The Green’s Function

1 Laplace Equation
Consider the equation
∇2 G = −δ(~x − ~y ), (1)
where ~x is the observation point and ~y is the source point. Let us integrate (1) over a sphere
Σ centered on ~y and of radius r = |~x − ~y ]
Z
∇2 G d~x = −1.
Using the divergence theorem,
Z Z
2 ∂G
∇ G d~x = ∇G · ~n dΣ = 4πr2 = −1
∂n
Σ

This gives the free-space Green’s function as

1 1
G= = . (2)
4πr 4π|~x − ~y |

2 The Wave Equation

We look for a spherically symmetric solution to the equation
à !
1 ∂2
2
∇ − 2 2 G = −δ(~x − ~y ) δ(t − τ ). (3)
co ∂t
Such a solution is of the form
f (t − τ ± |~xc−~ y|
)
G= o
, (4)
4π|~x − ~y |
where f is an arbitrary function. For r 6= 0, G satisfies
à !
1 ∂2
∇2 − 2 2 G = 0.
co ∂t
As r → 0
à ! µ ¶
1 ∂2 1
∇ − 2 2 G → f (t − τ )∇2
2
= f (t − τ )(−δ(~x − ~y ))
co ∂t 4πr
= −δ(~x − ~y ) δ(t − τ ).
Hence f (t) = δ(t). The Green’s function then becomes
µ ¶
|~x−~y |
δ t−τ ± co
G= 4π|~x−~y | (5)

1
3 The Helmholtz Equation
For harmonic waves of angular frequency ω, we seek solutions of the form g(r)exp(−iωt). The
Green’s function g(r) satisfies the constant frequency wave equation known as the Helmholtz
equation, Ã !
2 ω2
∇ + 2 g = −δ(~x − ~y ). (6)
co
For r 6= 0, g = Kexp(±ikr)/r, where k = ω/c0 and K is a constant, satisfies
à !
2 ω2
∇ + 2 g = 0.
co

As r → 0
à ! µ ¶
ω2 1
∇ + 2 g → K∇2
2
= K(−4πδ(~x − ~y ))
co r
= −δ(~x − ~y ).

Hence K = 1/4π and

e±ikr
g(r) = . (7)
4πr
Note this result can be obtained directly using the general expression for the Green’s function
in (5)

4 Application to Acoustics
Begin by assuming isentropic flow, no viscosity. The governing equations can be written
∂
ρo ~u = F~ − ∇p (8)
∂t
∂ρ
+ ∇ · ρo~u = Q (9)
∂t

where F~ is a force per unit volume and Q is a mass flow rate per unit volume.
Combining the two equations gives
à !
1 ∂2 ∂Q
2
∇ − 2 2 p=− + ∇ · F~ (10)
co ∂t ∂t

For harmonic oscillations, the equation can be written as

³ ´ ∂Q
∇2 + k 2 p = − + ∇ · F~ (11)
∂t

2
Now, use Green’s function to define waves propagating away from a source:
³ ´ i −ik|x−y|
d2
1D : dx2
+ k 2 g = −δ(x − y) ⇒ g = − e (12)
2k
i
2D : (∇2 + k 2 ) g = −δ(~x − ~y ) ⇒ g = − Ho(2) (kr) (13)
4
1 e−ikr
3D : (∇2 + k 2 ) g = −δ(~x − ~y ) ⇒ g = (14)
4π r
Note that
s
2 1 −i(kr−n π2 − π4 )
Hn(2) (kr) ∼ √ e
π kr
(2) 2i 1
H1 (kr) ∼ + O(r ln r)
π kr

4.1 Single Source at ~y : Q = qδ(~x − ~y )

1 dq e−ikr
3D : p=
4π dt rà !
1 q 0 (t) ik 1 ~x − ~y
~u = + 2 e−ikr
4π ρo r r r
i dq (2)
2D : p= − H (kr)
4 dt o
i (2) ~x − ~y
~u = − q 0 (t)kH1 (kr)
4 r
i dq −ik|x−y|
1D : p= − e
2k dt
1
u = ± q(t)e−ik|x−y|
2

4.2 Dipole at ~y in the τ -Direction

Equation of a dipole can be written:
à ! à !
l l
p ~x, ~y + ~τ − p ~x, ~y − ~τ = l~τ · ∇~y p(~x, ~y )
2 2
.
The solution (in terms of pressure) can be written:
µ ¶ Ã !Ã !
1 1 e−ikr ~x − ~y dq
3D : p(~x, ~y ) = ik + ~τ · l
4π r r r dt
à !à !
i (2) dq ~x − ~y
2D : p(~x, ~y ) = − kH1 (kr) l ~τ ·
4 dt r

3
 Ã !Ã !
1 1 e−i(kr− 4 ) dq
π
~x − ~y
r → ∞ : p(~x, ~y ) = √ k 2 √ l ~τ ·
8π r dt r
à !
1 dq
1D : p(x, y) = ± e−ik|x−y| l
2 dt

4.3 Single Force at ~y : F~ = f~δ(~x − ~y )

³ ´
∇2 + k 2 p = ∇ · f~0 δ(~x − ~y ) = f~0 · ∇δ(~x − ~y )

p = −f~ · ∇~x g
The solutions for pressure are of the form:
µ ¶
1 1 e−ikr (~x − ~y ) · f~
3D : p = ik +
4π r r r
i (2) ~x − ~y ~
2D : p = − kH1 (kr) ·f
4 r
1 1 e−i(kr− 4 ) ~x − ~y ~
π

r → ∞ : p = √ k2 √ ·f
8π r r
1
1D : p = ± e−ik|x−y| f
2

Note that a force f~ is equivalent to a dipole of strength (lq) and whose direction is the same
as f~0 :
dq
f = l
dt
f~
~τ = + ¯¯ ¯¯
¯f~¯