resin and simplified processing. Epoxy adhesives with good gap
filling properties are used for bonding pumps, compressors and cast-iron casings
with significant saving in weight and design complexity. Some have good
resistance to radiation and for this reason are used in nuclear operation. This was
vital in the decision to line (waterproof) the spent fuel bays at Pickering G.S. with
epoxy.
Thermoplastics, which soften with heat, give considerably lower strengths than
the thermosetting types, but nevertheless are used where lower joint strengths are
acceptable. These tend to be sticky and are the most common in packaging, eg.
resin type emulsions.
• This classification is not absolute, for some adhesives are mixtures of

polymers and possess thermal characteristics of both.
Materials 16-112
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Adhesives
With the exception of silicones and fluorocarbons (Teflon), all known

thermosetting and thermoplastic resins are degraded below 400°C, the higher
breakdown temperature corresponding to a more rigid chain structure. However,
the useful temperature range of a Polymer adhesive is difficult to ascertain, since
many changes can occur below the breakdown temperature. Thus, a Polymer can
undergo chemical modification, irreversible decomposition, molecular
rearrangement or reversible melting or softening.
Ceramic adhesives, made from boric acid, silica and ferric oxide, appear to offer
an answer to the high temperature problem. Up to 5500C, strength increases with
temperature but there are serious shortcomings. Attempts to overcome their
inherent brittleness have failed. Thermal shock resistance is poor even though
their heat and oxidation resistance is better than that of organics.
Some adhesives have unique cure mechanisms. Anaerobic adhesives are one of
the most recent developments. These polymerize in the absence of oxygen, under
the catalytic influence of metals. Thus the monomer is able to polymerize to form
a tough resilient bond when confined between closely fitting parts such as on
threads of a nut and bolt. The LOCTITE products are the best known example of
this type which can be formulated to give various viscosities, setting times and
shear strengths, and bond all common metals, glass, ceramics and phenolic
plastics. The best have shear strengths up to 10 MN/m2 while-still others can be
used in 20 minutes. Recently developed special grades will stand up to 200°C;
above 250°C the materials soften, which may be useful for dismantling the joints.
16.7 Hot melts:

Since they are based on thermoplastics, hot melts are temperature dependent
adhesives and thus achieve their strength by cooling. Unlike other adhesives, they
do not depend on chemical action or solvent to effect the setting, which occurs
within seconds or minutes of application. As a result, they are of considerable im-
portance in mass-production industries such as paper and packaging, where speed,
simplicity and mechanization are vital. They are also "water-hating" which means
they show excellent moisture resistance, but problems can arise because of their
limited toughness or low melt temperature (65oc to 1800C).
Animal Glue, used since Egyptian times, is basically a derivative of hide and
bones. It is similar to a jelly and extra-refined grades are in, fact edible Gelatin. It
approaches an all purpose glue, and as a bench glue for general purposes it is
unsurpassed. For optimum results it should be applied at 60°C, as it is a fluid at
this temperature. It also has a rapid handling bond because of the fast initial set.
Materials 16-113
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Adhesives
Table -1
Type Source Form Remarks
Vegetable Starches of corn dry (flour) low cost-not resistant to humidity or

Potatoes, tapioca moisture
Casein Milk Powder water resistant plywood where exposure is
not extreme. Also, good resistance to heat.
Urea Synthenic resin Powder or Shorter curing cycle & temperature required
based on carbon liquid than phenolics but reduced ultimate
dioxide (C02) & durability. Excellent under normal exposure.
(NH3) ammonia
Resorcinol Synthetic-resin of Liquid Excellent for laminated lumber and joints
phenolic type subject to severe exposure such as marine
conditions.
Blood dried blood Power Since it is cheap it is a good modifying &
Albumin extending agent in resin adhesives to regulate
spread & flow. Also to shorten hot press
cycles.
Silicate of sand & soda ash solid or Extender for other glues such as soybean.
soda liquid Corrugated fibre or paper packages.
Lacquer many liquid moisture resistant used when water-
(organic) containing adhesives are ruled out.
solvents
used
Rubber Natural or liquid "Dry-Tack" adhesives and self-seal
Synthetic envelopes & shirt bands.
compounds
16.8 Others:
There are many other types of adhesives, some of which have very specialized
uses owing to their characteristic properties or economies. Elastomers, for
example, are used when high peel strengths are required. Soybean glues, on the
other hand, are particulary suited to Douglas Firs and are used almost exclusively
for these and associated species. These and others are summarized in table 1 and
tables 1 and 2 of the Appendix
16.9 Tapes:
Pressure sensitive tapes consist of materials (backings) with permanently tacky
adhesives bonded to them. They adhere to a variety of surfaces, and require only
light pressure. (Figure.16-3) A brief summary is given here because of their
omnipresence in industry.
Materials 16-114
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Adhesives
Table – 2
Tape type Remarks
1. Paper tapes masking tape etc. - varying properties

2. Cellophane Transparent, tough, strong.
3. Cellulose acetate Clean, strong, better humidity resistance
but not as tough as cellophane
4. Polyester and Polyvinyl High tensile strength, toughness, moisture

resistance, and durability
expensive
Electrical tape
5. Polyethylene High tensile strength, low temp. flex-
ibility, resistant to most solvents, low
moisture transmission
6. TFE fluorocarbon High heat & chemical resistance
7. Cloth tapes Able to "breathe" - good toughness, tear
resistance and conformability
8. Metal foil Aluminium, copper & lead are common
Resistant to moisture & weathering
Copper has good electrical conductivity
Lead blocks nuclear radiation & x-rays
Materials 16-115
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Adhesives
Figure 16-3
16.10 End Use Requirements:

The ultimate strength of an adhesive is as dependent upon the service conditions
such as temperature, humidity and water as it is on the adhesive itself. The
temperature which the bond is subjected to in use is just as important as that under
which it tool place. (see appendix) Recall that the condition of thermoplastics is
temperature dependent, and that permanent damage can be done to thermosets if
their design temperatures are exceeded. For this reason maximum temperature
should always be noted before use. Some of these are given in table 2 of the
appendix.
Since a large percentage of adhesives cure by losing entrained water many may be
remoistened and consequently weakened under high humidity conditions. Water
resistance may be a useful property, as is the case with beer bottle labels. These
however may not be humidity resistant and may fail when exposed to 80 or 90
percent relative humidity.
Properties such as solvent, shock and oil resistance may also be incorporated into
the final product.
16.11 Conclusion:
The use of adhesives requires a good deal of common sense, especially in
sensitive industries such as nuclear plants. In many instances a patch up job could
be done with an adhesive but this may not be desired. For example, if a nut is
loose it can normally be secured with Loctite, but this would probably constitute a
misuse. If a precision fit was designed for, an adhesive should not be used as a
solution for poor workmanship; rather, only when it is designed as an integral part
of a structure , such as in plywood, waterproofing, etc.
Materials 16-116
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Radiation Damage
CHAPTER 17
Radiation Damage
17.0 Radiation damage:

When we say radiation, we mean either neutrons, or alpha, beta r gamma rays.
These radiations can interact with the nuclei in material or the electrons around
them; when this happens, radiation damage may result. First let's take a general
look at what appends when these radiations do their interacting; this will be
followed by a brief look at the separate behavior of covalent, ionic and metallic
bonds on irradiation. Finally, short descriptions of the damage experienced by
specific materials will be presented.
17.1 Types of Radiation:

Fast neutrons lose energy by colliding with nuclei. A nucleus thus clobbered
takes off at high speed, and some of its electrons re stripped off as the atom
passes by neighboring ones. The result is a high speed charged ion passing
through the material. The damage resulting from fast neutron irradiation is
actually caused by atoms knocked out of position by the neutrons. As might e
expected, the more energy the neutrons have, the greater will e the resultant
damage, both by electron ionization and atomic displacement effects.
How fast are fast. neutrons? We measure their energies in units called electron
volts.* Fission neutrons start out typically at a couple of million e.v., whereas
room temperature molecules have energies only a fraction of an electron volt.
Thermal neutrons are so called because they are in thermal equilibrium with
their surroundings; i.e. they have the same kinetic energy, or temperature, as
the (for example) heavy water in which they are bouncing around. This kinetic
energy is about a fortieth of an electron volt in the moderator.
Thermal neutrons therefore cannot cause any damage on collision with atoms
of the medium. We get an effect only when the thermal neutron is captured by
a nucleus. In some cases the addition of a neutron does not change the identity
of the element, e.g., most neutron captures by iron atoms result in just a
heavier stable iron atom.
* Defined as the energy gained by an electron when accelerated through a

potential difference of one volt.
Materials 17-117
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Radiation Damage
On the other hand, capture by aluminum results in the eventual formation of

silicon. About 0.4% of the aluminum at the centre of the NRX reactor is
transformed to silicon in 10 years. When a thermal neutron is captured, the
newly formed nucleus is in an excited (higher energy) state, and gives off its
excess energy as a gamma photon. This photon is usually very energetic (6-7
Mev), with the result that the emitting nucleus recoils. On recoiling it is usually
displaced from its position.
To summarize neutrons, then: fast neutrons can cause a great number of

ionizing effects and cause a large number of atoms to be displaced, whereas a
thermal neutron can cause only one atom to be displaced, which may or may
not be concomitant with the formation of an impurity atom.
Gamma rays for the most part interact only with electrons, and thereby produce
ionization. (Interactions with nuclei causing ejection of neutrons and other
particles are not of importance in engineering design). The fast electrons
resulting from the incident gamma rays cause damage by gamma radiation.
Beta radiation (electrons) entails charged particles, which are Very light.
Damage is caused only by interaction with the orbital electrons of the atoms in
the material - ionization is the result. Beta radiation ranges anywhere from a
few thousand e.v. to ten or more Mev. Since each ion pair* formed requires
25-35ev, a 1 Mev beta particle can cause substantial ionization.
Unlike neutrons and gamma rays, beta particles have very limited power of
penetration. They can at best penetrate 10-15mm. of water or body tissue,
while the feeble ones (e.g. from tritium) cannot even penetrate a piece of
paper. Alpha particles have so little penetration power they are not a factor in
radiation damage to materials.
It should be pointed out that none of the above radiations occurs alone.
Thermal neutrons when captured give rise to what are called capture gamma
rays (they are emitted by the target nucleus, and have energies in the
neighborhood of 7 Mev.) The new nucleus often decays later on by emitting a
beta particle and/or a gamma photon. Fast neutrons (a result of fission) are
accompanied by gamma rays; some slow down to thermal neutrons.
Incidentally, it is worth knowing that only neutrons can make a material
radioactive.
• When an electron is removed from an atom, it (which is negatively

charged) along with the remaining positively charged atom constitute an
ion pair.
Materials 17-118
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Radiation Damage
17.2 Effects of Radiation on the Bond Types:
Covalent bonds as you recall, entail atoms being held together by the sharing
of electron pairs. Since this bond does depend on the sharing of electrons,
ionizing radiation (which causes electrons to become separated from their
atoms) destroys it. Ionizing radiation causes disintegration of the original
molecules and the formation of new and different ones, i.e., and chemical
change. Organic compounds contain almost exclusively covalent bonding.
Ionic bonds entail cations and anions being held together in a crystal lattice by
electrostatic attraction only; all electrons in the compound are held in their
orbits around particular atoms. ionizing radiation is not nearly so destructive to
an ionic bond as to a covalent one. In the case of NaCl (table salt), ionization
can result in Na or a neutral Cl atom (loss of an electron from Na or Cl )
without causing the atoms to move out of their positions. The displaced
electron may eventually find its way to another electron deficient site and there
is no net damage. On the other hand, the electron may become trapped in a
lattice imperfection and we get what is called an F centre.* This has little effect
on the strength of a material, but can change its color. For example, glass is
quite resistant insofar as its structural properties are concerned, but it soon
turns-black-when exposed to ionizing radiation.
In molecules with ionic bonding all the available electron sites are filled, so
that there normally can be very little electron movement from site to site. They
are thus good electrical insulators. However, since radiation causes electron
migration, the resistively of these materials is reduced during irradiation. The
majority of inorganic materials, other than metals, exhibit ionic bonding.
Metallic bonding entails the atoms in a piece of metal being held together by
an electron sea. The electrons in the sea are mobile; they do not belong to
particular atoms. All of the possible electronic sites are not filled; the electrons
are free to move from site to site. Ionizing radiation, therefore, which interacts
only with electrons, will not have any effect on this type of material. However,
fast neutrons can have a serious effect by knocking the metal atoms out of
position, forming vacancies and interstitials.
* From Farbe, the German word for color
17.3 Effects of Radiation on Materials:

Oils suffer increase in viscosity as a result of cross-linking, which takes place
after bonds have been ruptured. The damage is caused by both neutrons and
ionizing radiation. The amount of viscosity increase depends on the
Materials 17-119
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Radiation Damage
composition of the particular oil; the more vulnerable types can actually
solidify. In general, oils of high viscosity are more sensitive. In any event, the
tendency is to form gummy, tar-like polymers, which can restrict the flow of
lubricant.
Greases of the soap-oil type can rapidly become fluid. Hydrocarbon mineral
oils can be considered, however, a relatively radiation-resistant class of
materials. Exposure to air during irradiation accelerates oxidation, and reduces
threshold and limiting dosages by about a factor of 2. Additives can be very
helpful in limiting radiation-induced oxidation and other damage.
Polymers (plastics) undergo drastic changes under the influence of radiation,

since the bond arrangement can be extensively changed when the bonds broken
by the radiation come together. They need not join in the same structure as
before breaking. Figure 17-1 shows the relative effect of radiation on various
polymeric materials *
Fragmentation into shorter chains may occur. This will result in a polymer that
is much softer and weaker than the original material, perhaps even liquid.
Some production of gas can also occur (mostly hydrogen and methane); this
can cause swelling.
New bonds may be made to make new polymers that are larger or have new
arrangements. These will also have new properties, such as altered tensile
strength.
Materials 17-120
Version (1.0)
Radiation Damage
Effect of Radiation on Polymeric Materials

Figure 17-1
Materials 17-121
Version (1.0)
Radiation Damage
Cross-linking may occur, resulting in less freedom of movement for the indivi-
dual chains/ and thus a more rigid and brittle polymer.
Paints contain polymers; they will tend to get brittle and flake away, "talus'"
failing in their task as a protective coating. Electrical insulations are polymers;
they will also get brittle and crack, leading to the hazard of electrical short-
circuits. All plastic parts chosen for their mechanical properties will fail in
time, thus great care must be taken when choosing the materials used in
radiation fields.
All polymers undergo change when exposed to radiation. Some are more
resistant to radiation than others, but they all suffer radiolytic damage. This
need not always be bad. Polyethylene, (as normally produced) softens below
the boiling point of water. Under the influence of a small dose of radiation, a
degree of cross-linking can be added that raises this softening point above the
boiling point of water. The wide use of polyethylene in kitchen utensils is a
result of this radiation induced "damage".
Ion-exchange resins are polymers based on polystyrene. They will also be

subjected to radiolytic breakdown. The resins in the active water systems
remove radioactive corrosion products and fission products from the water.
These radionuclides will deposit much of their energy within the resin bed,
leading to its destruction. At the present time, the active resins are not
regenerated, but are discarded (i.e., buried). It is felt that a combination of the
radiolytic damage* and the added effort of regenerating active resins makes
discarding the resins a more profitable procedure than regenerating them.
• Which in addition might result in the release of traces of corrosive chloride

from the resin into the system.
Materials 17-122
Version (1.0)
Radiation Damage
The molecules in elastomers (the generic name for rubber-like substances) are
long strings of atoms. Their properties depend on a fine balance between
inherent freedom of motion of the chain and the degree of cross-linking
between the chains. Of the rubbers, natural is more resistant to radiation
damage than the synthetics. The tensile strength of all is reduced, but the effect
on hardness depends on the material (natural rubber, for instance, gets harder;
butyl rubber softens).
The effects of radiation on graphite have been studied in detail. ionizing

radiation has little effect on it. (Why not?). When its atoms are displaced by
fast neutrons, however, the energy of the crystal lattice is increased. If the
graphite is heated, these dislocations anneal out that is, the carbon atoms fall
back into their correct positions. As this happens, the excess energy that went
into displacing the atoms is released as heat. Careful control must be exercized
during the annealing process to prevent overheating the graphite, as happened
to the Windscale reactor in the UK. Radiation causes dimensional changes and
an increase in resistively of the graphite.
The effect of radiation on concrete was dealt with briefly at the end of the
lesson covering this material. The results manifest themselves as heat damage,
namely spalling and internal stresses.
Damage to electrical properties of electronic circuit components can be

serious. In many cases electrical property changes set in before other damage is
apparent. Semiconductors are a good example. These materials depend on a
very critical number of current carriers (available electrons) for their particular
electrical properties. Damage to such items as crystal diodes, transistors and
dry rectifiers consists of changes in conductivity, which for components such
as these can mean game over. Degradation of components containing ceramic
materials also consists of changes in electrical properties before physical
deterioration. The resistively of these materials can drop by a factor of 10 to
100; in general, however, they can take 10-100 times the radiation that organic
insulators will withstand.
Careful selection of components will lead to longer circuit life in radiation

fields. Wire-wound and metallized resistors on ceramic bases will experience
less than a 10% change in resistance at doses up to ten times those which cause
resin-bonded carbon resistors to fail (because of failure of the resin). Ceramic,
glass or mica capacitors with a body of inorganic material will show little
damage after 1000 times the dose that will put an oil-filled capacitor out of
service.
Materials 17-123
Version (1.0)
Radiation Damage
Finally, metals. As stated a few pages ago, ionizing radiation has no effect
(Why not?). To understand why the strength and hardness of metals increase
while ductility decreases as a result of neutron irradiation, it is necessary to
consider the ways in which high-energy particles damage the crystal structure.
Neutron radiation creates three types of simple defects in the crystal lattice:
vacancies/ interstitials, and impurity atoms.
Vacancies may be created by collisions of neutrons with the atoms in a solid

lattice—they are uninhabited sites in the crystal lattice. The energy transferred
in these collisions is generally large enough to allow the thumped atom* to
produce additional vacant lattice sites by further collisions. Thus for each
initial neutron-atom encounter, a cascade of collisions resulting in vacancies
can be initiated.
Figure 17-2
Materials 17-124
Version (1.0)
Radiation Damage
The atoms displaced from their equilibrium (initial) positions in the lattice will
stop in non-equilibrium (incorrect) positions, unless they immediately
recombine with adjacent vacant lattice sites. Such atoms are called interstitials.
The energy required to knock an atom out of its equilibrium lattice site is of the
order of 2 5ev. Thermal neutrons have an energy of about {oev, and it is
normal in considering radiation damage to consider only fast neutrons, with an
energy of 1 Mev or higher in fact, as effective in causing this type of damage.
Impurity atoms come about through neutron capture followed by radioactive

decay. The number introduced is generally small, and in reactor applications
may normally be ignored in relation to other damage effects.
How about a summarizing paragraph: The damage produced by irradiation

depends markedly on the type of radiation involved. Gamma rays and charged
particles (alpha, beta) lose most of their energy by removing electrons from the
inner shells of the atoms in the metal, or by exciting the free electrons.
Because these effects are rapidly removed by the electron sea, they are not
expected to produce a permanent effect. Neutrons, on the other hand, act
directly with the nuclei of the metal atoms, causing ejection from the lattice
site.
These initially energetic atoms behave like any other charged particle
radiation. Most of the energy will be dissipated by ionization, or excitation of
free electrons, until their velocities are reduced below that of these electrons.
The remaining energy will be dissipated by collisions with other atoms; each
encounter will result in a displacement if the energy transferred exceeds 25ev.
After the energy of the moving atoms becomes less than about 50ev, they
cannot displace further atoms without themselves remaining in the lattice
position—- i.e., no further displacements occur. This means that the last 50ev
or so of each knock-on atom is dissipated by hitting other atoms without
displacing them permanently; this heats the lattice. The local hot spot formed is
called a thermal spike. A schematic diagram of how neutrons can cause
ionization,vacancies, interstitials, impurity atoms and thermal spikes is
presented as Figure 17-3.
Except at very low temperatures, vacancies and interstitials can rearrange

themselves. Some close pairs will annihilate each other, while others move to
surfaces or become associated with lattice imperfections. Still others will
combine to form clusters of defects. It is generally considered that the defect
clusters, by forming barriers to slip, are the primary causes of the radiation
induced changes in the mechanical properties of metals.
Materials 17-125
Version (1.0)
Radiation Damage
Some specifics for two important metals will now be thrown at you. Neutron
irradiation of plain carbon steel produces a marked increase in yield strength
(with a lesser increase in tensile strength) accompanied by a decrease in the
elongation to fracture. The increase in strength after irradiation may be bene-
ficial; however, the concomitant decrease in ductility may be very bad indeed.
The effect of irradiation temperature on the various -properties is complex. I-t
appears that partial annealing of" radiation damage responsible for one
mechanical property may take place more or less independently of another
mechanical property at a given temperature of irradiation. The effects of
composition are complicated, although increased carbon appears to decrease
the amount of radiation damage. Damage is also apparently reduced by smaller
grain size.
Irradiation of zircaloy at temperatures up to 280°C considerably increases the

yield strength, and to a lesser extent the tensile strength. The ductility is
reduced, particularly the uniform elongation. In fact, the almost complete
absence of uniform elongation causes zircaloy to show local necking and a
drop in load carrying capacity at very low strains. This must be considered in
designs where strains resulting from volume changes are expected e.g.
differential thermal expansion or radiation swelling. Radiation damage has
little effect on the life of zirconium fuel sheathing, but it does impose
limitations on the positions in a reactor to which fuel may be shifted. Pressure
tube life is reduced because of radiation, since creep is accelerated in a
radiation field.
Materials 17-126
Version (1.0)

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CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Classification of Materials

Chapter 2 Mechanics of Materials

Chapter 3 Atoms, Molecules and Crystals

Chapter 4 Crystal Structure of Metals

Chapter 5 Casting Processes

Chapter 6 Mechanical Testing

6.8.1 Tensile Test 6-36

6.9 Some Other Mechanical Tests 6-44

6.9.1 Erichsen Cupping Test 6-44

6.10 Significance of Mechanical Properties 6-47

Chapter 7 Non-Destructive Testing

7.0 Introduction 7-48

7.1.1 Penetrant Methods 7-48

7.2.1 X-Ray Methods 7-51

7.3 Ultrasonic testing 7-52

Chapter 8 Deformation and Recrystallization

Chapter 9 Mechanical Shaping of Metals

9.1.1 Drop-Forging 9-60

9.2 Hot-Pressing 9-61

9.2.1 Hot-Rolling 9-62

9.3 Extrusion 9-62

10.0 Pure Metals 10-68

Chapter 11 Soldering and Brazing

13.1.1 Gypsum 13-81

13.2 Concrete Aggregates 13-83

Chapter 15 Plastic, Rubber and Protective Coatings

Chapter 17 Radiation Damage

1.1 Metallic Materials:

amount of iron. Examples of nonferrous metals are aluminum, copper, zinc,

1.2 Polymeric (Plastic) Materials:

1.3 Ceramic Materials:

1.4 Composite Materials:

a matrix). There are many different combinations of reinforcements and matrices

1.5 Electronic Materials:

2.0 Normal Stress and Strain:

Figure 2-1a Figure 2-1b

When a sign convention for normal stresses is required, it is customary to

An axially loaded bar undergoes a change in length, becoming longer when in

Because normal strain is the ratio of two lengths, it is a dimensionless quantity,

The normal strain from equation 2-2 is:

2.1 Stress-Strain Diagrams:

Lateral contraction of the specimen occurs when it is stretched, resulting in a

2.2 Elasticity and Plasticity:

The characteristic of a material by which it undergoes inelastic strains beyond

As a second example of creep, consider a wire that is stretched between two

Creep is usually more important at high temperatures than at ordinary

2.4 Linear Elasticity and Hooke's Law:

'E' is a constant of proportionality known as the Modulus of Elasticity for the

aluminum it is approximately 70 GPa. More flexible materials have a lower

2.5 Poisson's Ratio:

2.6 Shear Stress And Strain:

As an example, consider the bolted connection shown in Figure 2-10. This

Figure 2-10a Figure 2-10b

Figure 2-10c Figure 2-10d

'G' is the constant of proportionality called the Shear Modulus of elasticity

As = π × (19 mm) × (6 mm) = 358 mm 2

Therefore, the average shear stress is

Also, the average compressive stress in the punch is

in which 'Ac' is the cross-sectional area of the punch.

2.7 Allowable Stresses and Allowable Loads:

Of course, the factor of safety must be greater than 1.0 if failure is to be

The incorporation of factors of safety into design is not a simple matter,