Bonded steel plating for strengthening

concrete structures
M.D. Macdonald and A.J.J. Calder

Research into the technique o f bonding steel reinforcement externally to hardened

concrete is described. Laboratory work consisted o f testing 4.9 m and 3.5 m beams,
with steel plates bonded to their tension flanges, in 4-point bending. Results showed
that a full composite action was provided by the adhesive and that significant improve-
ments in performance could be achieved in terms o f ultimate load, crack control, and
stiffness. Exposure tests are being carried out on 0.5 m unreinforced concrete beams
with steel plates bonded to one face. Results to date have shown that sighificant
amounts of corrosion o f the steel plate may take place during natural exposure. The
resin and concrete consist of a labyrinth of very fine interconnected cracks through
which corrosive salts can migrate. The corrosion may cause slight reductions in strength.
Key words: concrete structures; bonding; epoxy resins; flexural-strength tests;
weathering tests; reinforcing steel plates.

Additional steel reinforcement can be bonded by epoxy
adhesives to hardened concrete to improve its structural
performance. This requirement may be for a number of
reasons:
• to correct for an error in design;
• to correct for an error in construction;
• to maintain or increase the load carrying capacity of the
structure; or
• to constrain cracking.
Although the technique could be applied to almost any
concrete structure, the work at Transport and Road
Research Laboratories, Crowthorne, UK (TRRL) has been
applied to highway bridges I. The first major application to
bridges in the United Kindom was in 1975 when a group of
four bridges, at an interchange on the M5 motorway at
Quinton, needed to he strengthened to cater for increased
traffic loads 2' a. More recently, in 1977, another pair of
motorway bridges at Swanley were strengthened a'4. The
results of flexure tests at TRRL on beams with steel plates
bonded to their tension flanges s' 6 were used to provide
advice for these projects. Subsequent laboratory work has
provided more detailed information on the structural per-
formance of this technique 7 and an extensive programme
of exposure testing is in progress s. Other UK research into
the bonding of steel to concrete using epoxy adhesives has
been reported and includes flexure tests on beams and
slabs 9, lo, 11.
Flexure tests on 4.9 m beams
The first phase of laboratory work carried out at TRRL s'6
was to test some externally strengthened reinforced concrete
beams to provide data for the proposed strengthening of
0143-7496/82/020119-09 $03.00 © 1982 Butterworth & Co (Publishers) Ltd
the Quinton bridges. One of the beams was tested to failure
without modification and mild steel plates were bonded to
each of the remaining beams. In each case the steel was
blast-cleaned to Swedish standard Sa2½ finish 12 and the
concrete was blast-cleaned to remove surface laitance and
cement paste. A structural grade epoxy resin adhesive was
prepared and applied to the surface of the steel plate. This
was weighted down onto the tensile flange of the concrete
beam which had already been placed in the loading rig (Fig
1). After a minimum period of seven days for the adhesive
to cure fully and for the beam to be instrumented, it was
loaded to failure. The variables studied included two differ-
ent adhesives (A and B) and a jointed plate, all using 10 mm
thick plates, and a 6.5 mm thick plate. All the mild steel
plates were 140 mm wide and 4200 mm long. Adhesive A
was used in all but one of the tests. With the jointed plate
test, the steel bonded to the concrete had a transverse 3 mm
gap near mid-span which was covered by a 1220 mm plate
bonded symmetrically over the joint using the same adhesive
During the tests the performance of the beams was moni-
tored using a variety of instrumentation.
Results
The overall behaviour of the plated beams was similar. As
the applied load was increased, tension cracking of the
concrete occurred at mid-span and developed through the
section of the beam. The spacing of the cracks was influ-
enced by the presence of shear reinforcement stirrups with
intermediate cracks developing at high loads. Eventually,
the concrete failed in horizontal shear at one end of a
reinforcement plate allowing separation to occur; this was
followed by the plate springing away from the beam up to
about mid-span. Varying depths of concrete, including the

INT.J.ADHESION AND ADHESIVES APRIL 1982 119

 from 0.9 N/mm 2 to 2.9 N/mm 2, but the local stresses at the
ends of the plate would be considerably higher due to stress
concentration effects, which could not easily be measured.

Flexure tests on 3 . 5 m beams

Fig. 1 Test arrangement (3.5 m beam under test)
maximum sized aggregate (20 mm), remained bonded to
the plate. There was very little difference in the overall
performance of the beams.
The loads at which the plates separated from the con-
crete varied from 200 kN to 230 kN (average 217 kN)
compared with the maximum load achieved with the
unmodified beam of 183 kN, an average increase of 19%.
To assess the effect of the plates on cracking perform-
ance, loads required to produce a crack width of 0.1 m m
were compared. For the unmodified beam this load was
59 kN whereas for the plated beams the average was 115 kN,
ie an increase of about 95%. The other major effect of the
bonded external reinforcement was to increase the stiffness
of the beams. Comparison of deflections at loads required
to produce a crack width of 0.1 mm showed an increase in
stiffness which varied from 35% for adhesive B with a
continuous 10 mm thick plate, to 105% for adhesive A with
the jointed plate. The latter result was influenced by the
presence of the cover plate which effectively doubled the
plate thickness to 20 mm over part of the beam.
An estimate was made of the longitudinal shear stress in
the adhesive where the plate separation started, based on
measured strain gradients in the plate. These stresses ranged
Although the work on 4.9 m beams demonstrated that a
structural connection could be made by bonding external
plates to concrete, a number of points required further
investigation and a second programme was conducted using
3.5 m beams which were a more convenient size. The tests
were to investigate:
(i) prevention of premature debonding of the plate at
the ultimate load;
(ii) the effect of adding the plate to cracked concrete to
resemble more closely the situation where strengthen-
ing is applied to a cracked structure;
(iti) the effect of adding the same sectional area of steel but
with differing width to thickness proportions (bit
ratio);
(iv) different adhesive; and
(v) multi-layered plates.
The range of variables tested is given in Table 1.
The first part of the research programme dealt with
variations in adhesives and plate geometries using beams
plated as-cast. In the second part, beams were cracked befor,
the plates were added (precracked) and the effects of furthe:
variables studied: two sizes of plate (for comparison with
the first set of tests); a jointed plate; thick glue-line (6 mm
to represent service conditions); and partial bonding and
multi4ayered narrow plates (see Fig. 2). The glue-line
thickness was normally 1.5 ram.
The beams were 3500 mm tong, 150 mm wide, and
250 mm deep, with two 12 mm diameter reinforcing bars.
They were designed to be tested in 4-point bending with
three equal 1000 mm spans: the two outer spans were pro-
vided with shear reinforcement. The mild steel plates were
generally 2800 mm in length. The beam preparation,
instrumentation and test method were all similar to those
used for the 4.9 m beams with the exception of those tests
in which the beam was cracked before the plate was added.
In this case the beam was blast-cleaned, mounted in the test
rig, loaded to produce a minimum crack width of O. 1 mm

Table 1. Test variables

Test numbers Variable Adhesive type Plate size Condition

(ram) b/t ratio

1, 2 Not strengthened w
As-cast
3, 5 Adhesive* A 85 x 3.60 24
4,6 B 85 x 3.60 24
7,8 C 85 x 3.60 24 Plated, as-cast
10 Plate geometry B 150 x 1.06 142
11 B 123 x 2.14 57
13 B 57 x 4.75 12
14 Reference B 85 x 3.60 24
15 B 150 x 1.06 142
16 Jointed B 85 x 3.60 24 Plated, precracked
17 Thick glue-line B 85 x 3.60 24
18 Partial bonding B 85 x 3.60 24
19 Multilayers B 3 (47 x 2.0) 24/12/8

*Adhesives A and B were noticeably stiffer then adhesive C

120 INT.J.ADHESION AND ADHESIVES APRIL 1982

 I by a change of adhesive; this led to the selection of one
6
adhesive for all future tests. There was a marked effect on
I Precast prism the load vs deflection curves when the plate geometries were
oT-- changed. Although the sectional area of steel added was
similar in each case and abou~ equal to that of the internal
t bars, a narrow plate (low b i t ratio) produced a stiff beam
while wider plates (increasing b / t ratio) produced progress-
ively less stiff beams, (see Fig. 3).
Flexure tests on beams as-cast and precracked, with identical
plates, gave similar load vs deflection curves, indicating
that the addition of a plate, after the concrete had cracked,
a. Jointed plate b. T h i c k glue-lirle had an immediate and full effect (Fig. 4). Precracked beams
used in tests on the variables remaining had similar load vs
Polythene deflection curves.
and grease

/ Cracking
When plates were bonded to beams as-cast using a stiff
adhesive, loads to produce the onset of visible cracking were
increased on average by 100% compared with the as-cast
control beam, and loads to produce a minimum crack
width of 0.1 mm were increased by about 190%. Hated
beams with a stiff adhesive generated more cracks at a closer
c. Partial bonding d, Multi-layer=
spacing than either the as-cast beams or plated beams using
Fig. 2 Variations in plate details (dimensions in ram) a flexible adhesive. When a flexible adhesive was used,
crack spacing was the same as for as-cast beams (probably,
at points of high strain and incipient cracking the adhesive
in the constant moment span and then held in this condition. distorted locally and allowed cracks to form, whereas the
The prepared plate was then added to the beam, the instru- stiffer adhesive distributed the strains). When plates were
mentation completed, and loading continued. bonded to precracked beams, the subsequent cracking
behaviour was modified to give a greater number of cracks
Results at a closer spacing. The number of cracks developing in the
constant moment span and their average spacings are given
Deflections in Table 2 for all tests, together with the load required to
When assessed by their load vs deflection curves, the overall produce the first visible crack and a minimum crack width
performance of beams plated as-cast was virtually unaffected of 0.1 mm.

T a b l e 2. Visible cracking - c o n s t a n t m o m e n t span

Test number* Number of cracks Average space between cracks Load to produce:
(mm)
before plating after plating first visible minimum crack
before plating after plating crack width, 0.1 mm
(kN) (kN)

1 8 - 122 - 6 12
2 9 - 116 - 7 12
3 - 11 - 94 18 42
4 - 10 - 96 10 N/A
5 - 10 - 98 14 32
6 - 11 - 95 14 42
7 - 9 - 121 8 32
8 - 9 - 114 6 26
10 - 10 - 106 12 24
11 - 10 - 104 14 N/A
13 - 9 - 116 10 34
14 8 12 133 78 7 12
15 5 9 197 116 6 9
16 7 12 156 85 7 10
17 8 10 131 102 7 13
18 6 7 167 154 6 7
19 8 8 129 129 6 13
e . . .
Conditions as m Table 1
N/A Specified condition not achieved

INT.J.ADHESION A N D A D H E S I V E S A P R I L 1982 121

 l

'°i
3O

_o

r l ...... ' o!l

y i
ii •* As-cart
A$-cist
85 x 360
123x214 57
24

t0
i ~ As.cast 150x106 142

10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Deflection (ram)

Fig. 3 Load vs deflection curvesfor 3.5 m beams:one adhesive,

varying plate geometry

40i

z 30

Table 3. Loads and modes of beam failure

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Test Max. Mean Increase Failure

Deflection {mml
number* load max. on max. mode
Fig. 4 Loadvs deflection curves for 3.5 m beams: one adhesive, (kN) (kN) load (%)
as-cast and precrackedbeams
1 24 -- F1
24
Conditions of failure 2 24 - F1
The conditions of failure are given in Table 3. The mean 3 42 75 F2
failure load for beams plated as-cast and plated precracked 4 45 88 F1
was 41 kN, an increase of 71% over the mean failure load 5 44 83 F1
of the as-cast beams. With plated beams there were some 6 42 75 F2
'low' values, these were associated with the widest plates 7 42 41 75 F2
(high width:thickness ratio) and with the multi-layered 8 42 75 F1
plates. There were two fundamental modes of failure: 10 34 42 F1
F1 - both internal and external reinforcement yielded at 11 42 75 F1
maximum load without the plate separating from the 13 40 67 F2
beam (iea soft progressive failure, Fig. 5); and F2 - 14 45 88 F1
horizontal shear failure occurred within a layer of concrete 42 F1
15 34
adjacent to the plate, resulting in the plate separating from 16 43 79 F2
the beam with concrete firmly adhering to it, Fig. 6. Beams 41
17 42 75 F1
with wide plates, 150 mm and 123 mm (b/t ratios 142 and 18 43 79 F1
57) resulted in a soft failure (F1) and the narrow plates, 50 F2
19 36
57 and 47 mm (bit ratios 12 and 8) resulted in concrete
failure (F2). The intermediate plate size, 85 mm (bit ratio *Conditions as in Table 1
24) gave a similar number of failures for each mode. F 1 - Both internal and external reinforcement yielded (no plate
separation)
F2 -- Horizntal shearfailure within the concrete (plate separated)
Adhesive performance
Although the more flexible adhesive, C, did not have the compared by subjecting single-lap shear specimens to a cyclic
same advantages as the stiffer adhesives, A and B, in terms strain range of O-riO microstrain at a frequency of 1 Hz
of the distribution of cracks in the concrete, it has been starting as soon as the adhesive had been placed. The
shown that a flexible type is better able to withstand move- cyclic loading was continued for several days and the speci-
ment while it is curing z3. The different adhesives were mens were then tested to failure in a tensile testing machine.

122 INT.J.ADHESION AND ADHESIVES A P R IL 1982

Fig. 6 Horizontal shear failure in concrete

It was found that the stiffer system suffered an average of

16% loss in shear strength but the flexible type did not.
For plated beams, nominal stresses were calculated for
horizontal shear in the adhesive at the ends of the plates at Fig. 7 Arrangement of the specimens at the exposure site
the load producing the maximum strain gradient. The values
ranged from 0.13 N/mm: to 0.8 N/mm 2 and were lower Eight specimens for which the steel plate was coated
than expected when compared with an estimated shear with an epoxy primer are also being exposed at Silverdale
strength for the concrete of 5 N/mm 2. This was probably along with associated control specimens.
due to high strain gradients present at the ends of the plate, Exposure periods of 1,2, 5 and 10 years are planned,
particularly likely with thin plates, which would not be after which specimens will be brought back to the laboratory
recorded by a limited number of electrical resistance strain for testing to failure in 4-point bending with the steel plate
gauges. in tension (Fig. 9). Two primed beams are also being tested,
after each period of exposure.
E x p o s u re tests
To determine the durability of the bonded connections, Results
tong term exposure tests on small plated beams are being
carried out s. The test beams are 508 mm long with a square Performance
cross section of 102 mm, and a steel plate 38 mm wide and The strain in the concrete at mid-span is plotted against the
3 mm thick bonded centrally to on~ face. All beams were total applied load for each beam, typically shown in Fig. 10.
cast from the same concrete mix which is typical of bridge At the onset of cracking, there is a reduction in the stiffness
concrete using flint gravel aggregates. Initially 32 batches of of the beam which is reflected in a change in slope of the
six beams were cast and specimens selected from each batch load/strain curve. The load at which this change in slope
for the experiment. The mean 28 day compressive strength of occurs has been defined as the cracking load; this was
the concrete was 48 N/mm =. The steel plates were bonded slightly less than the load at which cracking became visible
to the concrete 3 months after casting (plain beams). A to the naked eye. Ultimate failure of the beams usually
further series of tests were carried out in which the steel occurs due to a crack in the shear zone of the tension face,
plate was coated with an epoxy primer before assembly
(primed beams).
Three test sites were chosen to represent high rainfall
(Silverdale), industrial (Tinsley) and marine (Pilsey)
environments. Specimens are also being kept under con-
trolled laboratory conditions (20°C and 65% RH). At each
test site, the specimens have been placed on a rack as shown
in Fig. 7 with their longitudinal axis normal to the pre-
vailing wind direction, and the steel plate on the underside
of the beam so as to represent typical site conditions in
which strengthening usually occurs on the underside of a
bridge. Half the specimens at each site are simply supported
while others are subjected to a sustained bending load as
shown in Fig. 8, the upper beam in each pair being used
merely for reaction. The load applied to the back-to-back
beams, which is less than the cracking load, is checked by
monitoring strains in the clamping studs at each end of the
assembly. After the first two years of exposure these loads
had dropped to between 51 and 81% of their original value.
The specimens for the initial series of tests were distributed
between the sites such that the results of the loading tests Fig. 8 Arrangement f o r applying sustained load to specimens on
could be analysed statistically. site

IHT.J.ADHESlON AND ADHESIVES APRIL 1982 123

 Corrosion
Significant amounts of corrosion were visible on all exposed
plates, the corrosion spots were black ~ e d i a t e l y after test
but turned red/brown after a few hours. This was due to
oxidation of ferric oxide.
It was found that the appearance of plates removed
from specimens including the primer was similar to that of
plates removed from unprimed beams in that a layer of
concrete remained adherent to the steel plate along most of
its length. However, there were no visible signs of corrosion
[1 ['7 of the steel after one year and only slight signs after the
J
Test specimen
second year.
There is evidence from three (unprimed) soecimens from
Pilsey, two after the ftrst year of exposure andone after the
second year, that the final failure has occurred by loss of
adhesion between the resin and the steel rather than by
shear of the concrete, ie there was no concrete remaining
attached to the steel plate in the vicinity of the failed
section. These specimens failed at loads which were up to
30% lower than others exposed under the same conditions,
1,33! suggesting that this loss in bond strength was significant.
The results of the loading tests are given in Fig. t3. There
is a general trend for failure loads of specimens kept under
14 458
it controlled laboratory conditions to increase due to natural
ageing of the concrete. Exposed specimens tended to fail at
Fig. 9 Loading arrangement for flexural testing of exposed speci-
mens in the laboratory (dimensions in mm)
lower loads than those kept in the laboratory. There
seemed to be very little difference in failure loads of primed
and unprimed specimens (Fig. 14).
40
An analysis of variance was carried out on the results of
the loading tests of beams using each of the measured

30

z
v
~o

.=

~-Onset of cracking

I I I I I I I I I
2O0 400 60O 800 1000
Concrete turfaee strain at mid-sglm (u~)

Fig. 10 Strain in concrete at mid-span

Fig. 11 Sequence of failure of composite beams from high speed

cme film (frames at 2 ms intervals)
close to an earlier flexure crack, being propa~ited towards
the compression face. The horizontal shear force in the
region of the steel plate was sufficient for the concrete to
become detached from the steel. The concrete between the
two cracks also became detached from the steel. Tracings
taken from a high speed cine film of the failure are shown
in Fig. 11. After each loading test the steel plate was
removed from the concrete, and exposed steel was coated
with a transparent vinyl lacquer to protect it from ~ u e n t
corrosion. Exposed, newly plated, :and control beams,
differed in the way the plate peeled away from ~ concrete
after the shear failure. In the case of the exposed b ~ the
shorter portion of the ~ became detached from the
steel with concrete being partially debonded, whereas there
was always a layer of concrete a d h e ~ to the steel after Fig. 1 2 T y p i c a l a p p e a r a n c e o f plates r e m o w d from exposed (below)
failure of the newly plated and control beams (Fig. 12). a n d c o n t r o l (above} s p e c i m e n s

124 I N T . J . A D H E S I O N A N D A D H E S I V E S A P R I L 1982
 Micro-structural analysis
I D ,oa,~ [] o°,o.,., I
A microstructura] investigation was carried out at the
Year 2
50 Year 1 Year 2 Year 1 Year 2 Year 1 Year 2 Year 1 National Physical Laboratory to determine the mechanism
which has caused corrosion of the epoxy-bonded steel
plates 14. Visual inspection of the concrete revealed discrete
40
voids and air bubbles, and staining techniques were used to
extend the investigation down to the micro-structure. Small
30 triangular sections of epoxy resin were immersed in various
marker solutions for periods of up to six months. Methylene
blue, a water soluble organic strain, and silver nitrate rapidly
3 penetrated around interfaces between filler particles and the
c 20

surrounding matrix (Fig. 15) and through cracks in the

10
~ ~ ~ i =
28~
Fig. 13 Meanfailure loads after 1 and 2 yearsof exposure
parameters as the variant. The results after two years
exposure are given in Table 4. The most significant differ-
ences were found between failure loads of specimens from
different sites and between loaded and unloaded specimens.
The load at the onset of cracking was less sensitive to the
exposure regimes, and no significant differences were found
between the bending moments at failure.
resin (Fig. 16). These results illustrate that there is a
labyrinth of cracks and interconnected pores in the resin
through which solutions can penetrate.
To extend the investigation down to cracks less than 1/am
wide, shadowed replicas have been made of sections of the
resin and viewed using transmission electron microscopy.
~~
Figure 17 shows a medium sized silica particle about
30/am long surrounded by a matrix of epoxy resin con-
taining much finer silica filler, which had been polished
with a 1/am diamond cgmpound. The freer particles of
silica were in the range of 0.1-0.4/am, and although the
surface had been smoothed by polishing, the shadowed
contrast showed slight trenches in this region which
presumably provide the basis for accelerated diffusion of
liquids. In addition to the regular system of scratch traces,
there were fine irregular cracks running through the epoxy
resin, and some of these interconnected with the surface of
the silica particles. The existence of these interconnected

Table 4. Resultsof analysis of variance

Variate Source of variation Degreesof Sum of squares Mean square Variance Significance
freedom ratio level

Load at onset of Year 1 1.450 1.450 0.294 NS

cracking Loading 1 44.055 44.055 8.947 > 1%
Site 3 8.695 2.898 0.589 NS
Year, Loading 1 1.925 1.925 0.391 NS
Year, Site 3 7.527 2.509 0.510 NS
Site, Loading 3 48.303 16.101 3.270 NS
Year, Site, Loading 3 12.449 4.150 0.843 NS
Residual 42 206.810 4.924
Total 57 331.216 5.811
Load at failure Year 1 45.11 45.11 2.902 NS
Loading 1 71.26 71.26 4.585 > 5%
Site 3 266.07 88.69 5.706 > 1%
Year, Loading 1 8.65 8.65 0.557 NS
Year, Site 3 67.13 22.38 1.440 NS
Site, Loading 3 96.88 32.29 2.078 NS
Year, Site, Loading 3 174.64 58.21 3.745 > 2½%
Residual 46 715.01 15.54
Total 61 1444.76 23.68
Bending moment at Year 1 0.2943 0.2943 1.627 NS
failure Loading 1 0.0267 0.0267 0.147 NS
Site 3 0.7222 0.2407 1.331 NS
Year, Loading 1 0.1351 0.1351 0.747 NS
Year, Site 3 0.8848 0.2949 1.631 NS
Site, Loading 3 0.1831 0.0610 0.337 NS
Year, Site, Loading 3 0.8142 0.2714 1.500 NS
Residual 45 8.1395 0.1809
Total 60 11.1998 0.1867

INT.J.ADHESION AND ADHESIVES APRIL 1982 125

 Series Treatment

2 Steel - epoxy - corcrate

3 Steel (degreased) - epoxy - concrete
4 Steal (primed} - epoxy - coP,crate

50
r-

!
40 l

F
z
J¢ 30
I
dl

~0

!
:t
10 :/i i Fig. 17 Electron micrograph of shadowed replica from epoxy
resin containing a silica particle (× 3000)

Conclusions
0
2 4 I 2 2 3 A study of reinforced concrete beams tested in 4-point
S~'im: Teated soon I Tested I Tastedafter 1 year bending showed that a fully composite action could be
after plating of e x p m u r e at ~;ilverdale of exposure at Pilley
achieved when steel plates were bonded externally to the
Fig. 14 Mean failure loads of plated beams tension faces of the beams. This led to a significant change
in the cracking response of the beam and the ultimate loads
achieved. The following points emerged:
r//////x/// A progressive, soft failure can be achieved by using a
' ' I ~ Particle j ~ / wide plate.
To obtain the maximum increase in the serviceability
Broed fron! penetretlon limit conditions of stiffness and crack control, a fully bonded
plate using a stiff adhesive is necessary.
through golished face To combine the maximum increase in ultimate load with
a progressive soft failure, the plate width-to-thickness ratio
Fig. 15 Penetration of methylene blue through resin had an optimum value of about 60 for the type of beam
tested.
Broad-front )enatration R s-polilhed l u r f k - e
A significant amount of corrosion at the steel/resin
interface has taken place on all specimens which have been
exposed to natural environments. This has led to some
a reduction in strength of the exposed specimens compared
with specimens kept in the controlled laboratory environ-
ment where no corrosion has taken place.
The corrosion was fairly uniformly distributed over the
steel plate implying that moisture had penetrated through
the concrete and the resin rather than by seeping between
Penetration along crack
the steel and the resin at the edge of the plate.
Fig. 16 Penetration of methylene blue through crack The microstructure of the epoxy layer consists of a
labyrinth of very time cracks which are likely to be inherent
in the resin rather than caused by natural exposure or
stressing of the systems. These cracks are likely to have
cracks and pores has provided routes for rapid diffusion of provided routes for corrosive moisture to reach the steel
• the staining materials through the epoxy resin. plates.
A sample of the end of one of the steel plates was Application of a chromate primer to the surface of the
removed from a strengthened bridge after three years in steel plate appeared on limited evidence to have been gen-
service. Corrosion of the steel which contained traces of erally effective in preventing corrosion of the steel without
chloride and sulphate, was detected under the stin-sdherent greatly affecting the structural strength of the member.
epoxy resin. Microstructural analysis of a portion of the
epoxy resin revealed a system of similar cracks and discon- Ackno~ts
tinuities as to those observed on the small test beams. The
concrete and the epoxy resin were generally more defective The microstructural analysis of the composite system was
than in the experimental exposed beams, but there was less carried out by Mr G.O. Lloyd of the National Physical
corrosion on the surface of the steel. Laboratory.

126 INT.J.ADHESION AND ADHESIVES APRIL 1982

 The work described in the paper was carried out in the
Bridges Division and forms part of the programme of the
Transport and Road Research Laboratory. However, the
views expressed in this paper are not necessarily those of
the Department of the Environment or of the Department
of Transport.
Crown copyright is reserved on this paper, © CROWN
COPYRIGHT. Reproduced by permission of the Director
TRRL, 1982.
References
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with bonded plates', TRRL Report SR 612 (Department of
the Environment, Department of Transport, Crowthorne,
198O)
2 'M5 'shrinkage' cracks -- traffic restricted', New Civil Engnr
No 62 (October 1973) p 21
3 Mander, R.F. 'Use of resins in road and bridge construction
and repair', Int J cement Composites and Lightweight
Concrete 3 No 1 (February 1981) pp 37-39
4 Sommerard, T. 'Swanley's steel-plate patch-up', New Civ Engnr
No 247 (June 1977) pp 18-19
5 Irwin, C.A.K. 'The strengthening of concrete beams by
bonded steel plates', TRRL Report SR 160 UC (Department
of the Environment, Department of Transport, Crowthorne,
1975)
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with bonded external reinforcement', TRRL Report SR 415
(Department of the Environment, Department of Transport,
Crowthorne, 1978)
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beams with various bonded external reinforcements', TRRL
Report SR 728 (Department of the Environment, Department
of Transport, Crowthorne, 1982)
8 Calder, A.J.J. 'Exposure tests on externally reinforced
concrete beams - first two years', TRRL Report SR 529
(Department of the Environment, Department of Transport,
Crowthorne, 1979)
9 Jones,R.R.N., Swamy, J., Bloxham and Bouderbelah
'Composite behaviour of concrete beams with epoxy bonded
external reinforcement', Int J Cement Composites 2 No 2
(May 1980)
10 Solomon, S.K., Smith, D.W. and Cusens, A.R. Flexural tests
of steel-concrete-steel sandwiches', Magazine o f Concrete
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11 Cusens,A.R. and Smith, D.W. 'A study of epoxy resin
adhesive joints in shear', The Struct. Engnr 58A No 1
(January 1980)
12 1~ictorial surface preparation standards for painting steel
surfaces', Svensk Standard SIS 0055900-1967 (Swedish
Standards Institute, Box 3295, S-10366, Stockholm 3,
Sweden) p 4
13 Macdonald, M.D. 'Strength of bonded shear joints subjected
to movement during cure', Int J Cement Composites and
Lightweight Concrete 3 No 4 (1981)
14 Lloyd, G.O. and Calder, A.J.J. 'The microstructure of epoxy
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Authors
The authors are with the Transport and Road Research
Laboratory, (Department of the Environment, Department
of Transport), Old Wokingham Road, Crowthorne, Berks,
RG11 6AU, England. Inquiries should be directed to Mr
Macdonald in the first instance.
I N T . J . A D H E S I O N A N D A D H E S I V E S A P R I L 1982 127