An Overview of Computer Simulation Methods for
Electromagnetic Transients in Power Systems
Hermann W. Dommel
Dept. of Electrical & Computer Engineering, The University of British Columbia
Power Systems Consultants
Vancouver, BC, Canada
hermannd@ece.ubc.ca
ABSTRACT
Electromagnetic transients in power systems were
simulated on transient network analyzers until the mid
1960’s. Nowadays, digital computer programs are used
almost exclusively. After a brief discussion of the choice
of units, the methods used in “EMTP-type” computer
programs are reviewed. Some simulation results, with
comparisons against field tests, illustrate typical
applications.
1. INTRODUCTION
Until the mid-1960’s, the tools for studying
electromagnetic transients in power systems were
transient network analyzers (TNA’s). On TNA’s,
transmission lines were represented as cascade
connections of Π-circuits, each representing a short
section of the line. For important lines, 10 or more Π-
circuits were used, to approximate the distributed nature
of the line parameters (series impedance and shunt
capacitance per unit length). Resistors and coils
represented the series impedance, and capacitors the
shunt capacitance.
While building a Π-circuit for a single-phase line was
straightforward, three-phase lines posed a problem
because of coupling. It was therefore customary to
transform the three coupled equations, e.g. for the
voltage drops along the series impedances,
 ∆V a   Z s Zm Z m  I a 
 ∆V  =  Z Zs Z m   I b  ,
 b  m
 ∆Vc   Z m Zm Z s   I c 
to three decoupled equations,
∆Va = ( Z s − Z m )I a + Z m ( I a + I b + I c ) ,
(analogous for phases b and c). This transformation
replaces the three coupled impedances of Eq. (1) with
four decoupled impedances (one for each phase and a
common return impedance Zm).
In Eq. (1), brackets indicate matrix quantities, with Zs
being the self impedance of one phase, and Zm being the
mutual impedance between phases. They are related to
the better known positive and zero sequence parameters
through
Z s − Z m = Z pos ; Z s + 2Z m = Z zero .
For voltage sources, amplifiers were used, and
transformers were modelled with small mini-
transformers. All these building blocks were housed in
large cabinets, with connections made through plug-in
cables.
TNA’s are still being used in some places, particularly
for real-time testing of control equipment for HVDC
converter stations, etc. There are also hybrid facilities,
with part being analog TNA and part digital equipment.
One advantage of such facilities has been the
concentration of expertise in one place for the operation
of the simulator and for the interpretation of the
simulation results. This is somewhat missing now with
computer programs that can be run anywhere on any
personal computer.
Digital electromagnetic transients programs (EMTP-type
programs) became available in the late 1960’s and early
1970’s for mainframe computers, and later for personal
computers. Some early programs used the same cascade
connections of Π-circuits familiar from TNA’s, but soon
other methods were used that are more suitable for
digital computations.
Fig.1 shows results from TNA’s and from one digital
computer program for switching surge overvoltages on a
202.8 km long line.
(1)
(2)
Figure 1: Curves from TNA’s and EMTP
The probability distribution obtained from six TNA’s
and 4 digital computer programs for the same case is
shown in Fig. 2. At 10 %, the approximate overvoltage
would be 2.6 p.u., which indicates that 10 % of
energizations could lead to overvoltages above 2.6 p.u.
These comparisons were made in a CIGRE Working
Group, to gain confidence in simulator results.
(3)

Figure 2: Statistical distribution of overvoltages [1]
2. PER-UNIT VERSUS ACTUAL QUANTITIES
On TNA’s, the parameters had to be scaled to simplify
the construction of Π-circuits, voltage sources etc. It has
also been a tradition to use “scaled” per-unit quantities in
computer programs for power flow and short-circuit
studies. EMTP-type programs by and large started using
actual quantities rather than per-unit quantities. There
are still discussions taking place about the pros and cons
of either system of units [2], though it is really a simple
re-scaling matrix operation to change from one system to
the other.
Assume steady-state nodal equations with actual
quantities of the form
[Y ][V ] = [I ]. (4)
The actual voltages are related to per-unit voltages
through
[ ]
[V ] = [Vbase ] V pu , (5)
where [Vbase] is a diagonal matrix with the appropriate
voltage base values for each voltage level. With one
common base power Sbase for the entire system, the
actual currents are obtained from per-unit currents with
[I ] = S base [Vbaase ]−1 [I pu ] . (6)
Inserting Eq. (5) and (6) into Eq. (4) produces the nodal
equations in per-unit quantities,
[ ][ ] [ ]
Y pu V pu = I pu , (7a)
with [Y ] = S 1 [V ][Y ][V ] .
pu base base (7b)
base
A matrix element Yik in actual quantities becomes a per-
unit quantity by multiplying it with Vbase-iVbase-k, and
then dividing it by Sbase.
A stray capacitance C from the high voltage terminal i to
the low voltage terminal k of a transformer would simply
be added as jωC in actual quantities to the diagonal
elements Yii and Ykk of [Y], and subtracted from the off-
diagonal elements Yik and Yki. With per-unit quantities,
jωC·Vbase-i2/Sbase must be added to Ypu-ii, jωC·Vbase-k2/Sbase
must be added to Ypu-kk, and jωC·Vbase-iVbase-k /Sbase must
be subtracted from Ypu-ik and Ypu-ki. These additions of
per unit quantities could be modelled as a Π-circuit
between i and k. Working with per-unit quantities is
more complicated in this example, but correct as long as
the proper scaling procedures are used.
3. BASIC TRANSIENTS SOLUTION METHOD
EMTP-type programs use nodal equations. They can
best be explained with the simple single-phase network
of Fig. 3 that shows the details around node no. 1.
Figure 3: Details of single-phase network around node 1
To write the nodal equation for node no. 1, we simply
add the currents flowing out through the branches, and
equate the sum to the injected current i1 (i1 = 0 if there is
no current source):
i12 + i13 + i14 + i15 = i1 . (8)
Next, each branch current must be expressed as a
function of the branch voltages, which is obviously
simple for the resistance branch,
1
iR = vR . (9)
R
For the inductance branch, the differential equation
di L
vL = L
dt
(10)
must be converted to a difference equation. By using the
average {vL(t) + vL(t-∆t)}/2 of the voltage at t-∆t and at t
on the left side of Eq. (10), and the difference quotient
{iL(t)-iL(t-∆t)}/∆t on the right side (“central difference
quotient”), we obtain
∆t
iL ( t ) = v L ( t ) + I L ( t − ∆t ) , (11)
2L
with the “history current” known from the solution at the
preceding time step at t-∆t. Eq. (11) is also obtained if
Eq. (10) is first rewritten as an integral equation, and the
integral over the voltage is then replaced with the
trapezoidal area ∆t·{vL(t) + vL(t-∆t)}/2 (“trapezoidal rule
of integration”). Applied to branch 1-3, Eq. (11) can be
expressed as the equivalent circuit of Fig. 4.
 1 ∆t 2C 1 1 ∆t 2C
v1 ( + + + ) − v 2 − v3 − v4
R 2 L ∆t Z R 2L ∆t (15)
= i1 − I 13 − I 14 − I 15
For the entire system, we get a system of nodal
equations [G ][v ] = [i ] − [I ] . For its solution, it must be
partitioned into subset A for nodes with unknown
2L voltages and subset B for known voltages (voltage
Figure 4: Equivalent circuit for inductance; Requiv =
∆t sources),
[G AA ] [G AB ] [v A ] [i A ] [I A ]
In an analogous way, the differential equation for the [G ] = − (16)
capacitance branch can be converted to a difference  BA [G BB ] [v B ] [i B ] [I B ]
equation, resulting in the equivalent circuit of Fig. 5. This leads to a system of algebraic linear equations that
must be solved in each time step,
[G AA ][v A ] = [i A ] − [I A ] − [G AB ][v B ] , (17)
with known right-hand sides. Production type programs
use Gauss elimination with sparsity techniques for the
solution. The matrices [GAA] and [GAB] change only if
network changes take place, because of switching
∆t operations or other changes affecting the matrices.
Figure 5: Equivalent circuit for capacitance; Requiv =
2C 3.1. ACCURACY

The propagation of waves on the lossless line is Converting the differential equations for inductances and
described by partial differential equations. They contain capacitances to difference equations with the implicit
two parameters, namely characteristic impedance (surge trapezoidal rule of integration produces unavoidable
impedance) Z, and travel time τ, where truncation errors, that limit the accuracy of the
L' simulations [3] (or [4, p. 2-9]). For the inductance, the
Z= and τ = l ⋅ L' C' . (12) EMTP does not “see” the exact value L, but the value
C'
L’, C’ are the series inductance and shunt capacitance  ∆t 
tan ω 
per unit length, and l is the length of the line. Applying  2 .
the method of characteristics (Bergeron’s method) leads Ltrapezoidal =L (18)
∆t
to the condition that the expression v + Zi remains ω
constant for a “fictitious observer” who travels with the 2
same speed as the wave from one end of the line to the This implies that high-frequency currents are filtered out
other, or for Fig. 3, for given voltages, as shown in Fig. 7.
v5 ( t − τ ) + Zi51 ( t − τ ) = v1 ( t ) − Zi15 ( t ) (13)
(sign reversal on i15 because current direction is opposite
to that of i51). From this we obtain the required
expression for the current
1
i15 ( t ) = v1 ( t ) + I 15 ( t − τ ) (14)
Z
with a “history current” I15 that is known from what
happened time τ earlier at the other end 5. The
equivalent circuit for Eq. (14) is shown in Fig. 6.

Figure 7: Amplitude ratio Itrapezoidal / Iexact through

Figure 6: Equivalent circuit for lossless line an inductance as a function of frequency

Note that the two ends of the line are disconnected in
this equivalent circuit. What happens in node 1 is not
immediately seen in node 5, but only after elapse of
travel time τ.
Going back to Eq. (8), and inserting the expressions for
the branch currents, finally produces the nodal equation
for node 1,
A similar expression exists for the capacitance. To keep
the “error factor” after L in Eq. (18) reasonably close to
1.0, the step size ∆t must be sufficiently small for the
highest (angular) frequency ω of interest. There is no
phase error in Eq. (18).
The solution for the lossless line is accurate as long as
the travel time τ is an integer multiple of ∆t. In practice,
that is rarely the case, and interpolation must then be one mode are those of zero sequence, and for the other
used. This creates interpolation errors that can filter out N-1 modes those of positive sequence.
sharp peaks in the wave shape [4, p. 4-76].

3.2. INCLUSION OF LINE LOSSES

To include line losses into the transmission line

equations, it is usually sufficient to lump the series
resistance in a few places, such as in the middle and at Figure 9: Retrieving history terms in mode quantities
the two ends of the line (Fig. 8).
For double-circuit lines with two identical circuits, a
modified αβ0-transformation can be used that assumes
that each circuit is balanced, and that both circuits are
only coupled in zero sequence [4, p. 4-44].
Figure 8: Lumping R in three places
3.5. FREQUENCY-DEPENDENT LINE PARAMETERS

3.3. EXTENSION TO COUPLED LUMPED ELEMENTS

In reality, the series resistances and inductances of
The extension to coupled lumped elements is transmission lines are frequency-dependent, as shown in
straightforward. The scalar equations are simply Fig. 10. The dependence is particularly strong for zero
rewritten as matrix equations. For coupled inductances, sequence parameters. The zero sequence and positive
Eq. (11) then becomes the matrix equation sequence parameters in Fig. 10 were calculated with
Carson’s formula, as well as with the much simpler
[i L ( t )] = ∆t [L]−1 [v L ( t )] + [I L ( t − ∆t )] . (19) complex-depth formula of Dubanton [5], which can be
2 made even more accurate with added terms [6]. The
This equation can be used to represent transformers. If results from both formulas are almost identical.
only their leakage inductances are modelled, then the
inverse matrix [L]-1 becomes singular. Eq. (19) is also
used for the series inductances of multiphase Π-circuits
 L11 L21 ... L1N 
L L22 ... L2 N 
with symmetric matrices 
21
.
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 LN 1 LN 2 ... LNN 

3.4. EXTENSION TO BALANCED MULTIPHASE

TRANSMISSION LINES

A transmission line is said to be perfectly transposed or

“balanced” if all self impedances are equal among
themselves, and all mutual impedances are equal among
themselves, as in Eq. (1). For single-circuit lines this is
often a reasonable approximation, but usually not for
double-circuit lines.
For balanced lines, the coupled line equations can be Figure 10: Frequency-dependent line parameters
transformed to de-coupled single-phase equations with
With J. Marti’s approach [7], a weighting function a(t) is
either the αβ0-transformation or the Karrenbauer
calculated from the propagation factor A(ω) = e-γl in the
transformation. Both transformations can be generalized
frequency domain, where γ is the propagation constant
to any number of phases N [29; 4, p. 4-42]. The single-
phase equations are first written in the form of Eq. (14) γ= (R' (ω ) + jωL' (ω )) ⋅ jωC' .
for each of the N “modes”, and then transformed back to This weighting function is then used in the transients
phase quantities, solution for picking up history points not just at one
point t- τ, but spread out as indicated in Fig. 11. The
[i phase ( t ] [
) = Z phase ] [v
−1
phase ( t ]
) + [T ][I mod e ] . (20) frequency dependence of the characteristic impedance is
In writing the nodal equations (16) for the entire system, modelled with an R-C circuit, as shown in Fig. 12.
the contribution of [Zphase]-1 to [G] is straightforward
because [Zphase]-1 is already in phase quantities. The
history terms [Imode] are stored as mode quantities
because of different travel times in α, β, and zero
sequence modes, as indicated in Fig. 9. They are then
transformed to phase quantitites, [Iphase] = [T] [Imode], for
insertion into the right-hand side of Eq. (16). The
Figure 11: Weighting function a(t)
characteristic impedance and travel time parameters for
 may not be justified. A simpler line model may be good
enough, in which it is assumed that all waves travel at
the speed of light. This model can be derived by
representing only the external inductances and
capacitances per unit length. In that case, one can simply
rewrite the single-phase equation (14) as a matrix
equation, because both [Z]-1 and the history vector [I] are
directly in phase quantities.
The diagonal and off-diagonal elements of the
characteristic impedance matrix [Z] are calculated from
the geometry of the transmission line for this model [11],

2hi D
Z ii = 60 ln , Z ik = 60 ln ik , (21)
ri d ik
where ri is the radius of the conductor (or equivalent
radius of the bundle conductor), hi is the average height
Figure 12: Approximation of Zchar with R-C circuit
above ground, dik is the distance between conductors i
and k, and Dik is the distance from conductor i to the
3.6. UNTRANSPOSED TRANSMISSION LINES
image of conductor k below ground. UBC’s EMTP
For untransposed lines, the transformation from coupled version “MicroTran” produces this simple model of Eq.
equations to single-phase equations in the modal domain (21) as the “high-frequency approximation” option in its
can no longer be done with the αβ0- or Karrenbauer line parameter calculation tool [4, p. 4-57].
transformation. The transformation matrix now depends For the simulation of fast transients in gas-insulated
on the geometry and on the conductor characteristics of enclosures, constant real transformation matrices can be
the particular line. It is found as the eigenvector matrix used, because the loop for waves inside the enclosure
of the matrix product [Z' ][ jωC' ] , where [Z’] is the becomes decoupled from the loop between the enclosure
series impedance matrix per unit length, and [C’] is the and ground [12], as indicated in Fig. 13.
shunt capacitance matrix per unit length.
Unfortunately, the eigenvector matrix is no longer
constant and real. It depends on frequency, and has
complex elements as well. For single-circuit lines, it can
usually be approximated as constant and real,
particularly if the simulation involves high frequencies,
as in lightning surge studies. For double-circuit lines,
such approximations no longer work. Then it becomes
necessary to represent the frequency dependence of the
complex elements of the transformation matrix.
Figure 13: Independent loops in gas-insulated enclosure
One approach [8] separates the series resistances and
inductances per unit length into two parts, namely into For an enclosure made of steel with a resistivity of
the external (geometric) inductances for the external 0.2·10-6 Ωm and a relative permeability of 400, the depth
magnetic field, and into the internal resistances and of penetration at 60 Hz is only 1.5 mm, which is already
inductances for the magnetic field inside the conductors smaller than the pipe thickness. For fast transients, the
and inside the earth return path. If the internal assumption of no coupling between the inner and outer
impedances are ignored, then it is easy to model the line loops is therefore justified.
as an N-phase lossless line, because the transformation
The assumption of independent loops is also valid for
matrix is real and constant for that approximation. The
condenser bushings with grading foils [13]. Fig. 14
internal impedances are then approximated with R-L
shows a case with four independent loops, with loop 1
circuits, and placed between lossless line sections in a
between the conductor and foil 1, loop 2 between foils 1
number of places, similar in concept to Fig. 8. This
and 2, loop 3 between foils 2 and 3, and loop 4 between
approach can also be used for underground cables [9].
foils 3 and the outer grounded foil 4.
Another solution method for underground cables works
with frequency-dependent complex transformation
matrices [10].
For lightning surge studies, simplifying assumptions can
be made. For example, the wave shape and amplitude of
the current source representing the lightning stroke is
obviously not well known. Similarly, flashover criteria
in the form of volt-time characteristics or integral
formulas [11] are only approximate. In view of all these Figure 14: Four decoupled loops in a condenser bushing
uncertainties, the use of highly sophisticated line models
For steady-state studies at power frequency (50 or 60
Hz), it is easier to represent the transmission lines as Π-
circuits. This is more straightforward than the distributed
parameter line representations, with their mathematical
complications described above. Actual transpositions are
easy to model with multiphase Π-circuits, by just using
the proper node names at the ends of each Π-circuit. An
example for this approach is shown in Section 8.1.
4. NONLINEAR ELEMENTS
5. NUMERICAL OSCILLATIONS
The trapezoidal rule of integration is numerically stable,
but it can create “numerical oscillations” when the
derivative di/dt in inductances changes suddenly, usually
due to current interruption. Numerical oscillations are
most likely to occur in power electronics circuits. Fig. 17
shows a single-phase diode bridge rectifier, and Fig. 18
the positive and negative dc voltages, with numerical
oscillations.

For the representation of nonlinear elements, piecewise

linear approximations can often be used, as shown in
Fig. 15 for a “two-slope” nonlinear inductance.

Figure 17: Single-phase diode bridge rectifier

Figure 15: Piecewise linear inductance

The solution method remains linear, but the nodal

conductance matrix [G] must be changed whenever the
flux becomes larger than the “kneepoint” flux λknee, and
vice versa.
With the “compensation method”, the linear part of the
network is reduced to a Thevenin equivalent circuit. Its
equations are then solved iteratively together with the
equations of the nonlinear branches, as indicated in Fig.
16 for one nonlinear resistance branch. The Thevenin
equivalent circuit resistance matrix [Requiv] is pre- Figure 18: Dc voltages with numerical oscillations
calculated from the nodal matrix [G], and re-calculated
These numerical oscillations can be eliminated with the
whenever [G] changes. The open-circuit voltages [v0] are
critical damping adjust scheme [14, 15], with the results
calculated in each time step by ignoring the
shown in Fig. 19. It uses the backward Euler integration
nonlinearities. Once the currents for the nonlinear
method with half step size ∆t/2, for two steps
branches have been found, they are superimposed on the
immediately after the sudden change in di/dt. To move
solution for the linear part.
from t-∆t forward one half step, the formula for the
inductance is

∆t 2L  ∆t 
vL ( t − )=  iL ( t − ) − i L ( t − ∆t ) , (23)
2 ∆t  2 
from which the current equation replacing Eq. (11) is
derived.

Figure 16: Solution with compensation method

The compensation method can be generalized to any

number of nonlinear branches, with the equation of the
Thevenin equivalent circuit becoming a matrix equation

[v] = [v0 ] − [Requiv ][i ] . (22)

For more than one nonlinear branch, Newton’s method is

usually used, whereas simpler search methods for
finding the intersection in Fig. 16 can be used for single
nonlinear branches. Figure 19. Dc voltages without numerical oscillations
6. EQUIPMENT MODELS
In some cases, it is possible to construct circuit models
for transformers and other equipment from the basic
linear lumped elements R, L, C, and from nonlinear
elements. There are also “support routines” available to
convert equipment test data to basic R-L-C data, such as
“BCTRAN” for three-phase N-winding transformers
[17].
Electric machines (generators and motors) usually have
built-in models, because synthesis with simple R-L-C
elements is not straightforward. For their solution,
conversion between phase quantities a,b,c and d,q,0-
components is often used. Doubts have recently been
raised whether solutions in d,q,0 components are correct,
but if the conversion is done properly, solutions in d,q,0-
components and phase quantities should give the same
answers [18].
The conversion of machine test data provided by the
manufacturer to self and mutual impedances is more
complicated than for transformers. Some conversion
algorithms are explained in [4, Appendix VI].
Circuit breakers are usually modelled as ideal switches
in preliminary studies, with an infinite (or very high)
resistance in the open position, and zero (or very low)
resistance in the closed position. During the simulation,
opening of a circuit breaker takes place after TOPEN as
soon as the current goes through zero, which is easily
recognized by a reversal of its sign. Models are available
for modelling the arc characteristics, and possibly the
conditions for re-strike or re-ignition [19]. It is not
always easy, however, to obtain the parameters that are
needed for such detailed models. Since the mathematical
models can only approximate the reality of the arc
physics, manufacturers are somewhat reluctant to
provide parameters for arc models, because they fear that
purchasing decisions may be made on the basis of
models that do not completely describe the physical
reality.
7. STEADY-STATE SOLUTION METHOD
Steady-state solutions are needed for three reasons:
1. To obtain initial conditions at power frequency (50
or 60 Hz) from which the transient simulation starts.
2. To obtain a steady-state solution by itself in cases
where modelling options in EMTP-type programs
allow for more details than power flow or short-
circuit programs (e.g., coupling among adjacent
transmission lines).
3. To obtain steady-state solutions at many
frequencies, from fmin to fmax, in what is usually
referred to as “frequency scans”.
To solve the steady-state equations for a linear case, with
voltages and/or currents specified at some nodes, is
rather straightforward. The system of nodal equations is
similar to Eq. (16), except that the nodal matrix is now
complex, and that there are no history terms:
[Y AA ] [Y AB ] [V A ] [I A ]
[Y ] = . (24)
 BA [YBB ] [V B ] [I B ]
Nodes A are nodes with unknown voltages and nodes B
are those with known voltages. The answer is found by
solving the system of linear equations
[Y AA ][V A ] = [I A ] − [Y AB ][V B ] . (25)
Some EMTP-type programs can also do iterative power
flow solutions. These methods are more complicated
than the usual power flow solution methods for balanced
positive sequence data. An example for such a program
with power flow initialization, as well as with the
inclusion of harmonics arising from nonlinear elements
[25], is the restructured program EMTP-RV [20].
Building the [Y]-matrix of Eq. (24) is well known for
lumped elements. For an inductance, the branch
admittance is simply 1/(jωL). Distributed-parameter
lines that are modelled with travel time delays in the
transient simulation must be converted to equivalent Π-
circuits for the steady-state solution.
8. EXAMPLES
This section describes briefly a few application examples
that illustrate the type of problems that can be simulated
with EMTP-type programs.
8.1. STEADY-STATE SOLUTION AT ONE FREQUENCY
The N-phase Π-circuit model in EMTP-type programs
makes it easy to study inductive and capacitive coupling
effects among parallel circuits at power frequency. Fig.
20 shows three circuits on the same right-of-way of B.C.
Transmission Corporation (formerly B. C. Hydro).
Figure 20: Electrostatic coupling at power frequency
Lines L1 (380 kV) and L2 (550 kV) were in operation,
and line L3 (550 kV) was under construction. Line L3
under construction will experience electrostatic induced
voltages that can pose a health problem if the line is not
grounded, or create excessive currents when the line is
grounded at one or more points (with circulating currents
in the latter case). To gain confidence in EMTP
simulations, computer results were compared with field
test measurements for this case, as shown in Fig. 21 [23].
8.2. FREQUENCY SCANS
Fig. 22 shows the results of a frequency scan from
steady-state solutions in the subsynchronous frequency
range, to investigate the possibility of subsynchronous
resonance at a location where the construction of a
thermal power plant was under consideration [21].
Figure 21: EMTP simulation and field tests comparison Figure 24: Measured and calculated overvoltage
on an unfaulted phase in case of a single-line-to-
ground fault

Figure 22: System impedance in subsynchronous Figure 25: 1100 kV test line switched off in phase A
frequency region; measurements compared to
EMTP simulations

8.3. TRANSIENT SOLUTIONS

Fig. 23 compares EMTP simulations with field test

measurements for the energization of a 345 kV
transmission line [23].

Figure 26: Measured and calculated

ferroresonance voltage in de-energized phase A

A comparison between measured and calculated inrush

currents is shown in Fig. 27 [24]. The small squares
indicate the measured peak values.

Figure 23: Measured and calculated overvoltages

during transmission line energization

If the three phases close almost simultaneously, there is

very little zero sequence current flowing. In such a case,
the frequency dependence of the line parameters is not
very important, and line models with constant
parameters give reasonable results. Using frequency-
dependent line parameters for the case of Fig. 23
changed the results only slightly. The situation is
different for a single-line-to-ground fault, as shown in
Fig. 24, where frequency-dependent line models are
needed [7]. Constant parameter line models would give
too high overvoltages in this case. Figure 27: Measured and calculated inrush current
Figure 25 shows the network diagram for an 1100 kV
test transmission line. When phase A was switched off, 9. REAL-TIME SIMULATORS
ferroresonance occurred through the capacitive coupling
With the increase in speed of personal computers and
from phase B and the nonlinear inductance of the
digital signal processing boards, it has become possible
autotransformer of phase A (phase C was not yet
to simulate electromagnetic transients in “real-time”.
connected). Fig. 26 shows the measured and calculated
This makes it possible to test protective relays or control
voltages for this case [23].
equipment connected to real-time simulators through
amplifiers.
9.1. PLAYBACK
The simplest way to test protective relays is to play back
simulation results through amplifiers, at the proper
sampling rate. There is no feedback from the relay to the
simulator in this case, which may be good enough to see
how the first-reacting relay operates.
9.2. REAL-TIME SIMULATOR
To achieve real-time performance, one obviously has to
formulate the algorithms in such a way that as few
calculations are required as possible. For example, the
equations for the series impedances of a Π-circuit
according to Eq. (1) would require 9 multiplications and
6 additions on the right-hand side, whereas the rewritten
equations in (2) would only require 6 multiplications and
7 additions. An example for rewriting equations for
minimal computational effort is shown in [16], for the
case of current transformers and capacitive-coupling
voltage transformers.
Three examples of commercially available real-time
simulators in Canada are RTDS [26], HYPERSIM [27],
and OPAL [28].
10. LITERATURE
For users of EMTP-type programs, there is a wealth of
information available. For commercial versions of the
EMTP, one can go to their respective websites. Here is a
brief list of publications related to electromagnetic
transients in power systems.
10.1. CONFERENCES
A conference that specializes in power system transients
is “IPST”, the International Power System Transients
Conference. It is held every two years. The first one was
held in 1995 in Lisbon, Portugal, and the latest one in
June 2005 in Montreal, Canada. The next one will be in
Lyon, France in 2007 (probably in June). For more
information, see www.ipst.org
10.2. IEEE AND CIGRÉ PUBLICATIONS
Members of CIGRE Working Group 33.02, "Guidelines
for representation of network elements when calculating
transients," CIGRE Publication, 1990 (29 pages).
J. A. Martinez-Velasco, editor, Computer Analysis of
Electric Power System Transients. IEEE Press,
Piscataway, NJ, U.S.A., 1997 (Collection of papers on
619 pages).
IEEE PES Special Publication, Modeling and Analysis
of System Transients. IEEE Catalog No. 99TP133-0,
IEEE Operations Center, Piscataway, NJ, U.S.A., 1998
(put together by a Working Group chaired by A.J.F.
Keri).
IEEE Power Engineering Society, Tutorial on Electro-
magnetic Transient Program Applications to Power
System Protection. A. Tziouvaras, Course Coordinator.
IEEE Catalog No. 01TP150, 2000.
10.3. RECENT BOOKS
W. D. Humpage, Z-Transform Electromagnetic
Transient Analysis in High Voltage Networks. IEE
Power Engineering Series 3, Peter Peregrinus Ltd.,
London, UK, 1982 (ISBN 0-906048-79-6).
A. Greenwood, Electrical Transients in Power Systems,
2nd edition. John Wiley & Sons, 1992.
P. Chowdhuri, Electromagnetic Transients in Power
Systems. Research Studies Press LTD, 1996. John Wiley
and Sons, Inc. (ISBN 0 86380 180 3).
L. van der Sluis, Transients in Power Systems. John
Wiley and Sons, LTD, 2001 (ISBN 0 471 48639 6).
N. Watson and J. Arrillaga, Power Systems
Electromagnetic Transients Simulation. The Institution
of Electrical Engineers, United Kingdom, 2003.
L.C. Zanetta Jr., Transitórios Eletromagnéticos em
Sistemas de Potencia (in Portuguese). Editora da
Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo - SP, Brazil,
2003.
Antonio E. A. Araújo and Washington L. A. Neves,
Transitórios Eletromagnéticos em Sistemas de Energia
(in Portuguese). Editora de Universidade Federal de
Minas Gerais, Brazil, to appear in 2005.
H. W. Dommel, EMTP Theory Book, 2nd edition.
Microtran Power System Analysis Corp., Vancouver,
Canada, 1992, latest update April 1996. There is a
Chinese translation, and there seems to be an ATP
edition as well.
11. CONCLUSIONS
This paper gives a brief survey of the solution methods
that are used in EMTP-type programs. A few examples
illustrate typical applications. A list of the recent
literature on electromagnetic transients helps readers,
who want to find more information on this subject.
12. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author appreciates the invitation from the AUPEC
2005 Conference to present this paper as a guest speaker.
He also wants to thank colleagues and former graduate
students who helped develop the EMTP.
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