A

SEMINAR
REPORT
ON
EFEECT OF CEMENT REPLACED BY
SILICA FUME AND FLYASH

Dr. Radhakrishnan Institute of Technology

Civil Engineering
(2017-2018)

Submitted To: - Submitted By: -

Mr. Ashwini Kumar Sushil Kumar
HOD – (Civil Engineering) (CIVIL BRANCH)
 Abstract

In developed countries use of mineral admixtures such as fly ash, silica fume has already
been adopted in making concrete. This includes commercial application on a large scale
either for addition or for replacement of cement. In India too such replacements have been
readily accepted.

With the introduction of ready mixed concrete the process has been
accelerated in recent times. An investigation was undertaken to study the effects of fly ash
and silica fume in concrete. Compressive strengths at different levels of replacements were
found. Silica fume from a local source and fly ash from Ramagundam thermal power station
of the State of Andhra Pradesh were used. Maximum size of coarse aggregate was 12.5 mm.
Water to cementious materials ratio was 0.32 and aggregate-cementitious materials ratio was
3.2. Cement replacement levels by fly ash were 0, 10, 20, 30, and 40 percents and by silica
fume were 0,4, 8, 12, and 16 percents.

Thus a total of 25 mixtures were studied. Strengths at the ages of 28 days

and 56 days were found. The results are presented in tables and figures. It was found that the
highest replacement level of 40 % by fly ash and 16 % by silica fume, simultaneously, i.e. a
total replacement of cement to the extent of 56 % gave a 10 % increase in the 28-day
compressive strength compared to that of control concrete. Maximum increase of 43 % in the
28-day compressive strength was observed at a 32 % level of cement replacement ( 20 % by
fly ash and 12 % by silica fume).
 INDEX

1. INTRODUCTION
2. MATERIAL
2.1 FLYASH
2.2 SILICA FUME

3. EFFECT OF FLYASH ON CONCRETE

3.1 INFLUENCE OF FLYASH ON PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE

3.2 STRENGTH DEVELOPMENT OF FLY ASH CONCRETE
3.3 DURABILITY ASPECTS

4. EFFECT OF SILICAFUME ON CONCRETE

4.1 INFLUENCE OF FLYASH ON PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE

4.2 STRENGTH DEVELOPMENT OF PORTLAND CEMENT-SILICA

FUME SYSTEM

4.3 DURABILITY OF CONCRETE CONTAINING SILICA FUME

5. CONCLUSION

6. REFERENCES
 1.0 INTRODUCTION

Earlier notion of using high amounts of cement for concrete has now
changed on favour of increased use of high amounts of mineral ad-
mixtures and super plasticizers with reduced amounts of cement and
water in the concrete mixtures. Energy plays a crucial role in growth of
developing countries, like India. In context of low availability of non-
recoverable energy sources coupled with requirements of large quantities
of energy to materials like cement, steel etc., the importance of industrial
wastes as building materials cannot be underestimated. In India about 110
million tones of fly ash has been produced by 68 major thermal power
stations and are likely to be doubled within next 10 years. It has been a
published fact from research that waste materials like fly ash; silica fume
etc, through their use as construction materials can be converted into
meaningful wealth. Also, a partial replacement of cement with fly ash is
desirable, and indeed essential due to a variety of technical, economical
and ecological reasons. Researchers have reported that silica fume
smaller in size and round shape fills the voids between the coarser cement
particles which may be otherwise occupied with water. A properly
proportional fly ash and silica fume in concrete mix improves properties
of the concrete that may not be achievable through the use of Portland
cement alone. The resulting concrete mix becomes strong, durable and
economical and also eco-friendly as it utilizes an ecological hazardous
material.

1
 2.0 MATERIALS

MATERIALS USED

1. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC), 53 Grade.

2. Silica fume (silicon, sio2 63.1%) as mineral admixture (MA) in

Dry densified form obtained from ELKEM INDIA Pvt.Ltd.,

Mumbai.

3. Super plasticizer (chemical admixture) based on Sulphonated

Naphthalene Formaldehyde-CONPLAST SP 430.

4. Locally available graded aggregate of nominal size 12.5 mm with

Specific gravity 2.68 and fineness modulus, 5.08 for course

Aggregate (CA).

5. Locally available river sand confirming to Grading Zone II with

Specific gravity 2.58 and fineness modulus 2.54 for fine aggregate

(FA).

6. Water: potable water was used for mixing concrete.

2
2.1 FLYASH (PULVERIZED-FUEL ASH)

Fly ash is a by-product of burning pulverized coal to

generate electric power. There are periodic variations in the
operation of a power station can results in occasionally varying
properties of the fly ash. Differences in the fly as produced by
different power stations. Even the same power station will produce
fly ash with varying properties if the coal used is non-uniform. A
simple picture of the behavior of concrete containing fly ash cannot
be presented because fly ash is to a single material of nearly
constant composition

Figure show the Fly Ash

3
 Fly ash depends on the chemical properties and the fineness
of the Portland cement in the mix. It is not surprising that there is
no simple relation between the proportions of fly ash in the total
cementations material and the properties of the resulting concrete
of otherwise fixed proportions. Inevitable attempts to relate, by a
single equation, the strength of concrete, even of fixed proportions,
to the various properties of fly ash such as fineness, residues of
particles above certain size, pozzolanic indices, carbon content,
glass content, and chemical composition, have been unsuccessful.
Indeed, this situation is to be expected, given that no single
equation can predict the strength properties of Portland cements
alone from their physical and chemical properties.

The fly ash in concrete makes efficient use of product of

hydration of cement such as calcium hydroxide (C-H) which is
otherwise a source of weakness in normal cement concrete
converts it into denser and stronger C-S-H compounds by
pozzolanic reaction. The heat generated during hydration initiates
the pozzolanic reaction of fly ash.

4
2.2 SILICA FUME

Silica fume is a by-product of silicon or Ferro-Silica industry

and is 100 times finer than cement. A silica fume is also referred to
as micro silica or condensed silica fumes. It consists of amorphous
silica and has high reactivity towards lime. The replacement level
of silica fume is generally low at about 10%. When SF is used in c
oncrete mix, its introduction affects the physical arrangement of
the system, particularly near the aggregate surface where porosity
exists. Silica fume starts reacting at the early stage of hydration
process. The pozzolanic action of silica fume reduces substantially
the quantity and size of “CH” crystals in hydrated cement paste.
This phenomenon along with low W/C ratio reduces the thickness
of transition zones and thus the preferential orientation of CH
crystals is considerably reduced. All these result in more uniform,
stronger transition zone potential of micro cracking.

Figure shows the Silica fume

5
 The specific gravity of silica fumes is generally 2.20 but it is
very slightly higher when the silica content is lower. This value can
be compared with the specific gravity of Portland cement, which is
3.15. the particles of silica fume are extremely fine, most of them
having a diameter ranging between 0.03 and 0.3m ; the median
diameter is typically below 0.1m. The specific surface of such
fine particles cannot be determined using the Blaine method;
nitrogen adsorption indicates a specific surface of about
20000m2/kg, which is 13 to 20 times higher than the specific
surface of other pozzolanic materials, determined by the same
method. Such fine material as silica fume has a very low bulk
density: 200 to 300kg/m3.

6
 CHEMISTRY OF FLYASH AND SILICA FUME

The fly ash in concrete makes efficient use of product of hydration of

cement such as calcium hydroxide (C-H) which is otherwise a source of
weakness in normal cement concrete converts it into denser and stronger
C-S-H compounds by pozzolanic reaction. The heat generated during
hydration initiates the pozzolanic reaction of fly ash.
Silica fume is a by-product of silicon or Ferro-Silica industry and is
100 times finer than cement. It consists of amorphous silica and has high
reactivity towards lime. The replacement level of silica fume is generally
low at about 10%. When SF is used in concrete mix, its introduction
affects the physical arrangement of the system, particularly near the
aggregate surface where porosity exists. Silica fume starts reacting at the
early stage of hydration process. The pozzolanic action of silica fume
reduces substantially the quantity and size of “CH” crystals in hydrated
cement paste. This phenomenon along with low W/C ratio reduces the
thickness of transition zones and thus the preferential orientation of CH
crystals is considerably reduced. All these result in more uniform, stronger
transition zone potential of micro cracking.

TESTS ON FRESH AND HARDENED CONCRETE

SLUMP TEST: It is the most commonly used method of measuring

consistency of concrete which can be employed either in laboratory or at
the site of work. It gives an indication of uniformity of concrete from batch
to batch.
COMPACTION FACTOR TEST: This test works on the principle of
determining the degree of compaction achieved by a standard amount of
7
work done by allowing the concrete to fall through a standard height. The
degree of compaction called the compacting factor is measured by the
density ratio i.e., the ratio of the density actually achieved in the test to
density of the same concrete fully compacted.
PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE
COMPRESSION TEST: It is the most common test conducted on the

Mix SLUMP( mm) COMPACTION

FACTOR
0-0 45 0.85
10-4 41 0.82
20-8 38 0.78
30-12 33 0.75
40-16 28 0.70

hardened concrete, partly because most of the desirable characteristic

properties of concrete are quantitatively related to its compressive
strength.The compression test is carried out on specimens cylindrical or
cubical in shape of size 150x150x150mm.

28- DAYS CUBE AND CYLINDER COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

MIX REPLACEMENT CUBE CYLINDER

BY FLYASH AND COMPRESSIVE COMPRESSIVE
SILICA FUME (%) STRENGTH STRENGTH
0-0 0 57.610 45.464
10-4 14 68.326 54.504
20-8 28 69.538 55.203
30-12 42 75.146 57.364
40-16 56 63.106 49.946

8
 28 DAYS CUBE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5
fly ash-silica fume replacements (%) levels

Same type of specimen and same testing machine are used for compression test
can be employed for this test. Strength determined by this test is believed to be
closer to the true tensile strength of the concrete. Splitting strength gives about 5
to 12% higher value than the direct tensile strength.

28- DAYS SPLIT CYLINDER TEST RESULTS

Mix REPLACEMENT BY SPLIT TENSILE

FLYASH AND SILICA STRENGTH (Mpa)
FUME (%)
0-0 0 4.049
10-4 14 4.745
20-8 28 5.143
30-12 42 5.340
40-16 56 4.316

9
 SPLIT TENSILE STRENGTH

4
3

1
0
1 2 3 4 5
fly ash-silica fume replacement (%) levels

FLEXURAL STRENGTH TEST: A number of investigations involving

the direct measurement of tensile strength have been made, beam tests are
found to be dependable to measure flexural strength property of concrete.
The systems of loading used in finding out the flexural tension are central point
loading and third point loading. In central point loading, maximum fibre
stress will come below the point of loading where the bending moment is
maximum.

Mix REPLACEMENT BY FLEXURAL

FLYASH AND SILICA STRENGTH (Mpa)
FUME (%)
0-0 0 6.351
10-4 14 7.327
20-8 28 7.741
30-12 42 8.539
40-16 56 6.830

10
 3.0 EFFECT OF FLY ASH ON CONCRETE

3.1 INFLUENCE OF FLY ASH ON PROPERTIES OF FRESH

CONCRETE

For a constant workability, the reduction in the water

demand of concrete due to fly ash is usually between 5 and 15
percent by comparison with a Portland –cement –only mix having
the same cementations material content; the reduction is larger at
higher water/cement rations.

A concrete mix containing fly ash is cohesive and has

reduced bleeding capacity. The mix can be suitable for pumping
and for slip forming; finishing operations of fly ash concrete and
made easier.

The influence of fly ash on the properties of fresh concrete is

linked to the shape of the fly ash particles. Most of these are
spherical and solid, but some of the large particles are hollow
spheres, know as cenospheres. The reduction in water demand of
concrete caused by the presence of fly ash is usually ascribed to
their spherical shape, this being called a “ball bearing effect”.

High carbon content in fly ash is that it adversely affects

workability. Variation in carbon content may also lead to earratic
behavior with respect to air entrainment some air entraining agent
becoming adsorbed by the porous carbon.

11
3.2 STRENGTH DEVELOPMENT OF FLY ASH CONCRETE

The effect of chemical reactions, fly ash has a physical effect

of improving the microstructure of the hydrated cement paste. The
main physical action is that of packing of the fly ash particles at the
interface of coarse aggregate particles, which are absent in the
mortar used in the test. The extend of packing depends both on the
fly ash and on the cement used: better packing is achieved with
coarser Portland cement and with finer fly ash. One beneficial
effect of packing on strength is a reduction in the volume of
entrapped air in the concrete. But the main contribution of packing
lies in a reduction in the volume of large capillary pores.

It is worth noting that the positive influence of the fineness

of fly ash is coupled with it spherical shape. Therefore, grinding of
fly ash, although it increases fineness, may result in the destruction
of spherical particles with consequent increase in water demand of
the mix due to the irregular angular shape of the fly ash particles.

The beneficial influence of fly ash upon water demand does

not extend beyond a fly ash content of 20 percent by mass. An
excessive content of fly ash is not beneficial from the point of view
of strength development either. The limiting content is probably
around 30 percent by mass of total cementitious material as can be
seen from figure below.

12
 Average values of strength of concrete cylinder moist cured
at 23oC are shown in table above. All the mixes had a total
cementations material content of 307kg/m3 with 25 percent content
of fly ash by mass of total cementations material. The
water/cement ratio was 0.4 to 0.45, and the mixes had a slump of
75mm. The same table gives the strength of a Portland-cement only
concrete with the same cement content and the same water/cement
ratio. It is worth adding that maximum size of aggregate was

13
9.5mm so that the beneficial effect of fly ash with respect to
packing around the coarse aggregate particles was smaller than
would be the case with conventional concrete; therein may lie the
explanation of apparently limited effect of fly ash on strength.

3.3 DURABILITY ASPECTS

Although an early reason for the use of the various

cementations materials in concrete was their influence on the rate
of development of heat and of strength, even more important is
their influence on the resistance of concrete to chemical attack
which is the consequence not only of the chemical nature of the
hydrated attack, which is the consequence not only of the chemical
nature of the hydrated cement paste but also of its microstructure.
It is no exaggeration to say that the cementations materials have a
major influence on all aspects of durability related to the transport
of attacking agent through concrete. The cementations materials
considered are finer than Portland cement and therefore, improve
particle packing, so that provided adequate wet curing is applied,
their presence reduces permeability.

Even though the use of fly ash reduced permeability, it

allows faster carbonation. The increase in the rate of carbonation is
greater when fly ash is used with Portland blast furnace cement.
The enhanced carbonation need not necessarily be large in practice
when mixes with proper mix proportions are used. Also,
carbonation may reduce the permeability, but not when both fly ash
and ggb are present in the mix. Good resistance to freezing and
thawing without air entrainment was found in concretes (with a
water/cement ratio of 0.27 and super plasticizer) containing class C
fly ash representing 20 to 35 percent of the mass of the total
14
cementations material, and silica fume (10 percent on the same
basis). Likewise, good resistance to sulfate attack was observed
with class C fly ash contents up to 50 percent and 10 percent of
silica fumes.

Control of the alkali-silica reaction is specialized topic in

which a detailed knowledge of the aggregate to be used is
necessary. However, the beneficial effects of the incorporation of
fly ash (about 30to40 percent by mass) in the blended cement
should be noted. These materials contain only a small amount of
water-soluble alkalis so that, at a given content of cementations
material which includes Portland cement with high alkali content,
the presence of fly ash in the blended cement reduces the total
alkali content in the mix. Thus, the use of these materials may
obviate the need for low-alkali cement but the absence of
expansive reactions should be verified by test.

The beneficial effects of the inclusion of silica fume in

steam-cured concrete at 65o C upon its penetrability by chlorides
was confirmed by Campbell and Detwiler. For significant
improvement, the minimum silica fume content was 10 percent in
Portland-cement-only concrete, but 7.5percent was highly effective
in mixes containing 30 to 40 percent of ggbs in the total
cementations material. It may be added that curing Portland-
cement-only concrete at 50 o C was found to result in increased
penetrability by chlorides.

15
 4.0 EFFECT OF SILICA FUME ON CONCRETE

4.1 INFLUENCE OF SILICA FUME ON PROPERTIES OF

RESH CONCRETE

The very large surface area of the particles of silica fume,

which have to be wetted, increases the water demand, so that, in
mixes with a low water/cement ratio, it necessary to use a
superplasticizer. In this way, it is possible to maintain both the
required water/cement ratio and the necessary workability.

The effectiveness of superplasticizer in enhanced by the

presence of silica fume. For instance, in mixes with a slump of
120mm, a given dosage of superplasticizer was found to reduce the
water demand by 10 kg/m3 in a Portland-cement-only concrete.
The same dosage maintained the slump when the silica fume
content was 10percent by mass of cementations material. Without
the super plasticizer, the water demand due to the inclusion of
silica fume in the mix would have risen by 40 kg/m3. It can
therefore, be seem that the use of both silica fume and a suitable
superplasticizer is beneficial and makes it possible to use low
water/cement ratios at a given workability. The lower water/cement
ratio results in an increase in strength which is larger than would be
expected solely from the pozzolanic action of silica fume.
However, in relative terms, the effect of the lower water/cement
ratio upon strength is smaller than the overall direct effect of silica
fume.

16
 At this stage, it may be useful to note that the pattern of the
relation between compressive strength and the water/cementations
material ratio is the same for concretes with and without silica
fume but at the same ration, concrete with silica fume has a higher
strength. Example of the relation between the 28 day compressive
strength of 100mm cubes and the water cementations material are
show in figure above. The same figure also showed the relation for
concrete containing Portland cement only.

The presence of silica fume affects significantly the

properties of fresh concrete. The mix is strongly cohesive and, in
consequence, there is very little bleeding, or even more. The
reduced bleeding can lead to plastic shrinkage cracking under

17
drying conditions, unless preventive measures are taken. On other
hand, voids caused by trapped bleed water are absent.

The cohesive character of the mix affects the slump so that,

for both mixes equally to be capable of compaction, the mix with
silica fume needs a slump 25 to 50mm. higher than a mix
containing Portland cement only. Mixes with a very high content of
cementations material tend to be ‘sticky’ and do not easily allow
the slump test inappropriate and that the flow test is preferable. The
‘sticky’ nature should not be misinterpreted: as soon as vibration is
applied the mix becomes mobile. However in order to avoid and
excessively sticky mix, it is recommended that the water content
should not be lower than 150 kg/m3 when the fine aggregate is
angular in shape, or not lower than 130 kg/m3 when rounded fine
aggregate is used.

The cohesiveness of concrete containing silica fume makes it

satisfactory for pumping and for underwater concreting as well as
for use as flowing concrete. Entrained air remains stable, but an
increase dosage of the air-entraining admixture is required because
of the high fineness of silica fume. In addition, there are problems
in obtaining a suitable air-void system when super plasticizers are
used.

There are no reports of incompatibility of silica fume with

admixtures in general. It is useful to observe that the retarding
effect of lignosulfonate based admixtures is smaller when silica
fume is present in the mix. Consequently larger dosages of these
admixtures can be used without causing an excessive retardation.

18
4.2 STRENGTH DEVELOPMENT OF THE PORTLAND
CEMENT-SILICA FUME SYSTEM

In addition to the pozzolanic reaction between the

amorphous silica in silica fume and calcium hydroxide produced
by the hydration of Portland cement, silica fume contributes to the
progress of hydration of the latter material. This silica fume
contributes to the progress of hydration of the latter material. This
contribution arises from the extreme fineness of the silica fume
particles which provide nucleation sites for calcium hydroxide.
Thus, early strength development takes place.

Silica fume dissolves in a saturated solution of calcium

hydroxide within a few minutes. Therefore as soon as enough
Portland cement has hydrated to result in saturation of the pore
water with calcium hydroxide, calcium silicate hydrate is formed
on the surface of the silica fume particles. Their reaction proceeds,
initially, at a high rate For example, when the mass of silica fume
was 10percent of the total mass of cementations material, one-half
of the silica fume was observed to react in 1 day; and two-thirds
during the first 3 days. However, subsequent reaction was very
slow, only three-quarters of the silica have hydrated at 90 days.

The acceleration of hydration processes by silica fume

occurs also when, in addition to Portland cement, ggbs is present in
the mix.

A consequence of the rapidity of the early reactions in

concretes containing silica fume is that the development of heat of
hydration in such concretes may be as high as when rapid-
hardening Portland cement is used alone.

19
 The behavior of concrete with silica fume beyond the age of
about 3 months depends on the moisture conditions under which
the concrete is stored. Up to the age of 31/2 years, test showed a
small increase in compressive strength of wet stored concretes with
10 percent of silica fume by (by mass of total cementations
material) and water/cement ratios of 0.25, 0.3 and 0.4. Under dry
storage conditions, retrogression of strength typically up to 12
percent below the peak value at about 3 months was observed in
test on laboratory specimens. However, the strength of concrete
containing silica fume, determined on cores up to 10 years old,
clearly show no retrogression of strength. This finding is of
importance because the behavior of test specimens in which
moisture gradient exist may be misleading.

One consequence of the high early reactivity of silica fume

is that the mix water is rapidly used up; in other words, self-
desiccation takes place. At the same time, the dense microstructure
of the hydrated cement paste makes it difficult for water from
outside, if available, to penetrate toward the unhydrated remnants
of Portland cement of silica fume particles. In consequence,
strength development ceases much earlier than with Portland
cement alone; some experimental date are shown in table below
from which it can be seen that there was no increase in strength
beyond 56 days. The date of tablerefer to mixes with a total content
of cementations material of 400kg/m3, sulfate-resisting Portland
cement, silica fume content of 10,15 and 20 percent by mass of
total cementations material, and a water/cement ratio of 0.36 the
concrete specimens were maintained under moist conditions.

20
 The contribution of silica fume to the early strength
development(up to about 7 days) is probably through improvement
in packing, that is, action as a filler and improvement of the
interface zone with the aggregate. The bond of the hydrated cement
paste with aggregate, especially the larger particles, is greatly
improved, allowing the aggregate better to participate in stress
transfer. Some contrary arguments about the role of silica fume
have been advanced, but they are likely to reflect specific test
conditions rather than intrinsic behavior.

The contribution of a given amount of silica fume to the

strength of concrete arising from packing and interface effects
should remain constant with time. This is unlike the effect of
pozzolanic activity which continues to take place. Indeed, at a
fixed content of silica fume, the increase in strength of concrete
between 7 and 28 days was found to be independent of the value of
the 7 day strength. The contribution of silica fume to strength at
say, 28 days should, however, increase with an increase in the
content of silica fume in the mix. This was found to be the case for
21
concrete with 28-days strength between approximately 20 and 80
MPa the increase in strength was 7MPa for a 10 percent content,
and 16MPa for 20 percent content of silica fume.

4.3 DURABILITY OF CONCRETE CONTAINING

SILICA FUME

The importance of adequate curing of concrete containing

silica fume from the stand point of reactions of hydration. As far as
durability is concerned, we should note that a consequence of more
advanced hydration is a reduced permeability, adequate curing is of
particular importance. Generally, for concretes of equal strength,
the reduction in permeability due to a longer period of curing is
greater in concrete containing silica fume than in Portland-cement-
only concrete.

The desirable minimum curing period depends, among other

things, on temperature, which in the field may be subject to
considerable variation. Low temperature slows down the hydration
reactions involving silica fume even more than is the case in
Portland –cement-only concretes. However, upon a subsequent rise
in temperature, the usual reactions take place and the accelerating
effect of a higher temperature is greater than in the case of Portland
cement alone. Also the harmful effects of higher temperature on
pore structure are smaller in the presence of silica fume. It is
important to note that carbonation is particularly adversely affected
by inadequate curing.

The influence of silica fume upon the permeability of

concrete is grater than is indicated by test on hydrated cement paste
22
because, in the former case, silica fume reduces the permeability of
the transition zone around the aggregate particles, as well as the
permeability of the bulk paste. The influence of silica fume upon
permeability of concrete is very large: a 5 percent content of silica
fume was reported by Khayat and Aitcin to reduce the coefficient
of permeability by 3 orders of magnitude. Thus, in relative terms,
the influence of silica fume upon permeability is much larger than
upon compressive strength.

A consequence of reduced permeability is a grater resistance

to the ingress of chloride ions. Even using Portland cements with
C3A contents up to as much as 14 percent, the presence of 5 to 10
percent of silica fume in the total cementations material greatly
slows down the ingress of chloride ions into concrete. The
reduction in the diffusivity of chlorides due to the presence of silica
fume in hydrated cement is larger at water/cementations material
ratios greater than 0.4 than at extremely low values of the
water/cementations material ratio; in the latter case the hydrated
cement paste has a very low diffusivity, event without silica fume.

The sulfate resistance of concrete containing silica fume is

good, partly because of lower permeability, and partly in
consequence of a lower content of calcium hydroxide and of
alumina, which have become incorporated in C-S-H. Test on
solutions of magnesium, sodium and calcium chlorides.

With respect to resistance to freezing and thawing, some

investigators reported a poor resistance of air-entrained concrete
congaing silica fume as compared with Portland cement only
concrete. A possible explanation is that with adequate entrained air
content, the concrete. A possible explanation is that with adequate
entrained air content, the concrete containing silica fume had larger
23
air-void content, the concrete containing silica fume had larger air
void spacing factor and at the same time, the dense structure of the
hydrated cement paste prevented the movement of water. On the
other hand, other investigators found a good resistance of concretes
containing silica fume to freezing and thawing and also to scaling
by de-icing agents. Experience with structures in situ gave variable
results.

Resolution of this conflict in reports on performance would

require a detailed knowledge of test procedures used, including the
maturity and moisture condition of the concretes at the time of the
test. Indeed, influence of silica fume upon resistance to freezing
and thawing is complex. After a period of moist curing the pore
size in the hydrated cement paste becomes smaller in the pore size
in the hydrated cement paste becomes smaller in the pore size in
the hydrated cement paste becomes smaller in the pore size in
consequence, the freezing point of pore water is reduced . In the
interior of concrete, self-desiccation is likely to have reduced the
water content below the critical level of saturation so that freezing
would not cause damage.

The preceding discussion show that generalizations about the

influence of silica fume on the resistance of concrete to freezing
and thawing, and even more so to scaling by de-icing agents are
not possible: much depends on the particular concrete used, on its
treatment prior to freezing and thawing, and on the rapidity of
temperature changes. It is, therefore not surprising that many
publications of present conflicting results, and there would be little
value in reviewing them. For practical purposes, the only
conclusion which can be drawn is that it is necessary to test any

24
concrete which it is proposed to use, and the test results have to be
interpreted in the light of the expected conditions of exposure.

Because silica fume reduces the alkali content in the pore

water, the pH of pore water becomes lowered. Tests on mature
cement pastes made with Portland cement with a very alkalinity
(pH of 13.9) have shown a reduction in the value of pH caused by
the inclusion in the mix of 10 percent of silica fume to be 0.5:
20percent of silica fume reduced the value of pH by 1, Event with
the last named reduction, the value of pH was 12.9 Havdahl and
Justnes confirmed that the ph stays 12.5. Thus the alkalinity is
adequately high for the protection of reinforcing steel from
corrosion.

The presence of silica fume in concrete has a beneficial

influence upon resistance to abrasion because in the absence of
bleeding, no weak top layer is formed and also because of a better
bond between the hydrated cement paste and the coarse aggregate;
differential wear and loosening of particles do not therefore, occur.
Shrinkage of concrete congaing silica fume is somewhat larger,
typically 15 percent than in Portland-cement-only concrete.

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 5.0 CONCLUSION

Use of fly ash as a partial replacement for Portland cement is

generally limited to Class F fly ashes. It can replace up to 30% by
mass of Portland cement, and can add to the concrete’s final
strength and increase its chemical resistance and durability.
Recently concrete mix design for partial cement replacement with
High Volume Fly Ash (50 % cement replacement) has been
developed. For Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC)[used in dam
construction] replacement values of 70% have been achieved with
POZZOCRETE (processed fly ash) at the Ghatghar Dam project in
Maharashtra, India. Due to the spherical shape of fly ash particles,
it can also increase workability of cement while reducing water
demand. The replacement of Portland cement with fly ash also
reduces the greenhouse gas foot print of concrete, as the production
of one ton of Portland cement produces approximately one ton of
CO2. Since the worldwide production of Portland cement is
expected to reach nearly 2 billion tons by 2010, replacement of
30% of this amount by fly ash could dramatically reduce global
carbon emissions

It has been found that silica fume improves compressive

strength, bond strength, and abrasion resistance. The improvements
in concrete properties from addition of silica fume stem from both
the mechanical improvements resulting from addition of a very fine
powder to the cement paste mix as well as from pozzolanic
reactions between the silica fume and free calcium hydroxide in the
paste.

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 Addition of silica fume also reduces the permeability of
concrete to chloride ions, which protects concrete's reinforcing
steel from corrosion, especially in chloride-rich environments such
as those of northern roadways and runways (because of the use of
deicing salts) and saltwater bridges.

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 6.0 REFERENCES

1. A.M Neville, Properties of Concrete

2. M.S.Shetty, Concrete Technology

` 3. http://www.wikipedia.org/

4. http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/materialsgrp/silica
.htm
5. http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/materialsgrp/flyas
h.htm

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